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sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import typing as t
   5from collections import defaultdict
   6from functools import reduce
   7
   8from sqlglot import exp
   9from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  10from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, seq_get
  11from sqlglot.time import format_time
  12from sqlglot.tokens import Tokenizer, TokenType
  13
  14if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  15    from sqlglot._typing import E
  16
  17logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  18
  19
  20class Generator:
  21    """
  22    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  23
  24    Args:
  25        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  26            Default: False.
  27        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  28            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  29            True or 'always': Always quote.
  30            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  31        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  32            Default: False.
  33        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  34            Default: 2.
  35        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  36            Default: 2.
  37        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  38            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  39            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  40            False: Disables function name normalization.
  41        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  42            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  43        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  44            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  45            Default: 3
  46        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  47            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  48            Default: False
  49        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  50            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  51            line length.
  52            Default: 80
  53        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  54            Default: True
  55    """
  56
  57    TRANSFORMS = {
  58        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  59            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  60        ),
  61        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  62        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  63        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  64        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  65        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  66        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  67        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  68        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  69        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  70        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  71        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  72        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  73        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  74        exp.HeapProperty: lambda self, e: "HEAP",
  75        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  76        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  77        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
  78        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  79        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  80        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  81        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  82        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  83        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  84        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
  85        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  86        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  87        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  88        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  89        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  92        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  94        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  95        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
  96        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
  97        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
  98        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
  99        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
 100        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 101        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 102        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
 103        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 104        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
 105        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 106    }
 107
 108    # Whether the base comes first
 109    LOG_BASE_FIRST = True
 110
 111    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
 112    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
 113
 114    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 115    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 116
 117    # Always do union distinct or union all
 118    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 119
 120    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 121    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 122
 123    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 124    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 125
 126    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 127    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 128
 129    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 130    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 131
 132    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 133    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 134
 135    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 136    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 137
 138    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 139    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 140
 141    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 142    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 143
 144    # Whether or not limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 145    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 146
 147    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 148    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 149
 150    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 151    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 152
 153    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 154    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 155
 156    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 157    JOIN_HINTS = True
 158
 159    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 160    TABLE_HINTS = True
 161
 162    # Whether or not query hints should be generated
 163    QUERY_HINTS = True
 164
 165    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 166    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 167
 168    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 169    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 170
 171    # Whether or not to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 172    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 173
 174    # Whether or not to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 175    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 176
 177    # Whether or not to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 178    RETURNING_END = True
 179
 180    # Whether or not to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 181    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 182
 183    # Whether or not to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 184    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 185
 186    # Whether or not TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 187    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 188
 189    # Whether or not the NVL2 function is supported
 190    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 191
 192    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 193    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 194
 195    # Whether or not VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 196    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 197    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 198    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 199
 200    # Whether or not the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 201    ALTER_TABLE_ADD_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 202
 203    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 204    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 205
 206    # Whether or not FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 207    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 208
 209    # Whether or not JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 210    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 211
 212    # Whether or not session variables / parameters are supported, e.g. @x in T-SQL
 213    SUPPORTS_PARAMETERS = True
 214
 215    # Whether or not to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 216    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 217
 218    # Whether or not CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 219    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 220
 221    # Whether or not parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 222    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 223
 224    # Whether or not COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 225    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 226
 227    # Whether or not data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 228    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 229
 230    # Whether or not conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 231    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 232
 233    # Whether or not the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 234    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 235
 236    # Whether the behavior of a / b depends on the types of a and b.
 237    # False means a / b is always float division.
 238    # True means a / b is integer division if both a and b are integers.
 239    TYPED_DIVISION = False
 240
 241    # False means 1 / 0 throws an error.
 242    # True means 1 / 0 returns null.
 243    SAFE_DIVISION = False
 244
 245    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 246        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 247        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 248        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 249        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 250        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 251        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 252        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 253        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 254        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 255    }
 256
 257    STAR_MAPPING = {
 258        "except": "EXCEPT",
 259        "replace": "REPLACE",
 260    }
 261
 262    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 263        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 264        "seconds": "second",
 265        "minutes": "minute",
 266        "hours": "hour",
 267        "days": "day",
 268        "weeks": "week",
 269        "months": "month",
 270        "quarters": "quarter",
 271        "years": "year",
 272    }
 273
 274    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 275
 276    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 277
 278    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 279
 280    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 281        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 282        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 283        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 284        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 285        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 286        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 287        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 288        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 289        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 290        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 291        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 292        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 293        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 294        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 295        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 296        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 297        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 298        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 299        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 300        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 301        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 302        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 303        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 304        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 305        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 306        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 307        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 308        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 309        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 310        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 311        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 312        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 313        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 314        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 315        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 316        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 317        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 318        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 319        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 320        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 321        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 322        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 323        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 324        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 325        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 326        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 327        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 328        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 329        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 330        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 331        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 332        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 333        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 334        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 335        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 336        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 337        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 338        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 339        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 340        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 341        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 342        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 343        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 344        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 345    }
 346
 347    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 348    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 349
 350    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 351    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 352        exp.Create,
 353        exp.Delete,
 354        exp.Drop,
 355        exp.From,
 356        exp.Insert,
 357        exp.Join,
 358        exp.Select,
 359        exp.Update,
 360        exp.Where,
 361        exp.With,
 362    )
 363
 364    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 365    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 366        exp.Binary,
 367        exp.Union,
 368    )
 369
 370    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 371    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 372        exp.Column,
 373        exp.Literal,
 374        exp.Neg,
 375        exp.Paren,
 376    )
 377
 378    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 379    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 380
 381    KEY_VALUE_DEFINITONS = (exp.Bracket, exp.EQ, exp.PropertyEQ, exp.Slice)
 382
 383    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 384
 385    # Autofilled
 386    INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 387    INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: t.Dict = {}
 388    INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 389    INDEX_OFFSET = 0
 390    UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
 391    ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
 392    IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
 393    STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
 394    NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = "upper"
 395    NULL_ORDERING = "nulls_are_small"
 396
 397    can_identify: t.Callable[[str, str | bool], bool]
 398
 399    # Delimiters for quotes, identifiers and the corresponding escape characters
 400    QUOTE_START = "'"
 401    QUOTE_END = "'"
 402    IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
 403    IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
 404    TOKENIZER_CLASS = Tokenizer
 405
 406    # Delimiters for bit, hex, byte and raw literals
 407    BIT_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 408    BIT_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 409    HEX_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 410    HEX_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 411    BYTE_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 412    BYTE_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 413
 414    __slots__ = (
 415        "pretty",
 416        "identify",
 417        "normalize",
 418        "pad",
 419        "_indent",
 420        "normalize_functions",
 421        "unsupported_level",
 422        "max_unsupported",
 423        "leading_comma",
 424        "max_text_width",
 425        "comments",
 426        "unsupported_messages",
 427        "_escaped_quote_end",
 428        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 429    )
 430
 431    def __init__(
 432        self,
 433        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 434        identify: str | bool = False,
 435        normalize: bool = False,
 436        pad: int = 2,
 437        indent: int = 2,
 438        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 439        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 440        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 441        leading_comma: bool = False,
 442        max_text_width: int = 80,
 443        comments: bool = True,
 444    ):
 445        import sqlglot
 446
 447        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 448        self.identify = identify
 449        self.normalize = normalize
 450        self.pad = pad
 451        self._indent = indent
 452        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 453        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 454        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 455        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 456        self.comments = comments
 457
 458        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 459        self.normalize_functions = (
 460            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 461        )
 462
 463        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 464        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.QUOTE_END
 465        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 466            self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.IDENTIFIER_END
 467        )
 468
 469    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 470        """
 471        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 472
 473        Args:
 474            expression: The syntax tree.
 475            copy: Whether or not to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 476                it is safer to copy.
 477
 478        Returns:
 479            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 480        """
 481        if copy:
 482            expression = expression.copy()
 483
 484        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 485
 486        self.unsupported_messages = []
 487        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 488
 489        if self.pretty:
 490            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 491
 492        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 493            return sql
 494
 495        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 496            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 497                logger.warning(msg)
 498        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 499            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 500
 501        return sql
 502
 503    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 504        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 505        if (
 506            not expression.parent
 507            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 508            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 509        ):
 510            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 511
 512            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 513
 514        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 515            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 516
 517            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 518
 519        return expression
 520
 521    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 522        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 523            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 524        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 525
 526    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 527        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 528
 529    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 530        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 531
 532    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 533        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 534        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 535        return comment
 536
 537    def maybe_comment(
 538        self,
 539        sql: str,
 540        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 541        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 542    ) -> str:
 543        comments = (
 544            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 545            if self.comments
 546            else None
 547        )
 548
 549        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 550            return sql
 551
 552        comments_sql = " ".join(
 553            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 554        )
 555
 556        if not comments_sql:
 557            return sql
 558
 559        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 560            return (
 561                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 562                if sql[0].isspace()
 563                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 564            )
 565
 566        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 567
 568    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 569        this_sql = self.indent(
 570            self.sql(expression)
 571            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 572            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 573            level=1,
 574            pad=0,
 575        )
 576        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 577
 578    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 579        original = self.identify
 580        self.identify = False
 581        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 582        self.identify = original
 583        return result
 584
 585    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 586        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 587            return name.upper()
 588        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 589            return name.lower()
 590        return name
 591
 592    def indent(
 593        self,
 594        sql: str,
 595        level: int = 0,
 596        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 597        skip_first: bool = False,
 598        skip_last: bool = False,
 599    ) -> str:
 600        if not self.pretty:
 601            return sql
 602
 603        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 604        lines = sql.split("\n")
 605
 606        return "\n".join(
 607            line
 608            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 609            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 610            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 611        )
 612
 613    def sql(
 614        self,
 615        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 616        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 617        comment: bool = True,
 618    ) -> str:
 619        if not expression:
 620            return ""
 621
 622        if isinstance(expression, str):
 623            return expression
 624
 625        if key:
 626            value = expression.args.get(key)
 627            if value:
 628                return self.sql(value)
 629            return ""
 630
 631        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 632
 633        if callable(transform):
 634            sql = transform(self, expression)
 635        elif transform:
 636            sql = transform
 637        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 638            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 639
 640            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 641                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 642            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 643                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 644            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 645                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 646            else:
 647                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 648        else:
 649            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 650
 651        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 652
 653    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 654        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 655        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 656        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 657
 658    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 659        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 660        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 661        options = expression.args.get("options")
 662        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 663        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 664        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 665        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 666        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 667
 668    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 669        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 670            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 671        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 672        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 673
 674    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 675        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 676
 677        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 678            join_mark = ""
 679            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 680
 681        column = ".".join(
 682            self.sql(part)
 683            for part in (
 684                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 685                expression.args.get("db"),
 686                expression.args.get("table"),
 687                expression.args.get("this"),
 688            )
 689            if part
 690        )
 691
 692        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 693
 694    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 695        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 696        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 697        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 698        return f"{position}{this}"
 699
 700    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 701        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 702        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 703        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 704        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 705        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 706        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 707        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 708        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 709
 710        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 711            kind = ""
 712
 713        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 714
 715    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 716        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 717        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 718        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 719
 720    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 721        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 722        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 723            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 724        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 725            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 726        else:
 727            persisted = ""
 728        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 729
 730    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 731        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 732
 733    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 734        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 735            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 736        else:
 737            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 738
 739        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 740
 741    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 742        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 743    ) -> str:
 744        this = ""
 745        if expression.this is not None:
 746            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 747            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 748
 749        start = expression.args.get("start")
 750        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 751        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 752        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 753        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 754        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 755        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 756        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 757        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 758        cycle_sql = ""
 759
 760        if cycle is not None:
 761            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 762            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 763
 764        sequence_opts = ""
 765        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 766            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 767            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 768
 769        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 770        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 771
 772        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 773
 774    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 775        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 776    ) -> str:
 777        start = "START" if expression.args["start"] else "END"
 778        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 779        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 780
 781    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 782        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 783    ) -> str:
 784        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 785
 786    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 787        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 788
 789    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 790        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 791        if desc is not None:
 792            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 793        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 794
 795    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 796        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 797        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 798        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 799        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 800        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}"
 801
 802    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 803        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 804
 805    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 806        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 807        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 808        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 809
 810        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 811
 812        properties_sql = ""
 813        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 814            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 815        ):
 816            properties_sql = self.sql(
 817                exp.Properties(
 818                    expressions=[
 819                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 820                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 821                    ]
 822                )
 823            )
 824
 825        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 826        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 827
 828        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 829        if expression_sql:
 830            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 831
 832            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 833                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 834                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 835                        exp.Properties(
 836                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 837                        ),
 838                        wrapped=False,
 839                    )
 840                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 841                else:
 842                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 843
 844        postindex_props_sql = ""
 845        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 846            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 847                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 848                wrapped=False,
 849                prefix=" ",
 850            )
 851
 852        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 853        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 854        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 855
 856        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 857        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 858
 859        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 860        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 861            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 862                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 863                sep=" ",
 864                prefix=" ",
 865                wrapped=False,
 866            )
 867
 868        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 869
 870        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 871        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 872            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 873                exp.Properties(
 874                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 875                ),
 876                sep=" ",
 877                prefix=" ",
 878                wrapped=False,
 879            )
 880
 881        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 882        no_schema_binding = (
 883            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 884        )
 885
 886        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 887        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 888
 889        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 890        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 891
 892    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 893        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 894        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
 895        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
 896        this = f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
 897        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 898
 899        if when:
 900            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 901            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 902            return f"{this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 903
 904        return this
 905
 906    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 907        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 908
 909    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 910        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 911        if with_:
 912            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 913        return sql
 914
 915    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 916        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 917        recursive = (
 918            "RECURSIVE "
 919            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
 920            else ""
 921        )
 922
 923        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 924
 925    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 926        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 927        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 928
 929    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 930        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 931        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 932        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 933
 934        if not alias and not self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
 935            alias = "_t"
 936
 937        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 938
 939    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 940        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 941        if self.BIT_START:
 942            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
 943        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 944
 945    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 946        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 947        if self.HEX_START:
 948            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
 949        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 950
 951    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 952        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 953        if self.BYTE_START:
 954            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
 955        return this
 956
 957    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 958        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
 959        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
 960
 961    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
 962        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 963        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 964        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
 965        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 966
 967    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 968        type_value = expression.this
 969
 970        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
 971            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 972        else:
 973            type_sql = (
 974                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 975                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
 976                else type_value
 977            )
 978
 979        nested = ""
 980        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 981        values = ""
 982
 983        if interior:
 984            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 985                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 986                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 987                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 988                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 989                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 990            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
 991                nested = f" {interior}"
 992            else:
 993                nested = f"({interior})"
 994
 995        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 996        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
 997            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
 998            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
 999        ):
1000            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1001
1002        return type_sql
1003
1004    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1005        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1006        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1007        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1008        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1009
1010    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1011        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1012        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1013        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1014        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1015        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1016        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1017        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1018        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1019        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1020        if self.RETURNING_END:
1021            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1022        else:
1023            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1024        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1025
1026    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1027        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1028        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1029        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1030        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1031        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1032        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1033        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1034        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1035        return (
1036            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1037        )
1038
1039    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1040        return self.prepend_ctes(
1041            expression,
1042            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
1043        )
1044
1045    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1046        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1047
1048    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1049        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1050        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
1051        count = expression.args.get("count")
1052        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1053        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1054            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1055        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1056        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1057
1058    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1059        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1060            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1061            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1062            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1063
1064        agg = expression.this
1065        agg_arg = agg.this
1066        cond = expression.expression.this
1067        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1068        return self.sql(agg)
1069
1070    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1071        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1072            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1073            return ""
1074
1075        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1076
1077    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1078        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1079        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1080        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1081        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1082        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1083        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1084        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1085        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1086        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1087        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1088        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1089        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1090        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1091        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1092        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1093        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}{where}"
1094
1095    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1096        text = expression.name
1097        lower = text.lower()
1098        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1099        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1100        if (
1101            expression.quoted
1102            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1103            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1104            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1105        ):
1106            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1107        return text
1108
1109    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1110        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1111        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1112        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1113        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1114        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1115
1116    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1117        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1118        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1119
1120    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1121        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1122
1123    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1124        root_properties = []
1125        with_properties = []
1126
1127        for p in expression.expressions:
1128            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1129            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1130                with_properties.append(p)
1131            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1132                root_properties.append(p)
1133
1134        return self.root_properties(
1135            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1136        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1137
1138    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1139        if properties.expressions:
1140            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1141        return ""
1142
1143    def properties(
1144        self,
1145        properties: exp.Properties,
1146        prefix: str = "",
1147        sep: str = ", ",
1148        suffix: str = "",
1149        wrapped: bool = True,
1150    ) -> str:
1151        if properties.expressions:
1152            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1153            if expressions:
1154                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1155                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1156        return ""
1157
1158    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1159        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1160
1161    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1162        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1163        for p in properties.expressions:
1164            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1165            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1166                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1167            else:
1168                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1169
1170        return properties_locs
1171
1172    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1173        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1174            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1175        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1176
1177    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1178        property_cls = expression.__class__
1179        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1180            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1181
1182        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1183        if not property_name:
1184            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1185
1186        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1187
1188    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1189        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1190        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1191        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1192
1193    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1194        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1195        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1196        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1197
1198    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1199        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1200        local = expression.args.get("local")
1201        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1202        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1203        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1204        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1205        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1206
1207    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1208        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1209        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1210        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1211
1212    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1213        if expression.args.get("default"):
1214            property = "DEFAULT"
1215        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1216            property = "ON"
1217        else:
1218            property = "OFF"
1219        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1220
1221    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1222        if expression.args.get("no"):
1223            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1224        if expression.args.get("default"):
1225            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1226
1227        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1228        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1229
1230    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1231        default = expression.args.get("default")
1232        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1233        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1234        if default or minimum or maximum:
1235            if default:
1236                prop = "DEFAULT"
1237            elif minimum:
1238                prop = "MINIMUM"
1239            else:
1240                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1241            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1242        units = expression.args.get("units")
1243        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1244        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1245
1246    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1247        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1248        always = expression.args.get("always")
1249        default = expression.args.get("default")
1250        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1251        never = expression.args.get("never")
1252
1253        if autotemp is not None:
1254            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1255        elif always:
1256            prop = "ALWAYS"
1257        elif default:
1258            prop = "DEFAULT"
1259        elif manual:
1260            prop = "MANUAL"
1261        elif never:
1262            prop = "NEVER"
1263        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1264
1265    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1266        no = expression.args.get("no")
1267        no = " NO" if no else ""
1268        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1269        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1270
1271        for_ = ""
1272        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1273            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1274        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1275            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1276        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1277            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1278        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1279
1280    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1281        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1282            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1283        if expression.this:
1284            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1285            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1286            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1287
1288        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1289        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1290        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1291
1292    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1293        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1294
1295        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1296        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1297            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1298        else:
1299            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1300
1301        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1302
1303    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1304        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1305        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1306        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1307        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1308        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1309        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1310        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1311
1312    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1313        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1314        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1315        statistics_sql = ""
1316        if statistics is not None:
1317            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1318        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1319
1320    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1321        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
1322
1323        if expression.this:
1324            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
1325            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
1326
1327            if expression.expression:
1328                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1329                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
1330
1331            sql = f"{sql})"
1332
1333        return f"{sql})"
1334
1335    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1336        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1337
1338        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1339            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1340        else:
1341            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1342
1343        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1344        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1345        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1346
1347        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1348
1349        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1350        partition_sql = (
1351            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1352        )
1353        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1354        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1355        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1356        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1357        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1358        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1359
1360        if self.RETURNING_END:
1361            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1362        else:
1363            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1364
1365        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1366        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1367
1368    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1369        return self.prepend_ctes(
1370            expression,
1371            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1372        )
1373
1374    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1375        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1376
1377    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1378        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1379
1380    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1381        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1382        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1383        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1384        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1385        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1386
1387    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1388        return expression.name.upper()
1389
1390    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1391        return expression.name.upper()
1392
1393    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1394        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1395        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1396        if constraint:
1397            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1398        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1399        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1400        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1401        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1402        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1403        if expressions:
1404            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1405        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1406
1407    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1408        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1409
1410    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1411        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1412        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1413        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1414        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1415        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1416        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1417        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1418        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1419        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1420        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1421        null = expression.args.get("null")
1422        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1423        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1424
1425    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1426        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1427
1428    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1429        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1430        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1431        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1432        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1433
1434    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1435        table = ".".join(
1436            self.sql(part)
1437            for part in (
1438                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1439                expression.args.get("db"),
1440                expression.args.get("this"),
1441            )
1442            if part is not None
1443        )
1444
1445        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1446        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1447        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1448        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1449        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1450        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1451        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1452        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1453        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1454        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1455
1456        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1457        if file_format:
1458            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1459            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1460            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1461
1462        index = self.sql(expression, "index")
1463        index = f" AT {index}" if index else ""
1464
1465        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1466        if ordinality:
1467            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1468            alias = ""
1469
1470        return f"{table}{version}{file_format}{alias}{index}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1471
1472    def tablesample_sql(
1473        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1474    ) -> str:
1475        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1476            table = expression.this.copy()
1477            table.set("alias", None)
1478            this = self.sql(table)
1479            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1480        else:
1481            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1482            alias = ""
1483
1484        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1485        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1486        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1487        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1488        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1489        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1490        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1491        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1492        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1493        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1494        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1495
1496        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1497        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1498            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1499
1500        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1501        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1502        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1503
1504        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}"
1505        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1506            expr = f"({expr})"
1507
1508        return f"{this} {kind} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1509
1510    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1511        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1512
1513        if expression.this:
1514            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1515            if not expressions:
1516                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1517
1518            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1519            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1520            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1521            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1522            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1523
1524        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1525        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1526        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1527        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1528        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1529        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1530        if include_nulls is not None:
1531            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1532        else:
1533            nulls = ""
1534        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1535
1536    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1537        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1538        kind = expression.text("kind")
1539        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1540        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1541
1542    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1543        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1544
1545    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1546        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1547        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1548        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1549        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1550        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1551        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1552        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1553        if self.RETURNING_END:
1554            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1555        else:
1556            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1557        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1558        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1559
1560    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1561        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1562        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1563            args = self.expressions(expression)
1564            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1565            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1566            values = (
1567                f"({values})"
1568                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1569                else values
1570            )
1571            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1572
1573        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1574        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1575        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1576
1577        selects: t.List[exp.Subqueryable] = []
1578
1579        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1580            row = tup.expressions
1581
1582            if i == 0 and column_names:
1583                row = [
1584                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1585                ]
1586
1587            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1588
1589        if self.pretty:
1590            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1591            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1592            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1593            subqueryable = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1594            return self.subquery_sql(
1595                subqueryable.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False)
1596            )
1597
1598        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1599        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1600        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1601
1602    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1603        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1604
1605    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1606        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1607        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1608        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1609
1610    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1611        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1612
1613    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1614        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1615
1616        if expression.args.get("all"):
1617            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1618
1619        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1620        grouping_sets = (
1621            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1622        )
1623
1624        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1625        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1626            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1627        else:
1628            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1629            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1630
1631        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1632        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1633            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1634        else:
1635            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1636            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1637
1638        groupings = csv(
1639            grouping_sets,
1640            cube_sql,
1641            rollup_sql,
1642            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1643            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1644        )
1645
1646        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1647            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1648
1649        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1650
1651    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1652        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1653        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1654
1655    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1656        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1657        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1658        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1659        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY {connect}")
1660        return start + connect
1661
1662    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1663        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1664
1665    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1666        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1667            side = None
1668        else:
1669            side = expression.side
1670
1671        op_sql = " ".join(
1672            op
1673            for op in (
1674                expression.method,
1675                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1676                side,
1677                expression.kind,
1678                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1679            )
1680            if op
1681        )
1682        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1683        using = expression.args.get("using")
1684
1685        if not on_sql and using:
1686            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1687
1688        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1689
1690        if on_sql:
1691            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1692            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1693            if using:
1694                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1695            else:
1696                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1697        elif not op_sql:
1698            return f", {this_sql}"
1699
1700        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1701        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1702
1703    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1704        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1705        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1706        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1707
1708    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1709        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1710
1711        if expression.args.get("view"):
1712            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1713            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1714            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1715            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1716            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1717            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1718
1719        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1720        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1721        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1722
1723    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1724        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1725
1726        args = [
1727            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
1728            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1729            if e
1730        ]
1731
1732        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
1733        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if any(top and not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
1734        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}"
1735
1736    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1737        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1738        expression = expression.expression
1739        expression = (
1740            self._simplify_unless_literal(expression) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else expression
1741        )
1742        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression)}"
1743
1744    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1745        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1746        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1747        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1748        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1749        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1750        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1751        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1752        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1753
1754    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1755        expressions = (
1756            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1757        )
1758        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1759        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1760
1761    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1762        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1763
1764    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1765        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1766            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1767            return ""
1768
1769        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1770        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1771        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1772        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1773
1774        if wait is not None:
1775            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1776                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1777            else:
1778                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1779
1780        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1781
1782    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1783        text = expression.this or ""
1784        if expression.is_string:
1785            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1786        return text
1787
1788    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1789        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1790        if self.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES:
1791            text = "".join(self.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES.get(ch, ch) for ch in text)
1792        elif self.pretty:
1793            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1794        return text
1795
1796    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1797        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1798        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1799        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1800        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1801        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1802        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1803        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1804        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1805        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1806        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1807        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1808
1809    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1810        return "NULL"
1811
1812    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1813        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1814
1815    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1816        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1817        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1818        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1819
1820    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1821        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1822
1823    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1824        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1825
1826    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1827        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1828
1829    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1830        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1831        asc = not desc
1832
1833        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1834        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1835        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1836        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1837        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1838
1839        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1840
1841        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
1842        nulls_sort_change = ""
1843        if nulls_first and (
1844            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1845        ):
1846            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1847        elif (
1848            nulls_last
1849            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1850            and not nulls_are_last
1851        ):
1852            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1853
1854        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
1855        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1856            null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
1857            this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
1858            nulls_sort_change = ""
1859
1860        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1861
1862    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1863        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1864        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1865        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1866        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1867        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1868        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1869        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1870        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1871        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1872        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1873        definition_sqls = [
1874            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1875            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1876        ]
1877        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1878        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1879        body = "".join(
1880            (
1881                partition,
1882                order,
1883                measures,
1884                rows,
1885                after,
1886                pattern,
1887                define,
1888            )
1889        )
1890        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1891        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1892        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1893
1894    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1895        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1896
1897        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1898        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1899
1900        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1901            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1902        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1903            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1904
1905        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1906
1907        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1908            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1909            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1910            else []
1911        )
1912
1913        return csv(
1914            *sqls,
1915            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1916            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
1917            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1918            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1919            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1920            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1921            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1922            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1923            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1924            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1925            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1926            sep="",
1927        )
1928
1929    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1930        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1931    ) -> t.List[str]:
1932        return [
1933            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1934            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1935        ]
1936
1937    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1938        return [
1939            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1940            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1941            if expression.args.get("windows")
1942            else "",
1943            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1944            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1945            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1946        ]
1947
1948    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1949        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1950        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1951        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1952
1953    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1954        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1955        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1956        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1957        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1958        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1959        top = (
1960            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1961            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1962            else ""
1963        )
1964
1965        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1966
1967        if kind:
1968            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1969                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1970            else:
1971                if kind == "STRUCT":
1972                    expressions = self.expressions(
1973                        sqls=[
1974                            self.sql(
1975                                exp.Struct(
1976                                    expressions=[
1977                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1978                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1979                                        )
1980                                        for e in expression.expressions
1981                                    ]
1982                                )
1983                            )
1984                        ]
1985                    )
1986                kind = ""
1987
1988        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
1989        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
1990        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
1991        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1992        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1993            expression,
1994            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1995            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1996            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1997        )
1998        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1999
2000    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2001        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2002        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2003        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2004
2005    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2006        if expression.expressions:
2007            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2008        return ""
2009
2010    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2011        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2012        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2013        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2014        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2015        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
2016
2017    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2018        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2019        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}" if self.SUPPORTS_PARAMETERS else this
2020
2021    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2022        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2023        kind = expression.text("kind")
2024        if kind:
2025            kind = f"{kind}."
2026        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2027
2028    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2029        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
2030
2031    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2032        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2033        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2034
2035        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2036        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2037
2038        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2039        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2040
2041    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2042        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2043        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2044
2045    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2046        return self.prepend_ctes(
2047            expression,
2048            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
2049        )
2050
2051    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2052        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2053        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2054        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2055        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2056
2057    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2058        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2059
2060        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2061        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2062
2063        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2064            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2065                alias.append("columns", offset)
2066
2067        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2068            columns = alias.columns
2069            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2070        else:
2071            alias = self.sql(alias)
2072
2073        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2074        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2075            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2076        else:
2077            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2078                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2079            elif offset:
2080                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2081            else:
2082                suffix = alias
2083
2084        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2085
2086    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2087        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2088        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2089
2090    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2091        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2092        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2093        order = expression.args.get("order")
2094        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2095        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2096        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2097        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2098
2099        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2100
2101        first = expression.args.get("first")
2102        if first is None:
2103            first = ""
2104        else:
2105            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2106
2107        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2108            return f"{this} {alias}"
2109
2110        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2111        return f"{this} ({args})"
2112
2113    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2114        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2115        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2116
2117    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2118        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2119        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2120        end = (
2121            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2122            or "CURRENT ROW"
2123        )
2124        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2125
2126    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2127        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2128        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2129        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2130
2131    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2132        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2133        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2134        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2135        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2136
2137    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2138        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
2139        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2140
2141        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2142
2143    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
2144        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
2145
2146    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2147        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2148
2149    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2150        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2151        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
2152            this = self.wrap(this)
2153        return f"ANY {this}"
2154
2155    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2156        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2157
2158    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2159        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2160        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2161
2162        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2163            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2164            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2165
2166        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2167
2168        if default:
2169            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2170
2171        statements.append("END")
2172
2173        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
2174            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2175
2176        return " ".join(statements)
2177
2178    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2179        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2180        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2181        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2182
2183    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2184        order = expression.args.get("order")
2185        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2186        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2187
2188    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2189        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2190        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2191        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2192
2193    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2194        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2195
2196        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2197            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2198        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2199            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2200        else:
2201            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2202
2203    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
2204        expressions = expression.expressions
2205        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2206            expressions = [exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions]
2207        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2208
2209    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2210        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2211        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2212
2213    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2214        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2215        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2216        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2217        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2218        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2219        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2220        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2221        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2222
2223    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2224        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2225        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2226        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2227        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2228
2229    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2230        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2231
2232    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2233        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2234        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2235        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2236
2237    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2238        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2239
2240    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2241        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2242
2243    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
2244        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2245        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2246        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2247        if unique_keys is not None:
2248            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2249        else:
2250            unique_keys = ""
2251        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2252        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2253        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2254        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2255        return self.func(
2256            "JSON_OBJECT",
2257            *expression.expressions,
2258            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2259        )
2260
2261    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2262        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2263        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2264        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2265        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2266        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2267        return self.func(
2268            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2269        )
2270
2271    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2272        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2273        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2274        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2275        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2276        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2277        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2278        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2279        return self.func(
2280            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2281            this,
2282            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2283        )
2284
2285    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2286        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2287        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2288        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2289
2290        if nested_schema:
2291            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2292
2293        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2294        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2295        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2296        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2297
2298    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2299        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2300
2301    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2302        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2303        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2304        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2305        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2306        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2307        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2308        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2309        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2310        return self.func(
2311            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2312        )
2313
2314    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2315        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2316        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2317        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2318        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2319        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2320        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2321
2322    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2323        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2324        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2325        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2326        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2327        with_ = (
2328            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2329            if expressions
2330            else ""
2331        )
2332        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2333
2334    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2335        query = expression.args.get("query")
2336        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2337        field = expression.args.get("field")
2338        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2339
2340        if query:
2341            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2342        elif unnest:
2343            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2344        elif field:
2345            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2346        else:
2347            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2348
2349        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2350
2351    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2352        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2353
2354    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2355        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2356        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2357            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
2358        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2359
2360        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2361            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2362            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2363
2364        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2365        if this:
2366            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2367            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2368
2369        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2370
2371    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2372        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2373
2374    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2375        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2376        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2377        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2378        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2379        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2380        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2381
2382    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2383        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
2384
2385    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2386        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2387            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2388        else:
2389            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2390            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2391
2392        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2393
2394    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2395        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2396        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2397        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2398        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2399
2400    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2401        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2402
2403    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2404        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2405        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2406        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2407
2408    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2409        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2410
2411    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2412        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2413        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2414        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2415
2416    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2417        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2418
2419    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2420        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
2421
2422    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2423        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
2424
2425    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2426        if not self.pretty:
2427            return self.binary(expression, op)
2428
2429        sqls = tuple(
2430            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2431            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2432        )
2433
2434        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2435        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
2436
2437    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2438        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2439
2440    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2441        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2442
2443    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2444        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2445
2446    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2447        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2448
2449    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2450        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2451
2452    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2453        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2454
2455    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2456        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2457        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2458        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2459        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2460        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql})"
2461
2462    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2463        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2464        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2465
2466    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2467        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2468            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2469        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2470
2471    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2472        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2473
2474    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2475        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2476        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2477        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2478        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2479        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2480
2481    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2482        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2483        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2484        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2485        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2486        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2487        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2488        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2489        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2490        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2491
2492    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2493        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2494        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2495        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2496        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2497
2498        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2499            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2500
2501        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2502
2503    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2504        return "BEGIN"
2505
2506    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2507        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2508        if chain is not None:
2509            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2510
2511        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2512
2513    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2514        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2515        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2516        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2517
2518    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2519        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2520
2521        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2522        if dtype:
2523            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2524            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2525            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2526            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2527            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2528
2529        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2530        if default:
2531            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2532
2533        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2534            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2535
2536        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2537
2538    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2539        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2540            # Remove db from tables
2541            expression = expression.transform(
2542                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2543            )
2544        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2545        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2546
2547    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2548        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2549
2550        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2551            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
2552        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2553            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2554        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2555            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2556        else:
2557            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2558
2559        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2560        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2561        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2562
2563    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2564        if self.ALTER_TABLE_ADD_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
2565            return self.expressions(
2566                expression,
2567                key="actions",
2568                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
2569            )
2570        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
2571
2572    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2573        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2574        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2575        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2576
2577    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2578        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2579        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2580        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2581
2582        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2583        if enforced is not None:
2584            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2585
2586        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2587
2588    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2589        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2590        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2591
2592        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2593        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2594        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2595
2596    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2597        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2598
2599    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2600        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2601
2602    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2603        return self.sql(
2604            exp.Cast(
2605                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2606                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2607            )
2608        )
2609
2610    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2611        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2612
2613    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2614        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2615            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2616        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
2617
2618    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2619        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
2620
2621        if not self.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
2622            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
2623
2624        if self.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
2625            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.FLOAT_TYPES) and not r.is_type(
2626                *exp.DataType.FLOAT_TYPES
2627            ):
2628                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
2629
2630        elif not self.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
2631            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
2632                return self.sql(
2633                    exp.cast(
2634                        l / r,
2635                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
2636                    )
2637                )
2638
2639        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2640
2641    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2642        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2643
2644    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2645        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2646
2647    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2648        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2649
2650    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2651        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2652
2653    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
2654        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
2655
2656    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2657        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2658
2659    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2660        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2661
2662    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2663        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2664
2665    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2666        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2667
2668    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2669        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2670
2671    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2672        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2673
2674    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2675        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2676            return self.sql(
2677                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2678            )
2679        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2680
2681    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2682        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2683
2684    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2685        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2686
2687    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2688        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2689
2690    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2691        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2692
2693    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2694        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2695
2696    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2697        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2698
2699    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2700        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2701
2702    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2703        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2704
2705    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2706        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2707
2708    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2709        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2710
2711    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2712        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2713
2714    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2715        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2716
2717    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2718        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2719
2720    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2721        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
2722
2723    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
2724        args = list(expression.args.values())
2725        if not self.LOG_BASE_FIRST:
2726            args.reverse()
2727        return self.func("LOG", *args)
2728
2729    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2730        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2731        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2732        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2733        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2734        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2735
2736    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2737        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2738        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2739
2740    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2741        args = []
2742
2743        for key in expression.arg_types:
2744            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2745
2746            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2747                for value in arg_value:
2748                    args.append(value)
2749            elif arg_value is not None:
2750                args.append(arg_value)
2751
2752        if self.normalize_functions:
2753            name = expression.sql_name()
2754        else:
2755            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2756
2757        return self.func(name, *args)
2758
2759    def func(
2760        self,
2761        name: str,
2762        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2763        prefix: str = "(",
2764        suffix: str = ")",
2765    ) -> str:
2766        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2767
2768    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2769        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2770        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2771            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2772        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2773
2774    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2775        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2776
2777    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2778        return format_time(
2779            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2780        )
2781
2782    def expressions(
2783        self,
2784        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2785        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2786        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2787        flat: bool = False,
2788        indent: bool = True,
2789        skip_first: bool = False,
2790        sep: str = ", ",
2791        prefix: str = "",
2792    ) -> str:
2793        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2794
2795        if not expressions:
2796            return ""
2797
2798        if flat:
2799            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2800
2801        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2802
2803        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2804        pad = " " * self.pad
2805        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2806
2807        result_sqls = []
2808        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2809            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2810            if not sql:
2811                continue
2812
2813            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2814
2815            if self.pretty:
2816                if self.leading_comma:
2817                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2818                else:
2819                    result_sqls.append(
2820                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2821                    )
2822            else:
2823                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2824
2825        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2826        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
2827
2828    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2829        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2830        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2831        if flat:
2832            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2833        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2834
2835    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2836        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2837        if not property_name:
2838            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2839        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2840
2841    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Union, op: str) -> str:
2842        this = self.maybe_comment(self.sql(expression, "this"), comments=expression.comments)
2843        op = self.seg(op)
2844        return self.query_modifiers(
2845            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2846        )
2847
2848    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2849        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2850
2851    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2852        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2853
2854    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2855        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2856        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2857        expressions = (
2858            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2859        )
2860        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2861
2862    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2863        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2864        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2865        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2866
2867    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2868        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2869
2870    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2871        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2872        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2873        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2874        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2875
2876        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2877        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2878            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2879            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2880                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2881        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2882            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2883                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2884            else:
2885                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2886        else:
2887            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2888        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2889
2890    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2891        table = expression.this
2892        table_alias = ""
2893
2894        hints = table.args.get("hints")
2895        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
2896            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
2897            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
2898
2899        this = self.sql(table)
2900        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2901        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2902        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
2903
2904        return self.prepend_ctes(
2905            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
2906        )
2907
2908    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2909        if expression.args.get("format"):
2910            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2911
2912        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2913
2914    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2915        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2916        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2917        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2918        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2919        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2920
2921    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2922        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2923        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2924        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2925        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2926
2927    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2928        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
2929
2930    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2931        return ""
2932
2933    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2934        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2935        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2936        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2937        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2938        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
2939
2940    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2941        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2942        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2943
2944        if having:
2945            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2946
2947        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
2948
2949    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2950        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2951        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2952        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2953        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2954        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2955        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2956        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2957        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2958        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2959        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2960        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2961        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
2962        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
2963
2964    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2965        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
2966        if key_block_size:
2967            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
2968
2969        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2970        if using:
2971            return f"USING {using}"
2972
2973        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
2974        if parser:
2975            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
2976
2977        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2978        if comment:
2979            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
2980
2981        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
2982        if visible is not None:
2983            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
2984
2985        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
2986        if engine_attr:
2987            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
2988
2989        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
2990        if secondary_engine_attr:
2991            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
2992
2993        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
2994        return ""
2995
2996    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2997        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2998        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
2999        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3000        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3001        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3002        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3003        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3004        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
3005        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3006        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3007        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{schema}{options}"
3008
3009    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3010        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3011            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3012
3013        case = exp.Case().when(
3014            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3015            expression.args["true"],
3016            copy=False,
3017        )
3018        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3019        if else_cond:
3020            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3021
3022        return self.sql(case)
3023
3024    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3025        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3026        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3027        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3028        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3029        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3030        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3031
3032    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3033        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3034
3035    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3036        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3037
3038    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3039        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3040        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3041        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3042        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3043        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3044        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3045
3046    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3047        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3048        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3049        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3050
3051    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3052        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3053        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3054        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3055
3056    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3057        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3058
3059    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3060        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3061            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3062
3063            expression = simplify(expression)
3064
3065        return expression
logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
class Generator:
  21class Generator:
  22    """
  23    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  24
  25    Args:
  26        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  27            Default: False.
  28        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  29            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  30            True or 'always': Always quote.
  31            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  32        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  33            Default: False.
  34        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  35            Default: 2.
  36        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  37            Default: 2.
  38        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  39            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  40            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  41            False: Disables function name normalization.
  42        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  43            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  44        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  45            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  46            Default: 3
  47        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  48            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  49            Default: False
  50        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  51            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  52            line length.
  53            Default: 80
  54        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  55            Default: True
  56    """
  57
  58    TRANSFORMS = {
  59        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  60            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  61        ),
  62        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  63        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  64        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  65        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  66        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  67        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  68        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  69        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  70        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  71        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  72        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  73        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  74        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  75        exp.HeapProperty: lambda self, e: "HEAP",
  76        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  77        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  78        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
  79        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  80        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  81        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  82        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  83        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  84        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  85        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
  86        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  87        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  88        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  89        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  92        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  93        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  95        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  96        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
  97        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
  98        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
  99        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 100        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
 101        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 102        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 103        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
 104        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 105        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
 106        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 107    }
 108
 109    # Whether the base comes first
 110    LOG_BASE_FIRST = True
 111
 112    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
 113    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
 114
 115    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 116    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 117
 118    # Always do union distinct or union all
 119    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 120
 121    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 122    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 123
 124    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 125    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 126
 127    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 128    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 129
 130    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 131    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 132
 133    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 134    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 135
 136    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 137    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 138
 139    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 140    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 141
 142    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 143    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 144
 145    # Whether or not limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 146    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 147
 148    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 149    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 150
 151    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 152    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 153
 154    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 155    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 156
 157    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 158    JOIN_HINTS = True
 159
 160    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 161    TABLE_HINTS = True
 162
 163    # Whether or not query hints should be generated
 164    QUERY_HINTS = True
 165
 166    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 167    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 168
 169    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 170    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 171
 172    # Whether or not to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 173    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 174
 175    # Whether or not to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 176    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 177
 178    # Whether or not to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 179    RETURNING_END = True
 180
 181    # Whether or not to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 182    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 183
 184    # Whether or not to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 185    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 186
 187    # Whether or not TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 188    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 189
 190    # Whether or not the NVL2 function is supported
 191    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 192
 193    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 194    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 195
 196    # Whether or not VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 197    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 198    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 199    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 200
 201    # Whether or not the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 202    ALTER_TABLE_ADD_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 203
 204    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 205    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 206
 207    # Whether or not FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 208    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 209
 210    # Whether or not JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 211    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 212
 213    # Whether or not session variables / parameters are supported, e.g. @x in T-SQL
 214    SUPPORTS_PARAMETERS = True
 215
 216    # Whether or not to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 217    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 218
 219    # Whether or not CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 220    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 221
 222    # Whether or not parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 223    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 224
 225    # Whether or not COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 226    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 227
 228    # Whether or not data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 229    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 230
 231    # Whether or not conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 232    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 233
 234    # Whether or not the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 235    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 236
 237    # Whether the behavior of a / b depends on the types of a and b.
 238    # False means a / b is always float division.
 239    # True means a / b is integer division if both a and b are integers.
 240    TYPED_DIVISION = False
 241
 242    # False means 1 / 0 throws an error.
 243    # True means 1 / 0 returns null.
 244    SAFE_DIVISION = False
 245
 246    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 247        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 248        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 249        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 250        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 251        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 252        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 253        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 254        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 255        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 256    }
 257
 258    STAR_MAPPING = {
 259        "except": "EXCEPT",
 260        "replace": "REPLACE",
 261    }
 262
 263    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 264        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 265        "seconds": "second",
 266        "minutes": "minute",
 267        "hours": "hour",
 268        "days": "day",
 269        "weeks": "week",
 270        "months": "month",
 271        "quarters": "quarter",
 272        "years": "year",
 273    }
 274
 275    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 276
 277    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 278
 279    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 280
 281    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 282        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 283        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 284        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 285        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 286        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 287        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 288        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 289        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 290        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 291        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 292        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 293        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 294        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 295        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 296        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 297        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 298        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 299        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 300        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 301        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 302        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 303        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 304        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 305        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 306        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 307        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 308        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 309        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 310        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 311        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 312        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 313        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 314        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 315        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 316        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 317        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 318        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 319        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 320        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 321        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 322        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 323        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 324        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 325        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 326        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 327        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 328        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 329        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 330        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 331        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 332        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 333        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 334        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 335        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 336        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 337        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 338        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 339        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 340        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 341        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 342        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 343        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 344        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 345        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 346    }
 347
 348    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 349    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 350
 351    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 352    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 353        exp.Create,
 354        exp.Delete,
 355        exp.Drop,
 356        exp.From,
 357        exp.Insert,
 358        exp.Join,
 359        exp.Select,
 360        exp.Update,
 361        exp.Where,
 362        exp.With,
 363    )
 364
 365    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 366    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 367        exp.Binary,
 368        exp.Union,
 369    )
 370
 371    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 372    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 373        exp.Column,
 374        exp.Literal,
 375        exp.Neg,
 376        exp.Paren,
 377    )
 378
 379    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 380    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 381
 382    KEY_VALUE_DEFINITONS = (exp.Bracket, exp.EQ, exp.PropertyEQ, exp.Slice)
 383
 384    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 385
 386    # Autofilled
 387    INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 388    INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: t.Dict = {}
 389    INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 390    INDEX_OFFSET = 0
 391    UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
 392    ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
 393    IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
 394    STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
 395    NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = "upper"
 396    NULL_ORDERING = "nulls_are_small"
 397
 398    can_identify: t.Callable[[str, str | bool], bool]
 399
 400    # Delimiters for quotes, identifiers and the corresponding escape characters
 401    QUOTE_START = "'"
 402    QUOTE_END = "'"
 403    IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
 404    IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
 405    TOKENIZER_CLASS = Tokenizer
 406
 407    # Delimiters for bit, hex, byte and raw literals
 408    BIT_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 409    BIT_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 410    HEX_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 411    HEX_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 412    BYTE_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 413    BYTE_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 414
 415    __slots__ = (
 416        "pretty",
 417        "identify",
 418        "normalize",
 419        "pad",
 420        "_indent",
 421        "normalize_functions",
 422        "unsupported_level",
 423        "max_unsupported",
 424        "leading_comma",
 425        "max_text_width",
 426        "comments",
 427        "unsupported_messages",
 428        "_escaped_quote_end",
 429        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 430    )
 431
 432    def __init__(
 433        self,
 434        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 435        identify: str | bool = False,
 436        normalize: bool = False,
 437        pad: int = 2,
 438        indent: int = 2,
 439        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 440        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 441        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 442        leading_comma: bool = False,
 443        max_text_width: int = 80,
 444        comments: bool = True,
 445    ):
 446        import sqlglot
 447
 448        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 449        self.identify = identify
 450        self.normalize = normalize
 451        self.pad = pad
 452        self._indent = indent
 453        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 454        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 455        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 456        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 457        self.comments = comments
 458
 459        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 460        self.normalize_functions = (
 461            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 462        )
 463
 464        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 465        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.QUOTE_END
 466        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 467            self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.IDENTIFIER_END
 468        )
 469
 470    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 471        """
 472        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 473
 474        Args:
 475            expression: The syntax tree.
 476            copy: Whether or not to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 477                it is safer to copy.
 478
 479        Returns:
 480            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 481        """
 482        if copy:
 483            expression = expression.copy()
 484
 485        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 486
 487        self.unsupported_messages = []
 488        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 489
 490        if self.pretty:
 491            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 492
 493        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 494            return sql
 495
 496        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 497            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 498                logger.warning(msg)
 499        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 500            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 501
 502        return sql
 503
 504    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 505        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 506        if (
 507            not expression.parent
 508            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 509            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 510        ):
 511            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 512
 513            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 514
 515        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 516            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 517
 518            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 519
 520        return expression
 521
 522    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 523        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 524            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 525        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 526
 527    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 528        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 529
 530    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 531        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 532
 533    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 534        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 535        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 536        return comment
 537
 538    def maybe_comment(
 539        self,
 540        sql: str,
 541        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 542        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 543    ) -> str:
 544        comments = (
 545            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 546            if self.comments
 547            else None
 548        )
 549
 550        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 551            return sql
 552
 553        comments_sql = " ".join(
 554            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 555        )
 556
 557        if not comments_sql:
 558            return sql
 559
 560        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 561            return (
 562                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 563                if sql[0].isspace()
 564                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 565            )
 566
 567        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 568
 569    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 570        this_sql = self.indent(
 571            self.sql(expression)
 572            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 573            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 574            level=1,
 575            pad=0,
 576        )
 577        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 578
 579    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 580        original = self.identify
 581        self.identify = False
 582        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 583        self.identify = original
 584        return result
 585
 586    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 587        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 588            return name.upper()
 589        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 590            return name.lower()
 591        return name
 592
 593    def indent(
 594        self,
 595        sql: str,
 596        level: int = 0,
 597        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 598        skip_first: bool = False,
 599        skip_last: bool = False,
 600    ) -> str:
 601        if not self.pretty:
 602            return sql
 603
 604        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 605        lines = sql.split("\n")
 606
 607        return "\n".join(
 608            line
 609            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 610            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 611            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 612        )
 613
 614    def sql(
 615        self,
 616        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 617        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 618        comment: bool = True,
 619    ) -> str:
 620        if not expression:
 621            return ""
 622
 623        if isinstance(expression, str):
 624            return expression
 625
 626        if key:
 627            value = expression.args.get(key)
 628            if value:
 629                return self.sql(value)
 630            return ""
 631
 632        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 633
 634        if callable(transform):
 635            sql = transform(self, expression)
 636        elif transform:
 637            sql = transform
 638        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 639            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 640
 641            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 642                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 643            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 644                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 645            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 646                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 647            else:
 648                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 649        else:
 650            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 651
 652        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 653
 654    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 655        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 656        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 657        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 658
 659    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 660        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 661        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 662        options = expression.args.get("options")
 663        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 664        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 665        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 666        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 667        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 668
 669    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 670        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 671            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 672        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 673        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 674
 675    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 676        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 677
 678        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 679            join_mark = ""
 680            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 681
 682        column = ".".join(
 683            self.sql(part)
 684            for part in (
 685                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 686                expression.args.get("db"),
 687                expression.args.get("table"),
 688                expression.args.get("this"),
 689            )
 690            if part
 691        )
 692
 693        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 694
 695    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 696        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 697        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 698        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 699        return f"{position}{this}"
 700
 701    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 702        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 703        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 704        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 705        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 706        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 707        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 708        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 709        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 710
 711        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 712            kind = ""
 713
 714        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 715
 716    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 717        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 718        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 719        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 720
 721    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 722        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 723        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 724            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 725        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 726            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 727        else:
 728            persisted = ""
 729        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 730
 731    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 732        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 733
 734    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 735        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 736            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 737        else:
 738            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 739
 740        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 741
 742    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 743        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 744    ) -> str:
 745        this = ""
 746        if expression.this is not None:
 747            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 748            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 749
 750        start = expression.args.get("start")
 751        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 752        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 753        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 754        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 755        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 756        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 757        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 758        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 759        cycle_sql = ""
 760
 761        if cycle is not None:
 762            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 763            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 764
 765        sequence_opts = ""
 766        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 767            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 768            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 769
 770        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 771        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 772
 773        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 774
 775    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 776        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 777    ) -> str:
 778        start = "START" if expression.args["start"] else "END"
 779        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 780        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 781
 782    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 783        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 784    ) -> str:
 785        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 786
 787    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 788        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 789
 790    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 791        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 792        if desc is not None:
 793            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 794        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 795
 796    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 797        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 798        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 799        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 800        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 801        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}"
 802
 803    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 804        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 805
 806    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 807        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 808        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 809        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 810
 811        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 812
 813        properties_sql = ""
 814        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 815            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 816        ):
 817            properties_sql = self.sql(
 818                exp.Properties(
 819                    expressions=[
 820                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 821                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 822                    ]
 823                )
 824            )
 825
 826        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 827        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 828
 829        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 830        if expression_sql:
 831            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 832
 833            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 834                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 835                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 836                        exp.Properties(
 837                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 838                        ),
 839                        wrapped=False,
 840                    )
 841                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 842                else:
 843                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 844
 845        postindex_props_sql = ""
 846        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 847            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 848                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 849                wrapped=False,
 850                prefix=" ",
 851            )
 852
 853        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 854        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 855        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 856
 857        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 858        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 859
 860        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 861        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 862            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 863                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 864                sep=" ",
 865                prefix=" ",
 866                wrapped=False,
 867            )
 868
 869        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 870
 871        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 872        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 873            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 874                exp.Properties(
 875                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 876                ),
 877                sep=" ",
 878                prefix=" ",
 879                wrapped=False,
 880            )
 881
 882        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 883        no_schema_binding = (
 884            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 885        )
 886
 887        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 888        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 889
 890        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 891        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 892
 893    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 894        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 895        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
 896        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
 897        this = f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
 898        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 899
 900        if when:
 901            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 902            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 903            return f"{this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 904
 905        return this
 906
 907    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 908        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 909
 910    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 911        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 912        if with_:
 913            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 914        return sql
 915
 916    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 917        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 918        recursive = (
 919            "RECURSIVE "
 920            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
 921            else ""
 922        )
 923
 924        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 925
 926    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 927        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 928        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 929
 930    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 931        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 932        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 933        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 934
 935        if not alias and not self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
 936            alias = "_t"
 937
 938        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 939
 940    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 941        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 942        if self.BIT_START:
 943            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
 944        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 945
 946    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 947        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 948        if self.HEX_START:
 949            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
 950        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 951
 952    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 953        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 954        if self.BYTE_START:
 955            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
 956        return this
 957
 958    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 959        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
 960        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
 961
 962    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
 963        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 964        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 965        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
 966        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 967
 968    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 969        type_value = expression.this
 970
 971        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
 972            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 973        else:
 974            type_sql = (
 975                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 976                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
 977                else type_value
 978            )
 979
 980        nested = ""
 981        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 982        values = ""
 983
 984        if interior:
 985            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 986                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 987                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 988                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 989                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 990                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 991            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
 992                nested = f" {interior}"
 993            else:
 994                nested = f"({interior})"
 995
 996        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 997        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
 998            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
 999            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1000        ):
1001            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1002
1003        return type_sql
1004
1005    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1006        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1007        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1008        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1009        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1010
1011    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1012        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1013        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1014        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1015        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1016        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1017        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1018        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1019        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1020        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1021        if self.RETURNING_END:
1022            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1023        else:
1024            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1025        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1026
1027    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1028        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1029        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1030        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1031        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1032        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1033        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1034        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1035        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1036        return (
1037            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1038        )
1039
1040    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1041        return self.prepend_ctes(
1042            expression,
1043            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
1044        )
1045
1046    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1047        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1048
1049    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1050        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1051        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
1052        count = expression.args.get("count")
1053        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1054        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1055            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1056        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1057        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1058
1059    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1060        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1061            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1062            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1063            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1064
1065        agg = expression.this
1066        agg_arg = agg.this
1067        cond = expression.expression.this
1068        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1069        return self.sql(agg)
1070
1071    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1072        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1073            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1074            return ""
1075
1076        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1077
1078    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1079        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1080        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1081        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1082        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1083        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1084        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1085        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1086        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1087        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1088        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1089        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1090        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1091        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1092        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1093        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1094        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}{where}"
1095
1096    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1097        text = expression.name
1098        lower = text.lower()
1099        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1100        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1101        if (
1102            expression.quoted
1103            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1104            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1105            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1106        ):
1107            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1108        return text
1109
1110    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1111        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1112        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1113        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1114        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1115        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1116
1117    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1118        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1119        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1120
1121    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1122        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1123
1124    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1125        root_properties = []
1126        with_properties = []
1127
1128        for p in expression.expressions:
1129            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1130            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1131                with_properties.append(p)
1132            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1133                root_properties.append(p)
1134
1135        return self.root_properties(
1136            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1137        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1138
1139    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1140        if properties.expressions:
1141            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1142        return ""
1143
1144    def properties(
1145        self,
1146        properties: exp.Properties,
1147        prefix: str = "",
1148        sep: str = ", ",
1149        suffix: str = "",
1150        wrapped: bool = True,
1151    ) -> str:
1152        if properties.expressions:
1153            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1154            if expressions:
1155                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1156                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1157        return ""
1158
1159    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1160        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1161
1162    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1163        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1164        for p in properties.expressions:
1165            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1166            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1167                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1168            else:
1169                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1170
1171        return properties_locs
1172
1173    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1174        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1175            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1176        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1177
1178    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1179        property_cls = expression.__class__
1180        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1181            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1182
1183        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1184        if not property_name:
1185            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1186
1187        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1188
1189    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1190        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1191        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1192        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1193
1194    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1195        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1196        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1197        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1198
1199    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1200        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1201        local = expression.args.get("local")
1202        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1203        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1204        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1205        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1206        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1207
1208    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1209        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1210        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1211        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1212
1213    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1214        if expression.args.get("default"):
1215            property = "DEFAULT"
1216        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1217            property = "ON"
1218        else:
1219            property = "OFF"
1220        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1221
1222    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1223        if expression.args.get("no"):
1224            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1225        if expression.args.get("default"):
1226            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1227
1228        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1229        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1230
1231    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1232        default = expression.args.get("default")
1233        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1234        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1235        if default or minimum or maximum:
1236            if default:
1237                prop = "DEFAULT"
1238            elif minimum:
1239                prop = "MINIMUM"
1240            else:
1241                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1242            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1243        units = expression.args.get("units")
1244        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1245        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1246
1247    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1248        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1249        always = expression.args.get("always")
1250        default = expression.args.get("default")
1251        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1252        never = expression.args.get("never")
1253
1254        if autotemp is not None:
1255            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1256        elif always:
1257            prop = "ALWAYS"
1258        elif default:
1259            prop = "DEFAULT"
1260        elif manual:
1261            prop = "MANUAL"
1262        elif never:
1263            prop = "NEVER"
1264        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1265
1266    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1267        no = expression.args.get("no")
1268        no = " NO" if no else ""
1269        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1270        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1271
1272        for_ = ""
1273        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1274            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1275        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1276            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1277        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1278            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1279        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1280
1281    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1282        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1283            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1284        if expression.this:
1285            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1286            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1287            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1288
1289        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1290        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1291        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1292
1293    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1294        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1295
1296        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1297        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1298            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1299        else:
1300            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1301
1302        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1303
1304    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1305        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1306        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1307        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1308        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1309        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1310        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1311        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1312
1313    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1314        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1315        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1316        statistics_sql = ""
1317        if statistics is not None:
1318            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1319        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1320
1321    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1322        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
1323
1324        if expression.this:
1325            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
1326            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
1327
1328            if expression.expression:
1329                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1330                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
1331
1332            sql = f"{sql})"
1333
1334        return f"{sql})"
1335
1336    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1337        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1338
1339        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1340            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1341        else:
1342            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1343
1344        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1345        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1346        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1347
1348        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1349
1350        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1351        partition_sql = (
1352            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1353        )
1354        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1355        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1356        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1357        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1358        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1359        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1360
1361        if self.RETURNING_END:
1362            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1363        else:
1364            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1365
1366        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1367        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1368
1369    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1370        return self.prepend_ctes(
1371            expression,
1372            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1373        )
1374
1375    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1376        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1377
1378    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1379        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1380
1381    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1382        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1383        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1384        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1385        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1386        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1387
1388    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1389        return expression.name.upper()
1390
1391    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1392        return expression.name.upper()
1393
1394    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1395        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1396        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1397        if constraint:
1398            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1399        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1400        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1401        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1402        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1403        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1404        if expressions:
1405            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1406        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1407
1408    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1409        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1410
1411    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1412        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1413        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1414        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1415        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1416        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1417        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1418        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1419        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1420        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1421        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1422        null = expression.args.get("null")
1423        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1424        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1425
1426    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1427        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1428
1429    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1430        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1431        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1432        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1433        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1434
1435    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1436        table = ".".join(
1437            self.sql(part)
1438            for part in (
1439                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1440                expression.args.get("db"),
1441                expression.args.get("this"),
1442            )
1443            if part is not None
1444        )
1445
1446        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1447        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1448        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1449        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1450        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1451        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1452        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1453        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1454        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1455        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1456
1457        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1458        if file_format:
1459            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1460            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1461            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1462
1463        index = self.sql(expression, "index")
1464        index = f" AT {index}" if index else ""
1465
1466        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1467        if ordinality:
1468            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1469            alias = ""
1470
1471        return f"{table}{version}{file_format}{alias}{index}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1472
1473    def tablesample_sql(
1474        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1475    ) -> str:
1476        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1477            table = expression.this.copy()
1478            table.set("alias", None)
1479            this = self.sql(table)
1480            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1481        else:
1482            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1483            alias = ""
1484
1485        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1486        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1487        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1488        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1489        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1490        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1491        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1492        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1493        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1494        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1495        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1496
1497        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1498        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1499            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1500
1501        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1502        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1503        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1504
1505        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}"
1506        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1507            expr = f"({expr})"
1508
1509        return f"{this} {kind} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1510
1511    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1512        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1513
1514        if expression.this:
1515            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1516            if not expressions:
1517                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1518
1519            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1520            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1521            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1522            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1523            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1524
1525        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1526        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1527        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1528        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1529        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1530        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1531        if include_nulls is not None:
1532            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1533        else:
1534            nulls = ""
1535        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1536
1537    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1538        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1539        kind = expression.text("kind")
1540        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1541        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1542
1543    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1544        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1545
1546    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1547        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1548        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1549        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1550        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1551        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1552        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1553        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1554        if self.RETURNING_END:
1555            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1556        else:
1557            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1558        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1559        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1560
1561    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1562        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1563        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1564            args = self.expressions(expression)
1565            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1566            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1567            values = (
1568                f"({values})"
1569                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1570                else values
1571            )
1572            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1573
1574        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1575        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1576        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1577
1578        selects: t.List[exp.Subqueryable] = []
1579
1580        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1581            row = tup.expressions
1582
1583            if i == 0 and column_names:
1584                row = [
1585                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1586                ]
1587
1588            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1589
1590        if self.pretty:
1591            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1592            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1593            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1594            subqueryable = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1595            return self.subquery_sql(
1596                subqueryable.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False)
1597            )
1598
1599        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1600        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1601        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1602
1603    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1604        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1605
1606    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1607        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1608        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1609        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1610
1611    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1612        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1613
1614    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1615        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1616
1617        if expression.args.get("all"):
1618            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1619
1620        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1621        grouping_sets = (
1622            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1623        )
1624
1625        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1626        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1627            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1628        else:
1629            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1630            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1631
1632        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1633        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1634            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1635        else:
1636            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1637            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1638
1639        groupings = csv(
1640            grouping_sets,
1641            cube_sql,
1642            rollup_sql,
1643            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1644            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1645        )
1646
1647        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1648            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1649
1650        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1651
1652    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1653        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1654        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1655
1656    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1657        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1658        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1659        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1660        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY {connect}")
1661        return start + connect
1662
1663    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1664        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1665
1666    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1667        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1668            side = None
1669        else:
1670            side = expression.side
1671
1672        op_sql = " ".join(
1673            op
1674            for op in (
1675                expression.method,
1676                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1677                side,
1678                expression.kind,
1679                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1680            )
1681            if op
1682        )
1683        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1684        using = expression.args.get("using")
1685
1686        if not on_sql and using:
1687            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1688
1689        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1690
1691        if on_sql:
1692            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1693            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1694            if using:
1695                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1696            else:
1697                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1698        elif not op_sql:
1699            return f", {this_sql}"
1700
1701        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1702        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1703
1704    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1705        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1706        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1707        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1708
1709    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1710        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1711
1712        if expression.args.get("view"):
1713            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1714            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1715            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1716            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1717            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1718            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1719
1720        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1721        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1722        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1723
1724    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1725        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1726
1727        args = [
1728            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
1729            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1730            if e
1731        ]
1732
1733        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
1734        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if any(top and not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
1735        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}"
1736
1737    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1738        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1739        expression = expression.expression
1740        expression = (
1741            self._simplify_unless_literal(expression) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else expression
1742        )
1743        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression)}"
1744
1745    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1746        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1747        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1748        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1749        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1750        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1751        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1752        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1753        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1754
1755    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1756        expressions = (
1757            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1758        )
1759        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1760        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1761
1762    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1763        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1764
1765    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1766        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1767            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1768            return ""
1769
1770        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1771        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1772        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1773        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1774
1775        if wait is not None:
1776            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1777                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1778            else:
1779                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1780
1781        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1782
1783    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1784        text = expression.this or ""
1785        if expression.is_string:
1786            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1787        return text
1788
1789    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1790        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1791        if self.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES:
1792            text = "".join(self.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES.get(ch, ch) for ch in text)
1793        elif self.pretty:
1794            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1795        return text
1796
1797    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1798        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1799        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1800        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1801        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1802        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1803        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1804        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1805        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1806        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1807        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1808        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1809
1810    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1811        return "NULL"
1812
1813    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1814        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1815
1816    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1817        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1818        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1819        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1820
1821    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1822        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1823
1824    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1825        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1826
1827    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1828        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1829
1830    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1831        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1832        asc = not desc
1833
1834        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1835        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1836        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1837        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1838        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1839
1840        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1841
1842        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
1843        nulls_sort_change = ""
1844        if nulls_first and (
1845            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1846        ):
1847            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1848        elif (
1849            nulls_last
1850            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1851            and not nulls_are_last
1852        ):
1853            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1854
1855        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
1856        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1857            null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
1858            this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
1859            nulls_sort_change = ""
1860
1861        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1862
1863    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1864        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1865        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1866        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1867        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1868        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1869        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1870        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1871        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1872        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1873        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1874        definition_sqls = [
1875            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1876            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1877        ]
1878        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1879        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1880        body = "".join(
1881            (
1882                partition,
1883                order,
1884                measures,
1885                rows,
1886                after,
1887                pattern,
1888                define,
1889            )
1890        )
1891        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1892        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1893        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1894
1895    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1896        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1897
1898        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1899        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1900
1901        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1902            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1903        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1904            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1905
1906        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1907
1908        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1909            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1910            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1911            else []
1912        )
1913
1914        return csv(
1915            *sqls,
1916            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1917            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
1918            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1919            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1920            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1921            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1922            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1923            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1924            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1925            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1926            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1927            sep="",
1928        )
1929
1930    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1931        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1932    ) -> t.List[str]:
1933        return [
1934            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1935            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1936        ]
1937
1938    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1939        return [
1940            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1941            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1942            if expression.args.get("windows")
1943            else "",
1944            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1945            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1946            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1947        ]
1948
1949    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1950        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1951        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1952        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1953
1954    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1955        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1956        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1957        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1958        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1959        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1960        top = (
1961            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1962            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1963            else ""
1964        )
1965
1966        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1967
1968        if kind:
1969            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1970                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1971            else:
1972                if kind == "STRUCT":
1973                    expressions = self.expressions(
1974                        sqls=[
1975                            self.sql(
1976                                exp.Struct(
1977                                    expressions=[
1978                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1979                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1980                                        )
1981                                        for e in expression.expressions
1982                                    ]
1983                                )
1984                            )
1985                        ]
1986                    )
1987                kind = ""
1988
1989        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
1990        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
1991        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
1992        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1993        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1994            expression,
1995            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1996            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1997            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1998        )
1999        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2000
2001    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2002        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2003        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2004        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2005
2006    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2007        if expression.expressions:
2008            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2009        return ""
2010
2011    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2012        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2013        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2014        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2015        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2016        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
2017
2018    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2019        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2020        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}" if self.SUPPORTS_PARAMETERS else this
2021
2022    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2023        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2024        kind = expression.text("kind")
2025        if kind:
2026            kind = f"{kind}."
2027        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2028
2029    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2030        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
2031
2032    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2033        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2034        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2035
2036        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2037        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2038
2039        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2040        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2041
2042    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2043        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2044        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2045
2046    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2047        return self.prepend_ctes(
2048            expression,
2049            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
2050        )
2051
2052    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2053        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2054        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2055        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2056        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2057
2058    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2059        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2060
2061        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2062        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2063
2064        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2065            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2066                alias.append("columns", offset)
2067
2068        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2069            columns = alias.columns
2070            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2071        else:
2072            alias = self.sql(alias)
2073
2074        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2075        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2076            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2077        else:
2078            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2079                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2080            elif offset:
2081                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2082            else:
2083                suffix = alias
2084
2085        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2086
2087    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2088        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2089        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2090
2091    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2092        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2093        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2094        order = expression.args.get("order")
2095        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2096        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2097        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2098        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2099
2100        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2101
2102        first = expression.args.get("first")
2103        if first is None:
2104            first = ""
2105        else:
2106            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2107
2108        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2109            return f"{this} {alias}"
2110
2111        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2112        return f"{this} ({args})"
2113
2114    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2115        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2116        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2117
2118    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2119        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2120        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2121        end = (
2122            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2123            or "CURRENT ROW"
2124        )
2125        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2126
2127    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2128        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2129        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2130        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2131
2132    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2133        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2134        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2135        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2136        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2137
2138    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2139        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
2140        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2141
2142        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2143
2144    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
2145        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
2146
2147    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2148        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2149
2150    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2151        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2152        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
2153            this = self.wrap(this)
2154        return f"ANY {this}"
2155
2156    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2157        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2158
2159    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2160        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2161        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2162
2163        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2164            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2165            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2166
2167        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2168
2169        if default:
2170            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2171
2172        statements.append("END")
2173
2174        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
2175            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2176
2177        return " ".join(statements)
2178
2179    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2180        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2181        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2182        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2183
2184    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2185        order = expression.args.get("order")
2186        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2187        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2188
2189    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2190        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2191        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2192        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2193
2194    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2195        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2196
2197        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2198            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2199        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2200            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2201        else:
2202            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2203
2204    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
2205        expressions = expression.expressions
2206        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2207            expressions = [exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions]
2208        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2209
2210    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2211        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2212        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2213
2214    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2215        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2216        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2217        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2218        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2219        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2220        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2221        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2222        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2223
2224    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2225        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2226        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2227        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2228        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2229
2230    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2231        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2232
2233    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2234        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2235        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2236        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2237
2238    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2239        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2240
2241    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2242        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2243
2244    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
2245        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2246        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2247        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2248        if unique_keys is not None:
2249            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2250        else:
2251            unique_keys = ""
2252        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2253        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2254        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2255        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2256        return self.func(
2257            "JSON_OBJECT",
2258            *expression.expressions,
2259            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2260        )
2261
2262    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2263        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2264        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2265        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2266        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2267        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2268        return self.func(
2269            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2270        )
2271
2272    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2273        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2274        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2275        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2276        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2277        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2278        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2279        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2280        return self.func(
2281            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2282            this,
2283            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2284        )
2285
2286    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2287        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2288        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2289        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2290
2291        if nested_schema:
2292            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2293
2294        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2295        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2296        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2297        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2298
2299    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2300        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2301
2302    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2303        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2304        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2305        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2306        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2307        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2308        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2309        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2310        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2311        return self.func(
2312            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2313        )
2314
2315    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2316        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2317        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2318        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2319        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2320        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2321        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2322
2323    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2324        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2325        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2326        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2327        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2328        with_ = (
2329            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2330            if expressions
2331            else ""
2332        )
2333        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2334
2335    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2336        query = expression.args.get("query")
2337        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2338        field = expression.args.get("field")
2339        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2340
2341        if query:
2342            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2343        elif unnest:
2344            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2345        elif field:
2346            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2347        else:
2348            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2349
2350        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2351
2352    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2353        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2354
2355    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2356        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2357        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2358            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
2359        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2360
2361        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2362            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2363            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2364
2365        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2366        if this:
2367            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2368            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2369
2370        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2371
2372    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2373        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2374
2375    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2376        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2377        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2378        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2379        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2380        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2381        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2382
2383    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2384        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
2385
2386    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2387        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2388            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2389        else:
2390            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2391            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2392
2393        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2394
2395    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2396        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2397        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2398        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2399        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2400
2401    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2402        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2403
2404    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2405        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2406        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2407        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2408
2409    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2410        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2411
2412    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2413        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2414        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2415        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2416
2417    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2418        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2419
2420    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2421        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
2422
2423    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2424        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
2425
2426    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2427        if not self.pretty:
2428            return self.binary(expression, op)
2429
2430        sqls = tuple(
2431            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2432            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2433        )
2434
2435        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2436        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
2437
2438    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2439        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2440
2441    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2442        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2443
2444    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2445        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2446
2447    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2448        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2449
2450    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2451        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2452
2453    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2454        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2455
2456    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2457        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2458        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2459        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2460        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2461        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql})"
2462
2463    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2464        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2465        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2466
2467    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2468        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2469            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2470        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2471
2472    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2473        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2474
2475    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2476        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2477        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2478        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2479        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2480        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2481
2482    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2483        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2484        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2485        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2486        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2487        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2488        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2489        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2490        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2491        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2492
2493    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2494        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2495        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2496        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2497        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2498
2499        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2500            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2501
2502        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2503
2504    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2505        return "BEGIN"
2506
2507    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2508        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2509        if chain is not None:
2510            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2511
2512        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2513
2514    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2515        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2516        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2517        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2518
2519    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2520        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2521
2522        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2523        if dtype:
2524            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2525            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2526            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2527            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2528            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2529
2530        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2531        if default:
2532            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2533
2534        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2535            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2536
2537        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2538
2539    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2540        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2541            # Remove db from tables
2542            expression = expression.transform(
2543                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2544            )
2545        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2546        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2547
2548    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2549        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2550
2551        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2552            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
2553        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2554            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2555        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2556            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2557        else:
2558            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2559
2560        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2561        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2562        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2563
2564    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2565        if self.ALTER_TABLE_ADD_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
2566            return self.expressions(
2567                expression,
2568                key="actions",
2569                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
2570            )
2571        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
2572
2573    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2574        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2575        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2576        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2577
2578    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2579        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2580        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2581        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2582
2583        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2584        if enforced is not None:
2585            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2586
2587        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2588
2589    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2590        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2591        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2592
2593        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2594        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2595        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2596
2597    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2598        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2599
2600    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2601        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2602
2603    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2604        return self.sql(
2605            exp.Cast(
2606                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2607                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2608            )
2609        )
2610
2611    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2612        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2613
2614    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2615        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2616            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2617        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
2618
2619    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2620        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
2621
2622        if not self.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
2623            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
2624
2625        if self.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
2626            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.FLOAT_TYPES) and not r.is_type(
2627                *exp.DataType.FLOAT_TYPES
2628            ):
2629                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
2630
2631        elif not self.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
2632            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
2633                return self.sql(
2634                    exp.cast(
2635                        l / r,
2636                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
2637                    )
2638                )
2639
2640        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2641
2642    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2643        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2644
2645    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2646        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2647
2648    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2649        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2650
2651    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2652        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2653
2654    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
2655        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
2656
2657    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2658        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2659
2660    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2661        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2662
2663    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2664        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2665
2666    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2667        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2668
2669    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2670        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2671
2672    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2673        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2674
2675    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2676        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2677            return self.sql(
2678                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2679            )
2680        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2681
2682    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2683        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2684
2685    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2686        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2687
2688    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2689        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2690
2691    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2692        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2693
2694    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2695        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2696
2697    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2698        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2699
2700    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2701        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2702
2703    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2704        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2705
2706    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2707        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2708
2709    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2710        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2711
2712    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2713        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2714
2715    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2716        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2717
2718    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2719        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2720
2721    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2722        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
2723
2724    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
2725        args = list(expression.args.values())
2726        if not self.LOG_BASE_FIRST:
2727            args.reverse()
2728        return self.func("LOG", *args)
2729
2730    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2731        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2732        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2733        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2734        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2735        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2736
2737    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2738        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2739        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2740
2741    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2742        args = []
2743
2744        for key in expression.arg_types:
2745            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2746
2747            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2748                for value in arg_value:
2749                    args.append(value)
2750            elif arg_value is not None:
2751                args.append(arg_value)
2752
2753        if self.normalize_functions:
2754            name = expression.sql_name()
2755        else:
2756            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2757
2758        return self.func(name, *args)
2759
2760    def func(
2761        self,
2762        name: str,
2763        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2764        prefix: str = "(",
2765        suffix: str = ")",
2766    ) -> str:
2767        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2768
2769    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2770        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2771        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2772            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2773        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2774
2775    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2776        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2777
2778    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2779        return format_time(
2780            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2781        )
2782
2783    def expressions(
2784        self,
2785        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2786        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2787        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2788        flat: bool = False,
2789        indent: bool = True,
2790        skip_first: bool = False,
2791        sep: str = ", ",
2792        prefix: str = "",
2793    ) -> str:
2794        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2795
2796        if not expressions:
2797            return ""
2798
2799        if flat:
2800            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2801
2802        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2803
2804        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2805        pad = " " * self.pad
2806        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2807
2808        result_sqls = []
2809        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2810            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2811            if not sql:
2812                continue
2813
2814            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2815
2816            if self.pretty:
2817                if self.leading_comma:
2818                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2819                else:
2820                    result_sqls.append(
2821                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2822                    )
2823            else:
2824                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2825
2826        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2827        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
2828
2829    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2830        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2831        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2832        if flat:
2833            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2834        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2835
2836    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2837        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2838        if not property_name:
2839            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2840        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2841
2842    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Union, op: str) -> str:
2843        this = self.maybe_comment(self.sql(expression, "this"), comments=expression.comments)
2844        op = self.seg(op)
2845        return self.query_modifiers(
2846            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2847        )
2848
2849    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2850        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2851
2852    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2853        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2854
2855    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2856        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2857        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2858        expressions = (
2859            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2860        )
2861        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2862
2863    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2864        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2865        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2866        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2867
2868    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2869        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2870
2871    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2872        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2873        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2874        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2875        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2876
2877        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2878        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2879            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2880            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2881                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2882        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2883            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2884                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2885            else:
2886                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2887        else:
2888            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2889        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2890
2891    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2892        table = expression.this
2893        table_alias = ""
2894
2895        hints = table.args.get("hints")
2896        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
2897            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
2898            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
2899
2900        this = self.sql(table)
2901        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2902        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2903        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
2904
2905        return self.prepend_ctes(
2906            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
2907        )
2908
2909    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2910        if expression.args.get("format"):
2911            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2912
2913        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2914
2915    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2916        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2917        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2918        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2919        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2920        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2921
2922    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2923        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2924        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2925        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2926        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2927
2928    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2929        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
2930
2931    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2932        return ""
2933
2934    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2935        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2936        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2937        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2938        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2939        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
2940
2941    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2942        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2943        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2944
2945        if having:
2946            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2947
2948        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
2949
2950    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2951        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2952        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2953        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2954        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2955        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2956        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2957        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2958        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2959        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2960        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2961        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2962        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
2963        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
2964
2965    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2966        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
2967        if key_block_size:
2968            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
2969
2970        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2971        if using:
2972            return f"USING {using}"
2973
2974        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
2975        if parser:
2976            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
2977
2978        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2979        if comment:
2980            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
2981
2982        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
2983        if visible is not None:
2984            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
2985
2986        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
2987        if engine_attr:
2988            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
2989
2990        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
2991        if secondary_engine_attr:
2992            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
2993
2994        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
2995        return ""
2996
2997    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2998        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2999        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3000        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3001        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3002        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3003        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3004        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3005        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
3006        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3007        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3008        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{schema}{options}"
3009
3010    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3011        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3012            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3013
3014        case = exp.Case().when(
3015            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3016            expression.args["true"],
3017            copy=False,
3018        )
3019        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3020        if else_cond:
3021            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3022
3023        return self.sql(case)
3024
3025    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3026        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3027        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3028        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3029        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3030        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3031        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3032
3033    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3034        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3035
3036    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3037        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3038
3039    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3040        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3041        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3042        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3043        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3044        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3045        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3046
3047    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3048        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3049        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3050        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3051
3052    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3053        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3054        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3055        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3056
3057    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3058        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3059
3060    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3061        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3062            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3063
3064            expression = simplify(expression)
3065
3066        return expression

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

Arguments:
  • pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
  • identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  • normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
  • pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
  • unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True)
432    def __init__(
433        self,
434        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
435        identify: str | bool = False,
436        normalize: bool = False,
437        pad: int = 2,
438        indent: int = 2,
439        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
440        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
441        max_unsupported: int = 3,
442        leading_comma: bool = False,
443        max_text_width: int = 80,
444        comments: bool = True,
445    ):
446        import sqlglot
447
448        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
449        self.identify = identify
450        self.normalize = normalize
451        self.pad = pad
452        self._indent = indent
453        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
454        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
455        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
456        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
457        self.comments = comments
458
459        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
460        self.normalize_functions = (
461            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
462        )
463
464        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
465        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.QUOTE_END
466        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
467            self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.IDENTIFIER_END
468        )
TRANSFORMS = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalSpan'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NonClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
LOG_BASE_FIRST = True
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXPLICIT_UNION = False
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINT_SEP = ', '
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
RETURNING_END = True
COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
ALTER_TABLE_ADD_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
SUPPORTS_PARAMETERS = True
COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
ENSURE_BOOLS = False
CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
TYPED_DIVISION = False
SAFE_DIVISION = False
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.TINYTEXT: 'TINYTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.TINYBLOB: 'TINYBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET'}
STAR_MAPPING = {'except': 'EXCEPT', 'replace': 'REPLACE'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'microseconds': 'microsecond', 'seconds': 'second', 'minutes': 'minute', 'hours': 'hour', 'days': 'day', 'weeks': 'week', 'months': 'month', 'quarters': 'quarter', 'years': 'year'}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Binary'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Union'>)
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: Set[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = set()
KEY_VALUE_DEFINITONS = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Bracket'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EQ'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PropertyEQ'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Slice'>)
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: Dict[str, str] = {}
INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: Dict = {}
INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES: Dict[str, str] = {}
INDEX_OFFSET = 0
UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = 'upper'
NULL_ORDERING = 'nulls_are_small'
@classmethod
def can_identify(text: str, identify: str | bool = 'safe') -> bool:
291    @classmethod
292    def can_identify(cls, text: str, identify: str | bool = "safe") -> bool:
293        """Checks if text can be identified given an identify option.
294
295        Args:
296            text: The text to check.
297            identify:
298                "always" or `True`: Always returns true.
299                "safe": True if the identifier is case-insensitive.
300
301        Returns:
302            Whether or not the given text can be identified.
303        """
304        if identify is True or identify == "always":
305            return True
306
307        if identify == "safe":
308            return not cls.case_sensitive(text)
309
310        return False

Checks if text can be identified given an identify option.

Arguments:
  • text: The text to check.
  • identify: "always" or True: Always returns true. "safe": True if the identifier is case-insensitive.
Returns:

Whether or not the given text can be identified.

QUOTE_START = "'"
QUOTE_END = "'"
IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
TOKENIZER_CLASS = <class 'sqlglot.tokens.Tokenizer'>
BIT_START: Optional[str] = None
BIT_END: Optional[str] = None
HEX_START: Optional[str] = None
HEX_END: Optional[str] = None
BYTE_START: Optional[str] = None
BYTE_END: Optional[str] = None
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
470    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
471        """
472        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
473
474        Args:
475            expression: The syntax tree.
476            copy: Whether or not to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
477                it is safer to copy.
478
479        Returns:
480            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
481        """
482        if copy:
483            expression = expression.copy()
484
485        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
486
487        self.unsupported_messages = []
488        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
489
490        if self.pretty:
491            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
492
493        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
494            return sql
495
496        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
497            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
498                logger.warning(msg)
499        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
500            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
501
502        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

Arguments:
  • expression: The syntax tree.
  • copy: Whether or not to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so it is safer to copy.
Returns:

The SQL string corresponding to expression.

def preprocess( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> sqlglot.expressions.Expression:
504    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
505        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
506        if (
507            not expression.parent
508            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
509            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
510        ):
511            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
512
513            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
514
515        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
516            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
517
518            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
519
520        return expression

Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
522    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
523        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
524            raise UnsupportedError(message)
525        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
527    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
528        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
530    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
531        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
533    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
534        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
535        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
536        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None) -> str:
538    def maybe_comment(
539        self,
540        sql: str,
541        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
542        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
543    ) -> str:
544        comments = (
545            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
546            if self.comments
547            else None
548        )
549
550        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
551            return sql
552
553        comments_sql = " ".join(
554            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
555        )
556
557        if not comments_sql:
558            return sql
559
560        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
561            return (
562                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
563                if sql[0].isspace()
564                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
565            )
566
567        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
569    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
570        this_sql = self.indent(
571            self.sql(expression)
572            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
573            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
574            level=1,
575            pad=0,
576        )
577        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
579    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
580        original = self.identify
581        self.identify = False
582        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
583        self.identify = original
584        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
586    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
587        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
588            return name.upper()
589        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
590            return name.lower()
591        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
593    def indent(
594        self,
595        sql: str,
596        level: int = 0,
597        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
598        skip_first: bool = False,
599        skip_last: bool = False,
600    ) -> str:
601        if not self.pretty:
602            return sql
603
604        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
605        lines = sql.split("\n")
606
607        return "\n".join(
608            line
609            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
610            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
611            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
612        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
614    def sql(
615        self,
616        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
617        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
618        comment: bool = True,
619    ) -> str:
620        if not expression:
621            return ""
622
623        if isinstance(expression, str):
624            return expression
625
626        if key:
627            value = expression.args.get(key)
628            if value:
629                return self.sql(value)
630            return ""
631
632        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
633
634        if callable(transform):
635            sql = transform(self, expression)
636        elif transform:
637            sql = transform
638        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
639            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
640
641            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
642                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
643            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
644                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
645            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
646                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
647            else:
648                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
649        else:
650            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
651
652        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
654    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
655        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
656        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
657        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
659    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
660        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
661        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
662        options = expression.args.get("options")
663        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
664        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
665        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
666        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
667        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
669    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
670        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
671            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
672        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
673        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
675    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
676        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
677
678        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
679            join_mark = ""
680            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
681
682        column = ".".join(
683            self.sql(part)
684            for part in (
685                expression.args.get("catalog"),
686                expression.args.get("db"),
687                expression.args.get("table"),
688                expression.args.get("this"),
689            )
690            if part
691        )
692
693        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
695    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
696        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
697        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
698        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
699        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
701    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
702        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
703        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
704        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
705        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
706        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
707        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
708        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
709        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
710
711        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
712            kind = ""
713
714        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
716    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
717        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
718        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
719        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
721    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
722        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
723        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
724            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
725        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
726            persisted = " PERSISTED"
727        else:
728            persisted = ""
729        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
731    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
732        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
734    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
735        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
736            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
737        else:
738            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
739
740        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
742    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
743        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
744    ) -> str:
745        this = ""
746        if expression.this is not None:
747            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
748            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
749
750        start = expression.args.get("start")
751        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
752        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
753        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
754        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
755        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
756        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
757        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
758        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
759        cycle_sql = ""
760
761        if cycle is not None:
762            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
763            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
764
765        sequence_opts = ""
766        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
767            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
768            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
769
770        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
771        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
772
773        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint) -> str:
775    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
776        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
777    ) -> str:
778        start = "START" if expression.args["start"] else "END"
779        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
780        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint) -> str:
782    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
783        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
784    ) -> str:
785        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
787    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
788        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
790    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
791        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
792        if desc is not None:
793            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
794        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
796    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
797        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
798        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
799        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
800        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
801        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}"
def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: DefaultDict) -> str:
803    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
804        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
806    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
807        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
808        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
809        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
810
811        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
812
813        properties_sql = ""
814        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
815            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
816        ):
817            properties_sql = self.sql(
818                exp.Properties(
819                    expressions=[
820                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
821                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
822                    ]
823                )
824            )
825
826        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
827        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
828
829        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
830        if expression_sql:
831            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
832
833            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
834                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
835                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
836                        exp.Properties(
837                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
838                        ),
839                        wrapped=False,
840                    )
841                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
842                else:
843                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
844
845        postindex_props_sql = ""
846        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
847            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
848                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
849                wrapped=False,
850                prefix=" ",
851            )
852
853        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
854        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
855        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
856
857        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
858        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
859
860        postcreate_props_sql = ""
861        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
862            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
863                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
864                sep=" ",
865                prefix=" ",
866                wrapped=False,
867            )
868
869        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
870
871        postexpression_props_sql = ""
872        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
873            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
874                exp.Properties(
875                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
876                ),
877                sep=" ",
878                prefix=" ",
879                wrapped=False,
880            )
881
882        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
883        no_schema_binding = (
884            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
885        )
886
887        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
888        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
889
890        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
891        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
893    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
894        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
895        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
896        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
897        this = f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
898        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
899
900        if when:
901            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
902            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
903            return f"{this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
904
905        return this
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
907    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
908        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
910    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
911        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
912        if with_:
913            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
914        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
916    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
917        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
918        recursive = (
919            "RECURSIVE "
920            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
921            else ""
922        )
923
924        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
926    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
927        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
928        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
930    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
931        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
932        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
933        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
934
935        if not alias and not self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
936            alias = "_t"
937
938        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
940    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
941        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
942        if self.BIT_START:
943            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
944        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
946    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
947        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
948        if self.HEX_START:
949            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
950        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
952    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
953        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
954        if self.BYTE_START:
955            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
956        return this
def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str:
958    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
959        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
960        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeParam) -> str:
962    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
963        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
964        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
965        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
966        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
 968    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 969        type_value = expression.this
 970
 971        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
 972            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 973        else:
 974            type_sql = (
 975                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 976                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
 977                else type_value
 978            )
 979
 980        nested = ""
 981        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 982        values = ""
 983
 984        if interior:
 985            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 986                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 987                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 988                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 989                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 990                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 991            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
 992                nested = f" {interior}"
 993            else:
 994                nested = f"({interior})"
 995
 996        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 997        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
 998            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
 999            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1000        ):
1001            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1002
1003        return type_sql
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
1005    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1006        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1007        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1008        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1009        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
1011    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1012        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1013        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1014        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1015        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1016        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1017        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1018        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1019        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1020        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1021        if self.RETURNING_END:
1022            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1023        else:
1024            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1025        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
1027    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1028        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1029        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1030        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1031        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1032        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1033        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1034        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1035        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1036        return (
1037            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1038        )
def except_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1040    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1041        return self.prepend_ctes(
1042            expression,
1043            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
1044        )
def except_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1046    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1047        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
1049    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1050        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1051        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
1052        count = expression.args.get("count")
1053        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1054        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1055            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1056        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1057        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
1059    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1060        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1061            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1062            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1063            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1064
1065        agg = expression.this
1066        agg_arg = agg.this
1067        cond = expression.expression.this
1068        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1069        return self.sql(agg)
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
1071    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1072        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1073            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1074            return ""
1075
1076        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
1078    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1079        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1080        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1081        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1082        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1083        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1084        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1085        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1086        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1087        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1088        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1089        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1090        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1091        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1092        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1093        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1094        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}{where}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
1096    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1097        text = expression.name
1098        lower = text.lower()
1099        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1100        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1101        if (
1102            expression.quoted
1103            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1104            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1105            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1106        ):
1107            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1108        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1110    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1111        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1112        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1113        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1114        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1115        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str:
1117    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1118        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1119        return f"{prefix}{string}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
1121    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1122        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1124    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1125        root_properties = []
1126        with_properties = []
1127
1128        for p in expression.expressions:
1129            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1130            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1131                with_properties.append(p)
1132            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1133                root_properties.append(p)
1134
1135        return self.root_properties(
1136            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1137        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1139    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1140        if properties.expressions:
1141            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1142        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
1144    def properties(
1145        self,
1146        properties: exp.Properties,
1147        prefix: str = "",
1148        sep: str = ", ",
1149        suffix: str = "",
1150        wrapped: bool = True,
1151    ) -> str:
1152        if properties.expressions:
1153            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1154            if expressions:
1155                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1156                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1157        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1159    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1160        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
def locate_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> DefaultDict:
1162    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1163        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1164        for p in properties.expressions:
1165            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1166            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1167                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1168            else:
1169                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1170
1171        return properties_locs
def property_name( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1173    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1174        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1175            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1176        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
1178    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1179        property_cls = expression.__class__
1180        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1181            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1182
1183        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1184        if not property_name:
1185            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1186
1187        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
1189    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1190        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1191        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1192        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1194    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1195        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1196        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1197        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
1199    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1200        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1201        local = expression.args.get("local")
1202        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1203        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1204        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1205        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1206        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1208    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1209        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1210        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1211        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1213    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1214        if expression.args.get("default"):
1215            property = "DEFAULT"
1216        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1217            property = "ON"
1218        else:
1219            property = "OFF"
1220        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1222    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1223        if expression.args.get("no"):
1224            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1225        if expression.args.get("default"):
1226            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1227
1228        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1229        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1231    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1232        default = expression.args.get("default")
1233        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1234        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1235        if default or minimum or maximum:
1236            if default:
1237                prop = "DEFAULT"
1238            elif minimum:
1239                prop = "MINIMUM"
1240            else:
1241                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1242            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1243        units = expression.args.get("units")
1244        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1245        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1247    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1248        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1249        always = expression.args.get("always")
1250        default = expression.args.get("default")
1251        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1252        never = expression.args.get("never")
1253
1254        if autotemp is not None:
1255            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1256        elif always:
1257            prop = "ALWAYS"
1258        elif default:
1259            prop = "DEFAULT"
1260        elif manual:
1261            prop = "MANUAL"
1262        elif never:
1263            prop = "NEVER"
1264        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1266    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1267        no = expression.args.get("no")
1268        no = " NO" if no else ""
1269        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1270        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1271
1272        for_ = ""
1273        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1274            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1275        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1276            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1277        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1278            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1279        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1281    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1282        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1283            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1284        if expression.this:
1285            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1286            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1287            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1288
1289        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1290        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1291        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1293    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1294        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1295
1296        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1297        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1298            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1299        else:
1300            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1301
1302        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1304    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1305        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1306        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1307        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1308        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1309        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1310        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1311        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1313    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1314        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1315        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1316        statistics_sql = ""
1317        if statistics is not None:
1318            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1319        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def withsystemversioningproperty_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1321    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1322        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
1323
1324        if expression.this:
1325            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
1326            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
1327
1328            if expression.expression:
1329                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1330                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
1331
1332            sql = f"{sql})"
1333
1334        return f"{sql})"
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1336    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1337        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1338
1339        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1340            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1341        else:
1342            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1343
1344        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1345        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1346        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1347
1348        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1349
1350        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1351        partition_sql = (
1352            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1353        )
1354        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1355        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1356        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1357        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1358        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1359        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1360
1361        if self.RETURNING_END:
1362            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1363        else:
1364            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1365
1366        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1367        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def intersect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1369    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1370        return self.prepend_ctes(
1371            expression,
1372            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1373        )
def intersect_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1375    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1376        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1378    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1379        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def kill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kill) -> str:
1381    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1382        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1383        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1384        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1385        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1386        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1388    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1389        return expression.name.upper()
def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1391    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1392        return expression.name.upper()
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1394    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1395        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1396        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1397        if constraint:
1398            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1399        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1400        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1401        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1402        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1403        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1404        if expressions:
1405            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1406        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1408    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1409        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1411    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1412        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1413        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1414        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1415        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1416        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1417        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1418        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1419        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1420        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1421        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1422        null = expression.args.get("null")
1423        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1424        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint) -> str:
1426    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1427        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1429    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1430        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1431        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1432        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1433        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1435    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1436        table = ".".join(
1437            self.sql(part)
1438            for part in (
1439                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1440                expression.args.get("db"),
1441                expression.args.get("this"),
1442            )
1443            if part is not None
1444        )
1445
1446        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1447        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1448        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1449        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1450        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1451        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1452        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1453        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1454        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1455        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1456
1457        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1458        if file_format:
1459            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1460            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1461            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1462
1463        index = self.sql(expression, "index")
1464        index = f" AT {index}" if index else ""
1465
1466        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1467        if ordinality:
1468            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1469            alias = ""
1470
1471        return f"{table}{version}{file_format}{alias}{index}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = 'SEED', sep=' AS ') -> str:
1473    def tablesample_sql(
1474        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1475    ) -> str:
1476        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1477            table = expression.this.copy()
1478            table.set("alias", None)
1479            this = self.sql(table)
1480            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1481        else:
1482            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1483            alias = ""
1484
1485        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1486        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1487        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1488        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1489        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1490        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1491        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1492        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1493        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1494        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1495        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1496
1497        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1498        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1499            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1500
1501        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1502        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1503        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1504
1505        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}"
1506        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1507            expr = f"({expr})"
1508
1509        return f"{this} {kind} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1511    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1512        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1513
1514        if expression.this:
1515            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1516            if not expressions:
1517                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1518
1519            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1520            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1521            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1522            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1523            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1524
1525        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1526        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1527        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1528        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1529        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1530        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1531        if include_nulls is not None:
1532            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1533        else:
1534            nulls = ""
1535        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
def version_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Version) -> str:
1537    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1538        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1539        kind = expression.text("kind")
1540        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1541        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
1543    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1544        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
1546    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1547        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1548        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1549        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1550        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1551        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1552        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1553        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1554        if self.RETURNING_END:
1555            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1556        else:
1557            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1558        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1559        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values) -> str:
1561    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1562        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1563        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1564            args = self.expressions(expression)
1565            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1566            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1567            values = (
1568                f"({values})"
1569                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1570                else values
1571            )
1572            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1573
1574        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1575        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1576        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1577
1578        selects: t.List[exp.Subqueryable] = []
1579
1580        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1581            row = tup.expressions
1582
1583            if i == 0 and column_names:
1584                row = [
1585                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1586                ]
1587
1588            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1589
1590        if self.pretty:
1591            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1592            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1593            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1594            subqueryable = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1595            return self.subquery_sql(
1596                subqueryable.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False)
1597            )
1598
1599        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1600        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1601        return f"({unions}){alias}"
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
1603    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1604        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
1606    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1607        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1608        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1609        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
1611    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1612        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
1614    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1615        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1616
1617        if expression.args.get("all"):
1618            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1619
1620        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1621        grouping_sets = (
1622            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1623        )
1624
1625        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1626        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1627            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1628        else:
1629            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1630            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1631
1632        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1633        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1634            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1635        else:
1636            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1637            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1638
1639        groupings = csv(
1640            grouping_sets,
1641            cube_sql,
1642            rollup_sql,
1643            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1644            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1645        )
1646
1647        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1648            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1649
1650        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
1652    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1653        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1654        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def connect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connect) -> str:
1656    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1657        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1658        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1659        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1660        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY {connect}")
1661        return start + connect
def prior_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Prior) -> str:
1663    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1664        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
1666    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1667        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1668            side = None
1669        else:
1670            side = expression.side
1671
1672        op_sql = " ".join(
1673            op
1674            for op in (
1675                expression.method,
1676                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1677                side,
1678                expression.kind,
1679                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1680            )
1681            if op
1682        )
1683        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1684        using = expression.args.get("using")
1685
1686        if not on_sql and using:
1687            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1688
1689        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1690
1691        if on_sql:
1692            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1693            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1694            if using:
1695                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1696            else:
1697                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1698        elif not op_sql:
1699            return f", {this_sql}"
1700
1701        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1702        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
1704    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1705        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1706        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1707        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
1709    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1710        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1711
1712        if expression.args.get("view"):
1713            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1714            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1715            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1716            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1717            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1718            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1719
1720        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1721        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1722        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1724    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1725        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1726
1727        args = [
1728            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
1729            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1730            if e
1731        ]
1732
1733        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
1734        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if any(top and not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
1735        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
1737    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1738        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1739        expression = expression.expression
1740        expression = (
1741            self._simplify_unless_literal(expression) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else expression
1742        )
1743        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression)}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
1745    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1746        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1747        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1748        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1749        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1750        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1751        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1752        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1753        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
1755    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1756        expressions = (
1757            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1758        )
1759        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1760        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
1762    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1763        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
1765    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1766        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1767            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1768            return ""
1769
1770        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1771        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1772        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1773        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1774
1775        if wait is not None:
1776            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1777                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1778            else:
1779                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1780
1781        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
1783    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1784        text = expression.this or ""
1785        if expression.is_string:
1786            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1787        return text
def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1789    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1790        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1791        if self.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES:
1792            text = "".join(self.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES.get(ch, ch) for ch in text)
1793        elif self.pretty:
1794            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1795        return text
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
1797    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1798        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1799        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1800        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1801        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1802        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1803        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1804        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1805        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1806        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1807        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1808        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1810    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1811        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
1813    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1814        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1816    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1817        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1818        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1819        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
1821    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1822        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
1824    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1825        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
1827    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1828        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
1830    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1831        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1832        asc = not desc
1833
1834        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1835        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1836        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1837        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1838        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1839
1840        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1841
1842        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
1843        nulls_sort_change = ""
1844        if nulls_first and (
1845            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1846        ):
1847            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1848        elif (
1849            nulls_last
1850            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1851            and not nulls_are_last
1852        ):
1853            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1854
1855        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
1856        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1857            null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
1858            this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
1859            nulls_sort_change = ""
1860
1861        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1863    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1864        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1865        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1866        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1867        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1868        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1869        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1870        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1871        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1872        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1873        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1874        definition_sqls = [
1875            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1876            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1877        ]
1878        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1879        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1880        body = "".join(
1881            (
1882                partition,
1883                order,
1884                measures,
1885                rows,
1886                after,
1887                pattern,
1888                define,
1889            )
1890        )
1891        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1892        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1893        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1895    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1896        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1897
1898        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1899        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1900
1901        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1902            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1903        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1904            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1905
1906        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1907
1908        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1909            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1910            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1911            else []
1912        )
1913
1914        return csv(
1915            *sqls,
1916            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1917            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
1918            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1919            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1920            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1921            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1922            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1923            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1924            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1925            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1926            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1927            sep="",
1928        )
def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]:
1930    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1931        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1932    ) -> t.List[str]:
1933        return [
1934            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1935            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1936        ]
def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
1938    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1939        return [
1940            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1941            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1942            if expression.args.get("windows")
1943            else "",
1944            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1945            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1946            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1947        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
1949    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1950        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1951        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1952        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
1954    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1955        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1956        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1957        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1958        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1959        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1960        top = (
1961            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1962            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1963            else ""
1964        )
1965
1966        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1967
1968        if kind:
1969            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1970                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1971            else:
1972                if kind == "STRUCT":
1973                    expressions = self.expressions(
1974                        sqls=[
1975                            self.sql(
1976                                exp.Struct(
1977                                    expressions=[
1978                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1979                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1980                                        )
1981                                        for e in expression.expressions
1982                                    ]
1983                                )
1984                            )
1985                        ]
1986                    )
1987                kind = ""
1988
1989        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
1990        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
1991        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
1992        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1993        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1994            expression,
1995            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1996            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1997            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1998        )
1999        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2001    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2002        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2003        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2004        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2006    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2007        if expression.expressions:
2008            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2009        return ""
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
2011    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2012        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2013        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2014        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2015        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2016        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
2018    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2019        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2020        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}" if self.SUPPORTS_PARAMETERS else this
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
2022    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2023        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2024        kind = expression.text("kind")
2025        if kind:
2026            kind = f"{kind}."
2027        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
2029    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2030        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
2032    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2033        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2034        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2035
2036        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2037        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2038
2039        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2040        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
2042    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2043        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2044        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def union_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
2046    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2047        return self.prepend_ctes(
2048            expression,
2049            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
2050        )
def union_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
2052    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2053        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2054        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2055        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2056        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2058    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2059        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2060
2061        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2062        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2063
2064        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2065            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2066                alias.append("columns", offset)
2067
2068        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2069            columns = alias.columns
2070            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2071        else:
2072            alias = self.sql(alias)
2073
2074        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2075        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2076            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2077        else:
2078            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2079                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2080            elif offset:
2081                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2082            else:
2083                suffix = alias
2084
2085        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
2087    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2088        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2089        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
2091    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2092        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2093        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2094        order = expression.args.get("order")
2095        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2096        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2097        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2098        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2099
2100        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2101
2102        first = expression.args.get("first")
2103        if first is None:
2104            first = ""
2105        else:
2106            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2107
2108        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2109            return f"{this} {alias}"
2110
2111        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2112        return f"{this} ({args})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2114    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2115        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2116        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
2118    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2119        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2120        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2121        end = (
2122            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2123            or "CURRENT ROW"
2124        )
2125        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
2127    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2128        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2129        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2130        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
2132    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2133        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2134        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2135        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2136        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
2138    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2139        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
2140        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2141
2142        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def safebracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeBracket) -> str:
2144    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
2145        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
2147    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2148        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
2150    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2151        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2152        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
2153            this = self.wrap(this)
2154        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
2156    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2157        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
2159    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2160        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2161        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2162
2163        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2164            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2165            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2166
2167        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2168
2169        if default:
2170            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2171
2172        statements.append("END")
2173
2174        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
2175            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2176
2177        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
2179    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2180        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2181        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2182        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
2184    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2185        order = expression.args.get("order")
2186        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2187        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
2189    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2190        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2191        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2192        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
2194    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2195        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2196
2197        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2198            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2199        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2200            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2201        else:
2202            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeConcat) -> str:
2204    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
2205        expressions = expression.expressions
2206        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2207            expressions = [exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions]
2208        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
2210    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2211        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2212        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2214    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2215        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2216        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2217        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2218        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2219        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2220        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2221        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2222        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2224    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2225        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2226        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2227        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2228        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
2230    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2231        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2233    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2234        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2235        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2236        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2238    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2239        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def formatjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FormatJson) -> str:
2241    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2242        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject) -> str:
2244    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
2245        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2246        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2247        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2248        if unique_keys is not None:
2249            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2250        else:
2251            unique_keys = ""
2252        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2253        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2254        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2255        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2256        return self.func(
2257            "JSON_OBJECT",
2258            *expression.expressions,
2259            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2260        )
def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArray) -> str:
2262    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2263        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2264        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2265        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2266        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2267        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2268        return self.func(
2269            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2270        )
def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2272    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2273        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2274        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2275        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2276        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2277        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2278        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2279        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2280        return self.func(
2281            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2282            this,
2283            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2284        )
def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2286    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2287        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2288        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2289        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2290
2291        if nested_schema:
2292            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2293
2294        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2295        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2296        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2297        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONSchema) -> str:
2299    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2300        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
def jsontable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONTable) -> str:
2302    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2303        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2304        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2305        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2306        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2307        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2308        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2309        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2310        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2311        return self.func(
2312            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2313        )
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2315    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2316        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2317        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2318        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2319        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2320        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2321        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
2323    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2324        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2325        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2326        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2327        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2328        with_ = (
2329            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2330            if expressions
2331            else ""
2332        )
2333        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
2335    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2336        query = expression.args.get("query")
2337        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2338        field = expression.args.get("field")
2339        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2340
2341        if query:
2342            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2343        elif unnest:
2344            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2345        elif field:
2346            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2347        else:
2348            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2349
2350        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2352    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2353        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
2355    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2356        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2357        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2358            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
2359        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2360
2361        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2362            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2363            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2364
2365        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2366        if this:
2367            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2368            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2369
2370        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
2372    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2373        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
2375    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2376        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2377        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2378        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2379        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2380        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2381        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
2383    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2384        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
2386    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2387        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2388            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2389        else:
2390            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2391            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2392
2393        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
2395    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2396        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2397        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2398        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2399        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
2401    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2402        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
2404    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2405        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2406        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2407        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
2409    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2410        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2412    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2413        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2414        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2415        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
2417    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2418        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And) -> str:
2420    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2421        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
def xor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Xor) -> str:
2423    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2424        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
def connector_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2426    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2427        if not self.pretty:
2428            return self.binary(expression, op)
2429
2430        sqls = tuple(
2431            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2432            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2433        )
2434
2435        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2436        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2438    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2439        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2441    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2442        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2444    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2445        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2447    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2448        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2450    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2451        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2453    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2454        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2456    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2457        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2458        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2459        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2460        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2461        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
2463    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2464        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2465        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
2467    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2468        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2469            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2470        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
2472    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2473        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
2475    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2476        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2477        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2478        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2479        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2480        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2482    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2483        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2484        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2485        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2486        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2487        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2488        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2489        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2490        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2491        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2493    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2494        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2495        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2496        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2497        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2498
2499        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2500            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2501
2502        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
2504    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2505        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
2507    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2508        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2509        if chain is not None:
2510            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2511
2512        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
2514    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2515        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2516        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2517        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
2519    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2520        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2521
2522        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2523        if dtype:
2524            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2525            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2526            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2527            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2528            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2529
2530        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2531        if default:
2532            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2533
2534        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2535            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2536
2537        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str:
2539    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2540        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2541            # Remove db from tables
2542            expression = expression.transform(
2543                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2544            )
2545        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2546        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def altertable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
2548    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2549        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2550
2551        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2552            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
2553        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2554            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2555        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2556            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2557        else:
2558            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2559
2560        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2561        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2562        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
def add_column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
2564    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2565        if self.ALTER_TABLE_ADD_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
2566            return self.expressions(
2567                expression,
2568                key="actions",
2569                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
2570            )
2571        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
2573    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2574        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2575        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2576        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
2578    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2579        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2580        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2581        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2582
2583        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2584        if enforced is not None:
2585            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2586
2587        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
2589    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2590        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2591        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2592
2593        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2594        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2595        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2597    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2598        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
2600    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2601        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
2603    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2604        return self.sql(
2605            exp.Cast(
2606                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2607                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2608            )
2609        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
2611    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2612        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2614    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2615        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2616            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2617        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
2619    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2620        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
2621
2622        if not self.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
2623            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
2624
2625        if self.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
2626            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.FLOAT_TYPES) and not r.is_type(
2627                *exp.DataType.FLOAT_TYPES
2628            ):
2629                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
2630
2631        elif not self.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
2632            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
2633                return self.sql(
2634                    exp.cast(
2635                        l / r,
2636                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
2637                    )
2638                )
2639
2640        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
2642    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2643        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
2645    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2646        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
2648    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2649        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
2651    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2652        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PropertyEQ) -> str:
2654    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
2655        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
2657    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2658        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
2660    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2661        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
2663    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2664        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
2666    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2667        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
2669    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2670        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
2672    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2673        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
2675    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2676        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2677            return self.sql(
2678                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2679            )
2680        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
2682    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2683        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
2685    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2686        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
2688    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2689        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
2691    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2692        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
2694    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2695        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
2697    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2698        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
2700    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2701        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
2703    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2704        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2706    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2707        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2709    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2710        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def or_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or) -> str:
2712    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2713        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
2715    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2716        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
2718    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2719        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
2721    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2722        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
def log_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Log) -> str:
2724    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
2725        args = list(expression.args.values())
2726        if not self.LOG_BASE_FIRST:
2727            args.reverse()
2728        return self.func("LOG", *args)
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
2730    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2731        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2732        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2733        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2734        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2735        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2737    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2738        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2739        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
2741    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2742        args = []
2743
2744        for key in expression.arg_types:
2745            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2746
2747            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2748                for value in arg_value:
2749                    args.append(value)
2750            elif arg_value is not None:
2751                args.append(arg_value)
2752
2753        if self.normalize_functions:
2754            name = expression.sql_name()
2755        else:
2756            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2757
2758        return self.func(name, *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')') -> str:
2760    def func(
2761        self,
2762        name: str,
2763        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2764        prefix: str = "(",
2765        suffix: str = ")",
2766    ) -> str:
2767        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
2769    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2770        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2771        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2772            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2773        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
def text_width(self, args: Iterable) -> int:
2775    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2776        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
def format_time(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> Optional[str]:
2778    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2779        return format_time(
2780            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2781        )
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[Collection[Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression]]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, skip_first: bool = False, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '') -> str:
2783    def expressions(
2784        self,
2785        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2786        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2787        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2788        flat: bool = False,
2789        indent: bool = True,
2790        skip_first: bool = False,
2791        sep: str = ", ",
2792        prefix: str = "",
2793    ) -> str:
2794        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2795
2796        if not expressions:
2797            return ""
2798
2799        if flat:
2800            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2801
2802        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2803
2804        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2805        pad = " " * self.pad
2806        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2807
2808        result_sqls = []
2809        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2810            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2811            if not sql:
2812                continue
2813
2814            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2815
2816            if self.pretty:
2817                if self.leading_comma:
2818                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2819                else:
2820                    result_sqls.append(
2821                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2822                    )
2823            else:
2824                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2825
2826        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2827        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2829    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2830        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2831        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2832        if flat:
2833            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2834        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
2836    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2837        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2838        if not property_name:
2839            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2840        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def set_operation(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union, op: str) -> str:
2842    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Union, op: str) -> str:
2843        this = self.maybe_comment(self.sql(expression, "this"), comments=expression.comments)
2844        op = self.seg(op)
2845        return self.query_modifiers(
2846            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2847        )
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
2849    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2850        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
2852    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2853        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2855    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2856        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2857        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2858        expressions = (
2859            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2860        )
2861        return f"{this}{expressions}"
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
2863    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2864        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2865        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2866        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
2868    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2869        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
2871    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2872        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2873        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2874        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2875        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2876
2877        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2878        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2879            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2880            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2881                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2882        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2883            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2884                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2885            else:
2886                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2887        else:
2888            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2889        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
2891    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2892        table = expression.this
2893        table_alias = ""
2894
2895        hints = table.args.get("hints")
2896        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
2897            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
2898            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
2899
2900        this = self.sql(table)
2901        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2902        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2903        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
2904
2905        return self.prepend_ctes(
2906            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
2907        )
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
2909    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2910        if expression.args.get("format"):
2911            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2912
2913        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str:
2915    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2916        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2917        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2918        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2919        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2920        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str:
2922    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2923        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2924        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2925        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2926        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2928    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2929        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str:
2931    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2932        return ""
def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2934    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2935        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2936        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2937        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2938        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2939        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue) -> str:
2941    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2942        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2943        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2944
2945        if having:
2946            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2947
2948        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
def querytransform_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryTransform) -> str:
2950    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2951        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2952        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2953        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2954        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2955        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2956        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2957        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2958        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2959        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2960        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2961        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2962        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
2963        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2965    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2966        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
2967        if key_block_size:
2968            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
2969
2970        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2971        if using:
2972            return f"USING {using}"
2973
2974        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
2975        if parser:
2976            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
2977
2978        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2979        if comment:
2980            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
2981
2982        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
2983        if visible is not None:
2984            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
2985
2986        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
2987        if engine_attr:
2988            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
2989
2990        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
2991        if secondary_engine_attr:
2992            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
2993
2994        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
2995        return ""
def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2997    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2998        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2999        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3000        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3001        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3002        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3003        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3004        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3005        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
3006        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3007        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3008        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{schema}{options}"
def nvl2_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Nvl2) -> str:
3010    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3011        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3012            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3013
3014        case = exp.Case().when(
3015            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3016            expression.args["true"],
3017            copy=False,
3018        )
3019        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3020        if else_cond:
3021            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3022
3023        return self.sql(case)
def comprehension_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comprehension) -> str:
3025    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3026        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3027        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3028        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3029        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3030        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3031        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3033    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3034        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def opclass_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Opclass) -> str:
3036    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3037        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def predict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Predict) -> str:
3039    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3040        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3041        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3042        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3043        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3044        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3045        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
def forin_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForIn) -> str:
3047    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3048        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3049        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3050        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
def refresh_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Refresh) -> str:
3052    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3053        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3054        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3055        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
def operator_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Operator) -> str:
3057    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3058        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")