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sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import typing as t
   5from collections import defaultdict
   6from functools import reduce
   7
   8from sqlglot import exp
   9from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  10from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, seq_get
  11from sqlglot.time import format_time
  12from sqlglot.tokens import Tokenizer, TokenType
  13
  14if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  15    from sqlglot._typing import E
  16
  17logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  18
  19
  20class Generator:
  21    """
  22    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  23
  24    Args:
  25        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  26            Default: False.
  27        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  28            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  29            True or 'always': Always quote.
  30            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  31        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  32            Default: False.
  33        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  34            Default: 2.
  35        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  36            Default: 2.
  37        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  38            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  39            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  40            False: Disables function name normalization.
  41        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  42            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  43        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  44            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  45            Default: 3
  46        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  47            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  48            Default: False
  49        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  50            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  51            line length.
  52            Default: 80
  53        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  54            Default: True
  55    """
  56
  57    TRANSFORMS = {
  58        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  59            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  60        ),
  61        exp.TsOrDsAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  62            "TS_OR_DS_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  63        ),
  64        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  65        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  66        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  67        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  68        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  69        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  70        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  71        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  72        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  73        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  74        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  75        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  76        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  77        exp.HeapProperty: lambda self, e: "HEAP",
  78        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  79        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  80        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
  81        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  82        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  83        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  84        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  85        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  86        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  87        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
  88        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  89        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  92        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  95        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  96        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  97        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  98        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
  99        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
 100        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
 101        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 102        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
 103        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 104        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 105        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
 106        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 107        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
 108        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 109    }
 110
 111    # Whether the base comes first
 112    LOG_BASE_FIRST = True
 113
 114    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
 115    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
 116
 117    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 118    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 119
 120    # Always do union distinct or union all
 121    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 122
 123    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 124    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 125
 126    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 127    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 128
 129    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 130    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 131
 132    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 133    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 134
 135    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 136    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 137
 138    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 139    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 140
 141    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 142    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 143
 144    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 145    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 146
 147    # Whether or not limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 148    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 149
 150    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 151    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 152
 153    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 154    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 155
 156    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 157    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 158
 159    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 160    JOIN_HINTS = True
 161
 162    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 163    TABLE_HINTS = True
 164
 165    # Whether or not query hints should be generated
 166    QUERY_HINTS = True
 167
 168    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 169    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 170
 171    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 172    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 173
 174    # Whether or not to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 175    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 176
 177    # Whether or not to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 178    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 179
 180    # Whether or not to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 181    RETURNING_END = True
 182
 183    # Whether or not to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 184    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 185
 186    # Whether or not to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 187    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 188
 189    # Whether or not TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 190    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 191
 192    # Whether or not the NVL2 function is supported
 193    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 194
 195    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 196    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 197
 198    # Whether or not VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 199    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 200    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 201    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 202
 203    # Whether or not the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 204    ALTER_TABLE_ADD_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 205
 206    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 207    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 208
 209    # Whether or not FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 210    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 211
 212    # Whether or not JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 213    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 214
 215    # Whether or not session variables / parameters are supported, e.g. @x in T-SQL
 216    SUPPORTS_PARAMETERS = True
 217
 218    # Whether or not to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 219    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 220
 221    # Whether or not CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 222    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 223
 224    # Whether or not parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 225    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 226
 227    # Whether or not COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 228    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 229
 230    # Whether or not data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 231    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 232
 233    # Whether or not nested CTEs (e.g. defined inside of subqueries) are allowed
 234    SUPPORTS_NESTED_CTES = True
 235
 236    # Whether or not the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 237    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 238
 239    # Whether the behavior of a / b depends on the types of a and b.
 240    # False means a / b is always float division.
 241    # True means a / b is integer division if both a and b are integers.
 242    TYPED_DIVISION = False
 243
 244    # False means 1 / 0 throws an error.
 245    # True means 1 / 0 returns null.
 246    SAFE_DIVISION = False
 247
 248    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 249        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 250        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 251        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 252        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 253        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 254        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 255        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 256        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 257        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 258    }
 259
 260    STAR_MAPPING = {
 261        "except": "EXCEPT",
 262        "replace": "REPLACE",
 263    }
 264
 265    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 266        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 267        "seconds": "second",
 268        "minutes": "minute",
 269        "hours": "hour",
 270        "days": "day",
 271        "weeks": "week",
 272        "months": "month",
 273        "quarters": "quarter",
 274        "years": "year",
 275    }
 276
 277    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 278
 279    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 280
 281    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 282
 283    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 284        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 285        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 286        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 287        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 288        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 289        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 290        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 291        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 292        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 293        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 294        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 295        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 296        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 297        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 298        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 299        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 300        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 301        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 302        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 303        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 304        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 305        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 306        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 307        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 308        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 309        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 310        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 311        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 312        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 313        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 314        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 315        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 316        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 317        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 318        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 319        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 320        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 321        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 322        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 323        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 324        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 325        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 326        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 327        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 328        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 329        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 330        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 331        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 332        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 333        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 334        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 335        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 336        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 337        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 338        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 339        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 340        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 341        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 342        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 343        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 344        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 345        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 346        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 347        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 348    }
 349
 350    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 351    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 352
 353    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 354    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 355        exp.Create,
 356        exp.Delete,
 357        exp.Drop,
 358        exp.From,
 359        exp.Insert,
 360        exp.Join,
 361        exp.Select,
 362        exp.Update,
 363        exp.Where,
 364        exp.With,
 365    )
 366
 367    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 368    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 369        exp.Binary,
 370        exp.Union,
 371    )
 372
 373    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 374    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 375        exp.Column,
 376        exp.Literal,
 377        exp.Neg,
 378        exp.Paren,
 379    )
 380
 381    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 382
 383    # Autofilled
 384    INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 385    INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: t.Dict = {}
 386    INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 387    INDEX_OFFSET = 0
 388    UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
 389    ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
 390    IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
 391    STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
 392    NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = "upper"
 393    NULL_ORDERING = "nulls_are_small"
 394
 395    can_identify: t.Callable[[str, str | bool], bool]
 396
 397    # Delimiters for quotes, identifiers and the corresponding escape characters
 398    QUOTE_START = "'"
 399    QUOTE_END = "'"
 400    IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
 401    IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
 402    TOKENIZER_CLASS = Tokenizer
 403
 404    # Delimiters for bit, hex, byte and raw literals
 405    BIT_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 406    BIT_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 407    HEX_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 408    HEX_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 409    BYTE_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 410    BYTE_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 411
 412    __slots__ = (
 413        "pretty",
 414        "identify",
 415        "normalize",
 416        "pad",
 417        "_indent",
 418        "normalize_functions",
 419        "unsupported_level",
 420        "max_unsupported",
 421        "leading_comma",
 422        "max_text_width",
 423        "comments",
 424        "unsupported_messages",
 425        "_escaped_quote_end",
 426        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 427    )
 428
 429    def __init__(
 430        self,
 431        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 432        identify: str | bool = False,
 433        normalize: bool = False,
 434        pad: int = 2,
 435        indent: int = 2,
 436        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 437        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 438        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 439        leading_comma: bool = False,
 440        max_text_width: int = 80,
 441        comments: bool = True,
 442    ):
 443        import sqlglot
 444
 445        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 446        self.identify = identify
 447        self.normalize = normalize
 448        self.pad = pad
 449        self._indent = indent
 450        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 451        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 452        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 453        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 454        self.comments = comments
 455
 456        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 457        self.normalize_functions = (
 458            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 459        )
 460
 461        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 462        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.QUOTE_END
 463        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 464            self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.IDENTIFIER_END
 465        )
 466
 467    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 468        """
 469        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 470
 471        Args:
 472            expression: The syntax tree.
 473            copy: Whether or not to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 474                it is safer to copy.
 475
 476        Returns:
 477            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 478        """
 479        if copy:
 480            expression = expression.copy()
 481
 482        # Some dialects only support CTEs at the top level expression, so we need to bubble up nested
 483        # CTEs to that level in order to produce a syntactically valid expression. This transformation
 484        # happens here to minimize code duplication, since many expressions support CTEs.
 485        if (
 486            not self.SUPPORTS_NESTED_CTES
 487            and isinstance(expression, exp.Expression)
 488            and not expression.parent
 489            and "with" in expression.arg_types
 490            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 491        ):
 492            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 493
 494            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 495
 496        self.unsupported_messages = []
 497        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 498
 499        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 500            return sql
 501
 502        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 503            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 504                logger.warning(msg)
 505        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 506            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 507
 508        if self.pretty:
 509            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 510        return sql
 511
 512    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 513        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 514            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 515        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 516
 517    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 518        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 519
 520    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 521        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 522
 523    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 524        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 525        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 526        return comment
 527
 528    def maybe_comment(
 529        self,
 530        sql: str,
 531        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 532        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 533    ) -> str:
 534        comments = (
 535            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 536            if self.comments
 537            else None
 538        )
 539
 540        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 541            return sql
 542
 543        comments_sql = " ".join(
 544            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 545        )
 546
 547        if not comments_sql:
 548            return sql
 549
 550        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 551            return (
 552                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 553                if sql[0].isspace()
 554                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 555            )
 556
 557        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 558
 559    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 560        this_sql = self.indent(
 561            self.sql(expression)
 562            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 563            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 564            level=1,
 565            pad=0,
 566        )
 567        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 568
 569    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 570        original = self.identify
 571        self.identify = False
 572        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 573        self.identify = original
 574        return result
 575
 576    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 577        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 578            return name.upper()
 579        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 580            return name.lower()
 581        return name
 582
 583    def indent(
 584        self,
 585        sql: str,
 586        level: int = 0,
 587        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 588        skip_first: bool = False,
 589        skip_last: bool = False,
 590    ) -> str:
 591        if not self.pretty:
 592            return sql
 593
 594        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 595        lines = sql.split("\n")
 596
 597        return "\n".join(
 598            line
 599            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 600            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 601            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 602        )
 603
 604    def sql(
 605        self,
 606        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 607        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 608        comment: bool = True,
 609    ) -> str:
 610        if not expression:
 611            return ""
 612
 613        if isinstance(expression, str):
 614            return expression
 615
 616        if key:
 617            value = expression.args.get(key)
 618            if value:
 619                return self.sql(value)
 620            return ""
 621
 622        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 623
 624        if callable(transform):
 625            sql = transform(self, expression)
 626        elif transform:
 627            sql = transform
 628        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 629            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 630
 631            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 632                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 633            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 634                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 635            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 636                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 637            else:
 638                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 639        else:
 640            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 641
 642        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 643
 644    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 645        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 646        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 647        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 648
 649    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 650        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 651        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 652        options = expression.args.get("options")
 653        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 654        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 655        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 656        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 657        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 658
 659    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 660        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 661            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 662        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 663        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 664
 665    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 666        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 667
 668        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 669            join_mark = ""
 670            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 671
 672        column = ".".join(
 673            self.sql(part)
 674            for part in (
 675                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 676                expression.args.get("db"),
 677                expression.args.get("table"),
 678                expression.args.get("this"),
 679            )
 680            if part
 681        )
 682
 683        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 684
 685    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 686        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 687        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 688        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 689        return f"{position}{this}"
 690
 691    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 692        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 693        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 694        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 695        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 696        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 697        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 698        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 699        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 700
 701        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 702            kind = ""
 703
 704        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 705
 706    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 707        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 708        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 709        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 710
 711    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 712        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 713        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 714            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 715        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 716            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 717        else:
 718            persisted = ""
 719        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 720
 721    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 722        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 723
 724    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 725        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 726            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 727        else:
 728            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 729
 730        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 731
 732    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 733        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 734    ) -> str:
 735        this = ""
 736        if expression.this is not None:
 737            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 738            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 739
 740        start = expression.args.get("start")
 741        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 742        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 743        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 744        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 745        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 746        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 747        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 748        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 749        cycle_sql = ""
 750
 751        if cycle is not None:
 752            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 753            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 754
 755        sequence_opts = ""
 756        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 757            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 758            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 759
 760        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 761        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 762
 763        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 764
 765    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 766        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 767    ) -> str:
 768        start = "START" if expression.args["start"] else "END"
 769        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 770        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 771
 772    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 773        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 774    ) -> str:
 775        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 776
 777    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 778        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 779
 780    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 781        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 782        if desc is not None:
 783            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 784        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 785
 786    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 787        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 788        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 789        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 790        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 791        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}"
 792
 793    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 794        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 795
 796    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 797        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 798        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 799        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 800
 801        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 802
 803        properties_sql = ""
 804        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 805            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 806        ):
 807            properties_sql = self.sql(
 808                exp.Properties(
 809                    expressions=[
 810                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 811                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 812                    ]
 813                )
 814            )
 815
 816        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 817        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 818
 819        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 820        if expression_sql:
 821            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 822
 823            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 824                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 825                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 826                        exp.Properties(
 827                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 828                        ),
 829                        wrapped=False,
 830                    )
 831                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 832                else:
 833                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 834
 835        postindex_props_sql = ""
 836        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 837            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 838                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 839                wrapped=False,
 840                prefix=" ",
 841            )
 842
 843        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 844        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 845        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 846
 847        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 848        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 849
 850        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 851        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 852            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 853                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 854                sep=" ",
 855                prefix=" ",
 856                wrapped=False,
 857            )
 858
 859        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 860
 861        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 862        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 863            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 864                exp.Properties(
 865                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 866                ),
 867                sep=" ",
 868                prefix=" ",
 869                wrapped=False,
 870            )
 871
 872        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 873        no_schema_binding = (
 874            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 875        )
 876
 877        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 878        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 879
 880        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 881        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 882
 883    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 884        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 885        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
 886        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
 887        this = f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
 888        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 889
 890        if when:
 891            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 892            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 893            return f"{this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 894
 895        return this
 896
 897    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 898        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 899
 900    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 901        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 902        if with_:
 903            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 904        return sql
 905
 906    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 907        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 908        recursive = (
 909            "RECURSIVE "
 910            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
 911            else ""
 912        )
 913
 914        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 915
 916    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 917        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 918        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 919
 920    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 921        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 922        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 923        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 924
 925        if not alias and not self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
 926            alias = "_t"
 927
 928        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 929
 930    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 931        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 932        if self.BIT_START:
 933            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
 934        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 935
 936    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 937        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 938        if self.HEX_START:
 939            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
 940        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 941
 942    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 943        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 944        if self.BYTE_START:
 945            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
 946        return this
 947
 948    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 949        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
 950        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
 951
 952    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
 953        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 954        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 955        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
 956        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 957
 958    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 959        type_value = expression.this
 960
 961        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
 962            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 963        else:
 964            type_sql = (
 965                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 966                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
 967                else type_value
 968            )
 969
 970        nested = ""
 971        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 972        values = ""
 973
 974        if interior:
 975            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 976                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 977                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 978                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 979                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 980                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 981            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
 982                nested = f" {interior}"
 983            else:
 984                nested = f"({interior})"
 985
 986        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 987        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
 988            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
 989            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
 990        ):
 991            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
 992
 993        return type_sql
 994
 995    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 996        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 997        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 998        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 999        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1000
1001    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1002        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1003        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1004        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1005        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1006        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1007        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1008        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1009        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1010        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1011        if self.RETURNING_END:
1012            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1013        else:
1014            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1015        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1016
1017    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1018        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1019        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1020        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1021        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1022        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1023        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1024        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1025        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1026        return (
1027            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1028        )
1029
1030    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1031        return self.prepend_ctes(
1032            expression,
1033            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
1034        )
1035
1036    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1037        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1038
1039    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1040        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1041        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
1042        count = expression.args.get("count")
1043        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1044        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1045            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1046        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1047        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1048
1049    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1050        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1051            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1052            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1053            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1054
1055        agg = expression.this
1056        agg_arg = agg.this
1057        cond = expression.expression.this
1058        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1059        return self.sql(agg)
1060
1061    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1062        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1063            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1064            return ""
1065
1066        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1067
1068    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1069        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1070        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1071        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1072        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1073        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1074        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1075        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1076        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1077        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1078        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1079        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1080        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1081        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1082        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1083        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1084        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}{where}"
1085
1086    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1087        text = expression.name
1088        lower = text.lower()
1089        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1090        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1091        if (
1092            expression.quoted
1093            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1094            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1095            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1096        ):
1097            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1098        return text
1099
1100    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1101        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1102        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1103        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1104        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1105        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1106
1107    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1108        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1109        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1110
1111    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1112        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1113
1114    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1115        root_properties = []
1116        with_properties = []
1117
1118        for p in expression.expressions:
1119            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1120            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1121                with_properties.append(p)
1122            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1123                root_properties.append(p)
1124
1125        return self.root_properties(
1126            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1127        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1128
1129    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1130        if properties.expressions:
1131            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1132        return ""
1133
1134    def properties(
1135        self,
1136        properties: exp.Properties,
1137        prefix: str = "",
1138        sep: str = ", ",
1139        suffix: str = "",
1140        wrapped: bool = True,
1141    ) -> str:
1142        if properties.expressions:
1143            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1144            if expressions:
1145                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1146                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1147        return ""
1148
1149    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1150        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1151
1152    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1153        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1154        for p in properties.expressions:
1155            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1156            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1157                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1158            else:
1159                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1160
1161        return properties_locs
1162
1163    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1164        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1165            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1166        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1167
1168    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1169        property_cls = expression.__class__
1170        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1171            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1172
1173        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1174        if not property_name:
1175            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1176
1177        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1178
1179    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1180        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1181        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1182        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1183
1184    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1185        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1186        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1187        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1188
1189    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1190        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1191        local = expression.args.get("local")
1192        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1193        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1194        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1195        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1196        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1197
1198    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1199        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1200        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1201        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1202
1203    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1204        if expression.args.get("default"):
1205            property = "DEFAULT"
1206        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1207            property = "ON"
1208        else:
1209            property = "OFF"
1210        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1211
1212    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1213        if expression.args.get("no"):
1214            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1215        if expression.args.get("default"):
1216            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1217
1218        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1219        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1220
1221    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1222        default = expression.args.get("default")
1223        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1224        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1225        if default or minimum or maximum:
1226            if default:
1227                prop = "DEFAULT"
1228            elif minimum:
1229                prop = "MINIMUM"
1230            else:
1231                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1232            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1233        units = expression.args.get("units")
1234        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1235        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1236
1237    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1238        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1239        always = expression.args.get("always")
1240        default = expression.args.get("default")
1241        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1242        never = expression.args.get("never")
1243
1244        if autotemp is not None:
1245            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1246        elif always:
1247            prop = "ALWAYS"
1248        elif default:
1249            prop = "DEFAULT"
1250        elif manual:
1251            prop = "MANUAL"
1252        elif never:
1253            prop = "NEVER"
1254        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1255
1256    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1257        no = expression.args.get("no")
1258        no = " NO" if no else ""
1259        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1260        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1261
1262        for_ = ""
1263        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1264            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1265        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1266            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1267        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1268            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1269        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1270
1271    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1272        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1273            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1274        if expression.this:
1275            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1276            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1277            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1278
1279        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1280        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1281        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1282
1283    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1284        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1285
1286        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1287        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1288            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1289        else:
1290            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1291
1292        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1293
1294    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1295        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1296        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1297        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1298        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1299        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1300        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1301        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1302
1303    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1304        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1305        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1306        statistics_sql = ""
1307        if statistics is not None:
1308            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1309        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1310
1311    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1312        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
1313
1314        if expression.this:
1315            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
1316            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
1317
1318            if expression.expression:
1319                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1320                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
1321
1322            sql = f"{sql})"
1323
1324        return f"{sql})"
1325
1326    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1327        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1328
1329        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1330            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1331        else:
1332            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1333
1334        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1335        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1336        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1337
1338        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1339
1340        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1341        partition_sql = (
1342            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1343        )
1344        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1345        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1346        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1347        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1348        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1349        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1350
1351        if self.RETURNING_END:
1352            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1353        else:
1354            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1355
1356        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1357        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1358
1359    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1360        return self.prepend_ctes(
1361            expression,
1362            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1363        )
1364
1365    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1366        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1367
1368    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1369        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1370
1371    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1372        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1373        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1374        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1375        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1376        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1377
1378    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1379        return expression.name.upper()
1380
1381    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1382        return expression.name.upper()
1383
1384    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1385        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1386        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1387        if constraint:
1388            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1389        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1390        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1391        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1392        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1393        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1394        if expressions:
1395            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1396        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1397
1398    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1399        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1400
1401    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1402        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1403        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1404        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1405        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1406        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1407        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1408        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1409        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1410        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1411        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1412        null = expression.args.get("null")
1413        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1414        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1415
1416    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1417        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1418
1419    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1420        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1421        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1422        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1423        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1424
1425    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1426        table = ".".join(
1427            part
1428            for part in [
1429                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1430                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1431                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1432            ]
1433            if part
1434        )
1435
1436        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1437        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1438        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1439        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1440        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1441        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1442        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1443        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1444        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1445        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1446
1447        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1448        if file_format:
1449            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1450            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1451            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1452
1453        index = self.sql(expression, "index")
1454        index = f" AT {index}" if index else ""
1455
1456        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1457        if ordinality:
1458            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1459            alias = ""
1460
1461        return f"{table}{version}{file_format}{alias}{index}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1462
1463    def tablesample_sql(
1464        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1465    ) -> str:
1466        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1467            table = expression.this.copy()
1468            table.set("alias", None)
1469            this = self.sql(table)
1470            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1471        else:
1472            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1473            alias = ""
1474
1475        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1476        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1477        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1478        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1479        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1480        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1481        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1482        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1483        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1484        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1485        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1486
1487        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1488        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1489            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1490
1491        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1492        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1493        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1494
1495        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}"
1496        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1497            expr = f"({expr})"
1498
1499        return f"{this} {kind} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1500
1501    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1502        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1503
1504        if expression.this:
1505            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1506            if not expressions:
1507                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1508
1509            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1510            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1511            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1512            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1513            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1514
1515        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1516        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1517        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1518        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1519        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1520        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1521        if include_nulls is not None:
1522            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1523        else:
1524            nulls = ""
1525        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1526
1527    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1528        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1529        kind = expression.text("kind")
1530        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1531        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1532
1533    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1534        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1535
1536    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1537        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1538        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1539        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1540        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1541        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1542        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1543        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1544        if self.RETURNING_END:
1545            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1546        else:
1547            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1548        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1549        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1550
1551    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1552        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1553        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1554            args = self.expressions(expression)
1555            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1556            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1557            values = (
1558                f"({values})"
1559                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1560                else values
1561            )
1562            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1563
1564        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1565        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1566        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1567
1568        selects: t.List[exp.Subqueryable] = []
1569
1570        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1571            row = tup.expressions
1572
1573            if i == 0 and column_names:
1574                row = [
1575                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1576                ]
1577
1578            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1579
1580        if self.pretty:
1581            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1582            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1583            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1584            subqueryable = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1585            return self.subquery_sql(
1586                subqueryable.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False)
1587            )
1588
1589        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1590        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1591        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1592
1593    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1594        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1595
1596    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1597        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1598        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1599        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1600
1601    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1602        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1603
1604    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1605        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1606
1607        if expression.args.get("all"):
1608            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1609
1610        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1611        grouping_sets = (
1612            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1613        )
1614
1615        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1616        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1617            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1618        else:
1619            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1620            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1621
1622        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1623        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1624            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1625        else:
1626            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1627            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1628
1629        groupings = csv(
1630            grouping_sets,
1631            cube_sql,
1632            rollup_sql,
1633            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1634            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1635        )
1636
1637        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1638            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1639
1640        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1641
1642    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1643        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1644        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1645
1646    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1647        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1648        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1649        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1650        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY {connect}")
1651        return start + connect
1652
1653    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1654        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1655
1656    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1657        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1658            side = None
1659        else:
1660            side = expression.side
1661
1662        op_sql = " ".join(
1663            op
1664            for op in (
1665                expression.method,
1666                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1667                side,
1668                expression.kind,
1669                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1670            )
1671            if op
1672        )
1673        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1674        using = expression.args.get("using")
1675
1676        if not on_sql and using:
1677            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1678
1679        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1680
1681        if on_sql:
1682            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1683            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1684            if using:
1685                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1686            else:
1687                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1688        elif not op_sql:
1689            return f", {this_sql}"
1690
1691        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1692        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1693
1694    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1695        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1696        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1697        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1698
1699    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1700        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1701
1702        if expression.args.get("view"):
1703            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1704            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1705            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1706            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1707            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1708            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1709
1710        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1711        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1712        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1713
1714    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1715        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1716        args = ", ".join(
1717            self.sql(self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e)
1718            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1719            if e
1720        )
1721        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args}"
1722
1723    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1724        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1725        expression = expression.expression
1726        expression = (
1727            self._simplify_unless_literal(expression) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else expression
1728        )
1729        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression)}"
1730
1731    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1732        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1733        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1734        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1735        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1736        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1737        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1738        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1739        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1740
1741    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1742        expressions = (
1743            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1744        )
1745        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1746        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1747
1748    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1749        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1750
1751    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1752        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1753            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1754            return ""
1755
1756        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1757        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1758        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1759        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1760
1761        if wait is not None:
1762            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1763                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1764            else:
1765                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1766
1767        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1768
1769    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1770        text = expression.this or ""
1771        if expression.is_string:
1772            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1773        return text
1774
1775    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1776        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1777        if self.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES:
1778            text = "".join(self.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES.get(ch, ch) for ch in text)
1779        elif self.pretty:
1780            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1781        return text
1782
1783    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1784        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1785        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1786        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1787        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1788        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1789        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1790        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1791        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1792        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1793        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1794        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1795
1796    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1797        return "NULL"
1798
1799    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1800        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1801
1802    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1803        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1804        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1805        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1806
1807    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1808        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1809
1810    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1811        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1812
1813    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1814        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1815
1816    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1817        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1818        asc = not desc
1819
1820        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1821        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1822        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1823        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1824        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1825
1826        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
1827        nulls_sort_change = ""
1828        if nulls_first and (
1829            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1830        ):
1831            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1832        elif (
1833            nulls_last
1834            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1835            and not nulls_are_last
1836        ):
1837            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1838
1839        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1840            self.unsupported(
1841                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1842            )
1843            nulls_sort_change = ""
1844
1845        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1846
1847    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1848        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1849        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1850        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1851        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1852        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1853        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1854        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1855        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1856        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1857        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1858        definition_sqls = [
1859            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1860            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1861        ]
1862        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1863        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1864        body = "".join(
1865            (
1866                partition,
1867                order,
1868                measures,
1869                rows,
1870                after,
1871                pattern,
1872                define,
1873            )
1874        )
1875        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1876        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1877        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1878
1879    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1880        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1881
1882        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1883        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1884
1885        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1886            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1887        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1888            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1889
1890        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1891
1892        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1893            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1894            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1895            else []
1896        )
1897
1898        return csv(
1899            *sqls,
1900            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1901            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
1902            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1903            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1904            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1905            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1906            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1907            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1908            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1909            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1910            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1911            sep="",
1912        )
1913
1914    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1915        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1916    ) -> t.List[str]:
1917        return [
1918            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1919            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1920        ]
1921
1922    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1923        return [
1924            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1925            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1926            if expression.args.get("windows")
1927            else "",
1928            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1929            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1930            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1931        ]
1932
1933    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1934        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1935        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1936        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1937
1938    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1939        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1940        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1941        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1942        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1943        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1944        top = (
1945            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1946            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1947            else ""
1948        )
1949
1950        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1951
1952        if kind:
1953            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1954                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1955            else:
1956                if kind == "STRUCT":
1957                    expressions = self.expressions(
1958                        sqls=[
1959                            self.sql(
1960                                exp.Struct(
1961                                    expressions=[
1962                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1963                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1964                                        )
1965                                        for e in expression.expressions
1966                                    ]
1967                                )
1968                            )
1969                        ]
1970                    )
1971                kind = ""
1972
1973        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1974        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1975            expression,
1976            f"SELECT{top}{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1977            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1978            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1979        )
1980        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1981
1982    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1983        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1984        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1985        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
1986
1987    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1988        if expression.expressions:
1989            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1990        return ""
1991
1992    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1993        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1994        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1995        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1996        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1997        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
1998
1999    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2000        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2001        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}" if self.SUPPORTS_PARAMETERS else this
2002
2003    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2004        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2005        kind = expression.text("kind")
2006        if kind:
2007            kind = f"{kind}."
2008        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2009
2010    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2011        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
2012
2013    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2014        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2015        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2016
2017        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2018        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2019
2020        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2021        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2022
2023    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2024        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2025        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2026
2027    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2028        return self.prepend_ctes(
2029            expression,
2030            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
2031        )
2032
2033    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2034        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2035        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2036        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2037        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2038
2039    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2040        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2041
2042        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2043        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2044
2045        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2046            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2047                alias.append("columns", offset)
2048
2049        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2050            columns = alias.columns
2051            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2052        else:
2053            alias = self.sql(alias)
2054
2055        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2056        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2057            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2058        else:
2059            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2060                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2061            elif offset:
2062                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2063            else:
2064                suffix = alias
2065
2066        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2067
2068    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2069        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2070        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2071
2072    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2073        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2074        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2075        order = expression.args.get("order")
2076        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2077        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2078        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2079        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2080
2081        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2082
2083        first = expression.args.get("first")
2084        if first is None:
2085            first = ""
2086        else:
2087            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2088
2089        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2090            return f"{this} {alias}"
2091
2092        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2093        return f"{this} ({args})"
2094
2095    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2096        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2097        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2098
2099    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2100        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2101        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2102        end = (
2103            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2104            or "CURRENT ROW"
2105        )
2106        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2107
2108    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2109        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2110        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2111        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2112
2113    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2114        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2115        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2116        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2117        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2118
2119    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2120        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
2121        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2122
2123        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2124
2125    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
2126        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
2127
2128    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2129        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2130
2131    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2132        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2133        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
2134            this = self.wrap(this)
2135        return f"ANY {this}"
2136
2137    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2138        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2139
2140    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2141        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2142        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2143
2144        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2145            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2146            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2147
2148        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2149
2150        if default:
2151            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2152
2153        statements.append("END")
2154
2155        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
2156            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2157
2158        return " ".join(statements)
2159
2160    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2161        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2162        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2163        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2164
2165    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2166        order = expression.args.get("order")
2167        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2168        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2169
2170    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2171        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2172        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2173        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2174
2175    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2176        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2177
2178        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2179            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2180        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2181            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2182        else:
2183            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2184
2185    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
2186        expressions = expression.expressions
2187        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2188            expressions = [exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions]
2189        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2190
2191    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2192        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2193        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2194
2195    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2196        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2197        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2198        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2199        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2200        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2201        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2202        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2203        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2204
2205    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2206        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2207        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2208        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2209        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2210
2211    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2212        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2213
2214    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2215        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2216        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2217        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2218
2219    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2220        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2221
2222    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2223        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2224
2225    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
2226        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2227        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2228        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2229        if unique_keys is not None:
2230            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2231        else:
2232            unique_keys = ""
2233        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2234        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2235        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2236        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2237        return self.func(
2238            "JSON_OBJECT",
2239            *expression.expressions,
2240            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2241        )
2242
2243    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2244        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2245        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2246        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2247        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2248        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2249        return self.func(
2250            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2251        )
2252
2253    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2254        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2255        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2256        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2257        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2258        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2259        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2260        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2261        return self.func(
2262            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2263            this,
2264            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2265        )
2266
2267    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2268        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2269        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2270        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2271
2272        if nested_schema:
2273            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2274
2275        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2276        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2277        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2278        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2279
2280    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2281        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2282
2283    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2284        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2285        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2286        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2287        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2288        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2289        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2290        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2291        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2292        return self.func(
2293            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2294        )
2295
2296    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2297        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2298        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2299        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2300        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2301        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2302        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2303
2304    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2305        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2306        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2307        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2308        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2309        with_ = (
2310            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2311            if expressions
2312            else ""
2313        )
2314        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2315
2316    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2317        query = expression.args.get("query")
2318        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2319        field = expression.args.get("field")
2320        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2321
2322        if query:
2323            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2324        elif unnest:
2325            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2326        elif field:
2327            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2328        else:
2329            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2330
2331        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2332
2333    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2334        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2335
2336    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2337        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2338        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2339            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
2340        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2341
2342        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2343            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2344            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2345
2346        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2347        if this:
2348            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2349            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2350
2351        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2352
2353    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2354        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2355
2356    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2357        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2358        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2359        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2360        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2361        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2362        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2363
2364    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2365        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
2366
2367    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2368        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2369            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2370        else:
2371            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2372            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2373
2374        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2375
2376    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2377        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2378        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2379        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2380        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2381
2382    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2383        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2384
2385    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2386        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2387        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2388        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2389
2390    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2391        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2392
2393    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2394        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2395        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2396        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2397
2398    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2399        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2400
2401    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2402        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
2403
2404    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2405        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
2406
2407    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2408        if not self.pretty:
2409            return self.binary(expression, op)
2410
2411        sqls = tuple(
2412            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2413            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2414        )
2415
2416        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2417        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
2418
2419    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2420        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2421
2422    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2423        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2424
2425    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2426        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2427
2428    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2429        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2430
2431    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2432        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2433
2434    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2435        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2436
2437    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2438        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2439        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2440        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2441        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2442        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql})"
2443
2444    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2445        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2446        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2447
2448    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2449        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2450            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2451        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2452
2453    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2454        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2455
2456    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2457        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2458        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2459        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2460        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2461        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2462
2463    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2464        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2465        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2466        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2467        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2468        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2469        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2470        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2471        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2472        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2473
2474    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2475        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2476        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2477        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2478        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2479
2480        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2481            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2482
2483        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2484
2485    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2486        return "BEGIN"
2487
2488    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2489        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2490        if chain is not None:
2491            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2492
2493        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2494
2495    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2496        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2497        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2498        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2499
2500    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2501        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2502
2503        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2504        if dtype:
2505            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2506            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2507            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2508            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2509            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2510
2511        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2512        if default:
2513            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2514
2515        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2516            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2517
2518        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2519
2520    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2521        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2522            # Remove db from tables
2523            expression = expression.transform(
2524                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2525            )
2526        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2527        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2528
2529    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2530        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2531
2532        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2533            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
2534        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2535            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2536        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2537            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2538        else:
2539            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2540
2541        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2542        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2543        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2544
2545    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2546        if self.ALTER_TABLE_ADD_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
2547            return self.expressions(
2548                expression,
2549                key="actions",
2550                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
2551            )
2552        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
2553
2554    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2555        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2556        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2557        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2558
2559    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2560        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2561        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2562        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2563
2564        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2565        if enforced is not None:
2566            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2567
2568        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2569
2570    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2571        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2572        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2573
2574        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2575        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2576        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2577
2578    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2579        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2580
2581    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2582        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2583
2584    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2585        return self.sql(
2586            exp.Cast(
2587                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2588                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2589            )
2590        )
2591
2592    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2593        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2594
2595    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2596        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2597            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2598        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
2599
2600    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2601        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
2602
2603        if not self.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
2604            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
2605
2606        if self.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
2607            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.FLOAT_TYPES) and not r.is_type(
2608                *exp.DataType.FLOAT_TYPES
2609            ):
2610                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
2611
2612        elif not self.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
2613            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
2614                return self.sql(
2615                    exp.cast(
2616                        l / r,
2617                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
2618                    )
2619                )
2620
2621        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2622
2623    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2624        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2625
2626    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2627        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2628
2629    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2630        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2631
2632    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2633        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2634
2635    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
2636        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2637
2638    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2639        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2640
2641    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2642        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2643
2644    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2645        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2646
2647    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2648        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2649
2650    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2651        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2652
2653    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2654        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2655
2656    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2657        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2658            return self.sql(
2659                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2660            )
2661        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2662
2663    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2664        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2665
2666    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2667        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2668
2669    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2670        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2671
2672    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2673        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2674
2675    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2676        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2677
2678    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2679        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2680
2681    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2682        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2683
2684    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2685        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2686
2687    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2688        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2689
2690    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2691        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2692
2693    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2694        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2695
2696    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2697        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2698
2699    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2700        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2701
2702    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2703        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
2704
2705    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
2706        args = list(expression.args.values())
2707        if not self.LOG_BASE_FIRST:
2708            args.reverse()
2709        return self.func("LOG", *args)
2710
2711    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2712        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2713        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2714        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2715        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2716        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2717
2718    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2719        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2720        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2721
2722    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2723        args = []
2724
2725        for key in expression.arg_types:
2726            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2727
2728            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2729                for value in arg_value:
2730                    args.append(value)
2731            elif arg_value is not None:
2732                args.append(arg_value)
2733
2734        if self.normalize_functions:
2735            name = expression.sql_name()
2736        else:
2737            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2738
2739        return self.func(name, *args)
2740
2741    def func(
2742        self,
2743        name: str,
2744        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2745        prefix: str = "(",
2746        suffix: str = ")",
2747    ) -> str:
2748        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2749
2750    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2751        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2752        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2753            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2754        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2755
2756    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2757        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2758
2759    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2760        return format_time(
2761            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2762        )
2763
2764    def expressions(
2765        self,
2766        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2767        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2768        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2769        flat: bool = False,
2770        indent: bool = True,
2771        skip_first: bool = False,
2772        sep: str = ", ",
2773        prefix: str = "",
2774    ) -> str:
2775        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2776
2777        if not expressions:
2778            return ""
2779
2780        if flat:
2781            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2782
2783        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2784
2785        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2786        pad = " " * self.pad
2787        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2788
2789        result_sqls = []
2790        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2791            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2792            if not sql:
2793                continue
2794
2795            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2796
2797            if self.pretty:
2798                if self.leading_comma:
2799                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2800                else:
2801                    result_sqls.append(
2802                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2803                    )
2804            else:
2805                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2806
2807        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2808        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
2809
2810    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2811        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2812        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2813        if flat:
2814            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2815        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2816
2817    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2818        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2819        if not property_name:
2820            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2821        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2822
2823    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Union, op: str) -> str:
2824        this = self.maybe_comment(self.sql(expression, "this"), comments=expression.comments)
2825        op = self.seg(op)
2826        return self.query_modifiers(
2827            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2828        )
2829
2830    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2831        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2832
2833    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2834        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2835
2836    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2837        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2838        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2839        expressions = (
2840            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2841        )
2842        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2843
2844    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2845        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2846        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2847        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2848
2849    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2850        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2851
2852    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2853        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2854        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2855        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2856        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2857
2858        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2859        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2860            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2861            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2862                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2863        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2864            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2865                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2866            else:
2867                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2868        else:
2869            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2870        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2871
2872    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2873        table = expression.this
2874        table_alias = ""
2875
2876        hints = table.args.get("hints")
2877        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
2878            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
2879            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
2880
2881        this = self.sql(table)
2882        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2883        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2884        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
2885
2886        return self.prepend_ctes(
2887            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
2888        )
2889
2890    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2891        if expression.args.get("format"):
2892            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2893
2894        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2895
2896    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2897        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2898        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2899        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2900        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2901        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2902
2903    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2904        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2905        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2906        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2907        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2908
2909    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2910        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
2911
2912    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2913        return ""
2914
2915    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2916        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2917        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2918        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2919        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2920        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
2921
2922    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2923        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2924        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2925
2926        if having:
2927            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2928
2929        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
2930
2931    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2932        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2933        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2934        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2935        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2936        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2937        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2938        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2939        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2940        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2941        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2942        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2943        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
2944        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
2945
2946    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2947        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
2948        if key_block_size:
2949            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
2950
2951        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2952        if using:
2953            return f"USING {using}"
2954
2955        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
2956        if parser:
2957            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
2958
2959        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2960        if comment:
2961            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
2962
2963        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
2964        if visible is not None:
2965            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
2966
2967        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
2968        if engine_attr:
2969            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
2970
2971        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
2972        if secondary_engine_attr:
2973            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
2974
2975        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
2976        return ""
2977
2978    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2979        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2980        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
2981        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2982        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2983        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
2984        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
2985        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2986        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
2987        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
2988        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2989        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{schema}{options}"
2990
2991    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
2992        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
2993            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2994
2995        case = exp.Case().when(
2996            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
2997            expression.args["true"],
2998            copy=False,
2999        )
3000        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3001        if else_cond:
3002            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3003
3004        return self.sql(case)
3005
3006    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3007        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3008        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3009        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3010        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3011        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3012        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3013
3014    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3015        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3016
3017    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3018        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3019
3020    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3021        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3022        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3023        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3024        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3025        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3026        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3027
3028    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3029        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3030        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3031        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3032
3033    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3034        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3035            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3036
3037            expression = simplify(expression)
3038
3039        return expression
logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
class Generator:
  21class Generator:
  22    """
  23    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  24
  25    Args:
  26        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  27            Default: False.
  28        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  29            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  30            True or 'always': Always quote.
  31            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  32        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  33            Default: False.
  34        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  35            Default: 2.
  36        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  37            Default: 2.
  38        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  39            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  40            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  41            False: Disables function name normalization.
  42        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  43            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  44        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  45            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  46            Default: 3
  47        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  48            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  49            Default: False
  50        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  51            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  52            line length.
  53            Default: 80
  54        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  55            Default: True
  56    """
  57
  58    TRANSFORMS = {
  59        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  60            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  61        ),
  62        exp.TsOrDsAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  63            "TS_OR_DS_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  64        ),
  65        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  66        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  67        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  68        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  69        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  70        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  71        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  72        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  73        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  74        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  75        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  76        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  77        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  78        exp.HeapProperty: lambda self, e: "HEAP",
  79        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  80        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  81        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
  82        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  83        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  84        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  85        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  86        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  87        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  88        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
  89        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  90        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  92        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  95        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  96        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  97        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  98        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  99        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 100        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
 101        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
 102        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 103        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
 104        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 105        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 106        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
 107        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 108        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
 109        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 110    }
 111
 112    # Whether the base comes first
 113    LOG_BASE_FIRST = True
 114
 115    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
 116    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
 117
 118    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 119    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 120
 121    # Always do union distinct or union all
 122    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 123
 124    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 125    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 126
 127    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 128    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 129
 130    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 131    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 132
 133    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 134    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 135
 136    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 137    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 138
 139    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 140    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 141
 142    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 143    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 144
 145    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 146    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 147
 148    # Whether or not limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 149    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 150
 151    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 152    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 153
 154    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 155    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 156
 157    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 158    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 159
 160    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 161    JOIN_HINTS = True
 162
 163    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 164    TABLE_HINTS = True
 165
 166    # Whether or not query hints should be generated
 167    QUERY_HINTS = True
 168
 169    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 170    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 171
 172    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 173    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 174
 175    # Whether or not to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 176    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 177
 178    # Whether or not to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 179    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 180
 181    # Whether or not to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 182    RETURNING_END = True
 183
 184    # Whether or not to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 185    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 186
 187    # Whether or not to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 188    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 189
 190    # Whether or not TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 191    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 192
 193    # Whether or not the NVL2 function is supported
 194    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 195
 196    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 197    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 198
 199    # Whether or not VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 200    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 201    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 202    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 203
 204    # Whether or not the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 205    ALTER_TABLE_ADD_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 206
 207    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 208    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 209
 210    # Whether or not FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 211    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 212
 213    # Whether or not JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 214    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 215
 216    # Whether or not session variables / parameters are supported, e.g. @x in T-SQL
 217    SUPPORTS_PARAMETERS = True
 218
 219    # Whether or not to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 220    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 221
 222    # Whether or not CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 223    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 224
 225    # Whether or not parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 226    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 227
 228    # Whether or not COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 229    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 230
 231    # Whether or not data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 232    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 233
 234    # Whether or not nested CTEs (e.g. defined inside of subqueries) are allowed
 235    SUPPORTS_NESTED_CTES = True
 236
 237    # Whether or not the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 238    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 239
 240    # Whether the behavior of a / b depends on the types of a and b.
 241    # False means a / b is always float division.
 242    # True means a / b is integer division if both a and b are integers.
 243    TYPED_DIVISION = False
 244
 245    # False means 1 / 0 throws an error.
 246    # True means 1 / 0 returns null.
 247    SAFE_DIVISION = False
 248
 249    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 250        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 251        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 252        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 253        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 254        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 255        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 256        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 257        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 258        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 259    }
 260
 261    STAR_MAPPING = {
 262        "except": "EXCEPT",
 263        "replace": "REPLACE",
 264    }
 265
 266    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 267        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 268        "seconds": "second",
 269        "minutes": "minute",
 270        "hours": "hour",
 271        "days": "day",
 272        "weeks": "week",
 273        "months": "month",
 274        "quarters": "quarter",
 275        "years": "year",
 276    }
 277
 278    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 279
 280    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 281
 282    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 283
 284    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 285        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 286        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 287        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 288        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 289        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 290        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 291        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 292        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 293        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 294        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 295        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 296        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 297        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 298        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 299        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 300        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 301        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 302        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 303        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 304        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 305        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 306        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 307        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 308        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 309        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 310        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 311        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 312        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 313        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 314        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 315        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 316        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 317        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 318        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 319        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 320        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 321        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 322        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 323        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 324        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 325        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 326        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 327        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 328        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 329        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 330        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 331        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 332        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 333        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 334        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 335        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 336        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 337        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 338        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 339        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 340        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 341        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 342        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 343        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 344        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 345        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 346        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 347        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 348        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 349    }
 350
 351    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 352    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 353
 354    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 355    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 356        exp.Create,
 357        exp.Delete,
 358        exp.Drop,
 359        exp.From,
 360        exp.Insert,
 361        exp.Join,
 362        exp.Select,
 363        exp.Update,
 364        exp.Where,
 365        exp.With,
 366    )
 367
 368    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 369    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 370        exp.Binary,
 371        exp.Union,
 372    )
 373
 374    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 375    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 376        exp.Column,
 377        exp.Literal,
 378        exp.Neg,
 379        exp.Paren,
 380    )
 381
 382    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 383
 384    # Autofilled
 385    INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 386    INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: t.Dict = {}
 387    INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 388    INDEX_OFFSET = 0
 389    UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
 390    ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
 391    IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
 392    STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
 393    NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = "upper"
 394    NULL_ORDERING = "nulls_are_small"
 395
 396    can_identify: t.Callable[[str, str | bool], bool]
 397
 398    # Delimiters for quotes, identifiers and the corresponding escape characters
 399    QUOTE_START = "'"
 400    QUOTE_END = "'"
 401    IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
 402    IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
 403    TOKENIZER_CLASS = Tokenizer
 404
 405    # Delimiters for bit, hex, byte and raw literals
 406    BIT_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 407    BIT_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 408    HEX_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 409    HEX_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 410    BYTE_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 411    BYTE_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 412
 413    __slots__ = (
 414        "pretty",
 415        "identify",
 416        "normalize",
 417        "pad",
 418        "_indent",
 419        "normalize_functions",
 420        "unsupported_level",
 421        "max_unsupported",
 422        "leading_comma",
 423        "max_text_width",
 424        "comments",
 425        "unsupported_messages",
 426        "_escaped_quote_end",
 427        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 428    )
 429
 430    def __init__(
 431        self,
 432        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 433        identify: str | bool = False,
 434        normalize: bool = False,
 435        pad: int = 2,
 436        indent: int = 2,
 437        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 438        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 439        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 440        leading_comma: bool = False,
 441        max_text_width: int = 80,
 442        comments: bool = True,
 443    ):
 444        import sqlglot
 445
 446        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 447        self.identify = identify
 448        self.normalize = normalize
 449        self.pad = pad
 450        self._indent = indent
 451        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 452        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 453        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 454        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 455        self.comments = comments
 456
 457        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 458        self.normalize_functions = (
 459            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 460        )
 461
 462        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 463        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.QUOTE_END
 464        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 465            self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.IDENTIFIER_END
 466        )
 467
 468    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 469        """
 470        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 471
 472        Args:
 473            expression: The syntax tree.
 474            copy: Whether or not to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 475                it is safer to copy.
 476
 477        Returns:
 478            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 479        """
 480        if copy:
 481            expression = expression.copy()
 482
 483        # Some dialects only support CTEs at the top level expression, so we need to bubble up nested
 484        # CTEs to that level in order to produce a syntactically valid expression. This transformation
 485        # happens here to minimize code duplication, since many expressions support CTEs.
 486        if (
 487            not self.SUPPORTS_NESTED_CTES
 488            and isinstance(expression, exp.Expression)
 489            and not expression.parent
 490            and "with" in expression.arg_types
 491            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 492        ):
 493            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 494
 495            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 496
 497        self.unsupported_messages = []
 498        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 499
 500        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 501            return sql
 502
 503        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 504            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 505                logger.warning(msg)
 506        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 507            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 508
 509        if self.pretty:
 510            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 511        return sql
 512
 513    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 514        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 515            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 516        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 517
 518    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 519        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 520
 521    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 522        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 523
 524    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 525        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 526        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 527        return comment
 528
 529    def maybe_comment(
 530        self,
 531        sql: str,
 532        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 533        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 534    ) -> str:
 535        comments = (
 536            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 537            if self.comments
 538            else None
 539        )
 540
 541        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 542            return sql
 543
 544        comments_sql = " ".join(
 545            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 546        )
 547
 548        if not comments_sql:
 549            return sql
 550
 551        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 552            return (
 553                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 554                if sql[0].isspace()
 555                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 556            )
 557
 558        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 559
 560    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 561        this_sql = self.indent(
 562            self.sql(expression)
 563            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 564            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 565            level=1,
 566            pad=0,
 567        )
 568        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 569
 570    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 571        original = self.identify
 572        self.identify = False
 573        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 574        self.identify = original
 575        return result
 576
 577    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 578        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 579            return name.upper()
 580        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 581            return name.lower()
 582        return name
 583
 584    def indent(
 585        self,
 586        sql: str,
 587        level: int = 0,
 588        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 589        skip_first: bool = False,
 590        skip_last: bool = False,
 591    ) -> str:
 592        if not self.pretty:
 593            return sql
 594
 595        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 596        lines = sql.split("\n")
 597
 598        return "\n".join(
 599            line
 600            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 601            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 602            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 603        )
 604
 605    def sql(
 606        self,
 607        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 608        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 609        comment: bool = True,
 610    ) -> str:
 611        if not expression:
 612            return ""
 613
 614        if isinstance(expression, str):
 615            return expression
 616
 617        if key:
 618            value = expression.args.get(key)
 619            if value:
 620                return self.sql(value)
 621            return ""
 622
 623        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 624
 625        if callable(transform):
 626            sql = transform(self, expression)
 627        elif transform:
 628            sql = transform
 629        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 630            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 631
 632            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 633                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 634            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 635                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 636            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 637                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 638            else:
 639                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 640        else:
 641            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 642
 643        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 644
 645    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 646        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 647        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 648        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 649
 650    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 651        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 652        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 653        options = expression.args.get("options")
 654        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 655        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 656        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 657        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 658        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 659
 660    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 661        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 662            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 663        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 664        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 665
 666    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 667        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 668
 669        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 670            join_mark = ""
 671            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 672
 673        column = ".".join(
 674            self.sql(part)
 675            for part in (
 676                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 677                expression.args.get("db"),
 678                expression.args.get("table"),
 679                expression.args.get("this"),
 680            )
 681            if part
 682        )
 683
 684        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 685
 686    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 687        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 688        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 689        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 690        return f"{position}{this}"
 691
 692    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 693        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 694        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 695        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 696        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 697        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 698        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 699        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 700        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 701
 702        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 703            kind = ""
 704
 705        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 706
 707    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 708        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 709        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 710        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 711
 712    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 713        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 714        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 715            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 716        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 717            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 718        else:
 719            persisted = ""
 720        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 721
 722    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 723        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 724
 725    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 726        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 727            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 728        else:
 729            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 730
 731        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 732
 733    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 734        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 735    ) -> str:
 736        this = ""
 737        if expression.this is not None:
 738            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 739            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 740
 741        start = expression.args.get("start")
 742        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 743        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 744        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 745        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 746        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 747        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 748        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 749        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 750        cycle_sql = ""
 751
 752        if cycle is not None:
 753            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 754            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 755
 756        sequence_opts = ""
 757        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 758            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 759            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 760
 761        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 762        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 763
 764        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 765
 766    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 767        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 768    ) -> str:
 769        start = "START" if expression.args["start"] else "END"
 770        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 771        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 772
 773    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 774        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 775    ) -> str:
 776        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 777
 778    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 779        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 780
 781    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 782        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 783        if desc is not None:
 784            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 785        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 786
 787    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 788        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 789        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 790        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 791        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 792        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}"
 793
 794    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 795        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 796
 797    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 798        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 799        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 800        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 801
 802        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 803
 804        properties_sql = ""
 805        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 806            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 807        ):
 808            properties_sql = self.sql(
 809                exp.Properties(
 810                    expressions=[
 811                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 812                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 813                    ]
 814                )
 815            )
 816
 817        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 818        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 819
 820        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 821        if expression_sql:
 822            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 823
 824            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 825                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 826                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 827                        exp.Properties(
 828                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 829                        ),
 830                        wrapped=False,
 831                    )
 832                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 833                else:
 834                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 835
 836        postindex_props_sql = ""
 837        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 838            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 839                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 840                wrapped=False,
 841                prefix=" ",
 842            )
 843
 844        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 845        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 846        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 847
 848        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 849        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 850
 851        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 852        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 853            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 854                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 855                sep=" ",
 856                prefix=" ",
 857                wrapped=False,
 858            )
 859
 860        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 861
 862        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 863        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 864            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 865                exp.Properties(
 866                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 867                ),
 868                sep=" ",
 869                prefix=" ",
 870                wrapped=False,
 871            )
 872
 873        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 874        no_schema_binding = (
 875            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 876        )
 877
 878        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 879        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 880
 881        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 882        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 883
 884    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 885        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 886        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
 887        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
 888        this = f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
 889        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 890
 891        if when:
 892            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 893            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 894            return f"{this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 895
 896        return this
 897
 898    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 899        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 900
 901    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 902        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 903        if with_:
 904            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 905        return sql
 906
 907    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 908        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 909        recursive = (
 910            "RECURSIVE "
 911            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
 912            else ""
 913        )
 914
 915        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 916
 917    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 918        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 919        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 920
 921    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 922        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 923        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 924        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 925
 926        if not alias and not self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
 927            alias = "_t"
 928
 929        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 930
 931    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 932        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 933        if self.BIT_START:
 934            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
 935        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 936
 937    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 938        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 939        if self.HEX_START:
 940            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
 941        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 942
 943    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 944        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 945        if self.BYTE_START:
 946            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
 947        return this
 948
 949    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 950        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
 951        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
 952
 953    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
 954        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 955        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 956        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
 957        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 958
 959    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 960        type_value = expression.this
 961
 962        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
 963            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 964        else:
 965            type_sql = (
 966                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 967                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
 968                else type_value
 969            )
 970
 971        nested = ""
 972        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 973        values = ""
 974
 975        if interior:
 976            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 977                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 978                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 979                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 980                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 981                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 982            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
 983                nested = f" {interior}"
 984            else:
 985                nested = f"({interior})"
 986
 987        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 988        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
 989            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
 990            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
 991        ):
 992            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
 993
 994        return type_sql
 995
 996    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 997        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 998        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 999        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1000        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1001
1002    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1003        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1004        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1005        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1006        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1007        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1008        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1009        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1010        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1011        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1012        if self.RETURNING_END:
1013            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1014        else:
1015            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1016        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1017
1018    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1019        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1020        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1021        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1022        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1023        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1024        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1025        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1026        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1027        return (
1028            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1029        )
1030
1031    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1032        return self.prepend_ctes(
1033            expression,
1034            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
1035        )
1036
1037    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1038        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1039
1040    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1041        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1042        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
1043        count = expression.args.get("count")
1044        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1045        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1046            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1047        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1048        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1049
1050    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1051        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1052            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1053            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1054            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1055
1056        agg = expression.this
1057        agg_arg = agg.this
1058        cond = expression.expression.this
1059        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1060        return self.sql(agg)
1061
1062    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1063        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1064            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1065            return ""
1066
1067        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1068
1069    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1070        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1071        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1072        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1073        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1074        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1075        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1076        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1077        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1078        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1079        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1080        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1081        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1082        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1083        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1084        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1085        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}{where}"
1086
1087    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1088        text = expression.name
1089        lower = text.lower()
1090        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1091        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1092        if (
1093            expression.quoted
1094            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1095            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1096            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1097        ):
1098            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1099        return text
1100
1101    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1102        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1103        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1104        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1105        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1106        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1107
1108    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1109        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1110        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1111
1112    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1113        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1114
1115    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1116        root_properties = []
1117        with_properties = []
1118
1119        for p in expression.expressions:
1120            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1121            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1122                with_properties.append(p)
1123            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1124                root_properties.append(p)
1125
1126        return self.root_properties(
1127            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1128        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1129
1130    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1131        if properties.expressions:
1132            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1133        return ""
1134
1135    def properties(
1136        self,
1137        properties: exp.Properties,
1138        prefix: str = "",
1139        sep: str = ", ",
1140        suffix: str = "",
1141        wrapped: bool = True,
1142    ) -> str:
1143        if properties.expressions:
1144            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1145            if expressions:
1146                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1147                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1148        return ""
1149
1150    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1151        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1152
1153    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1154        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1155        for p in properties.expressions:
1156            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1157            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1158                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1159            else:
1160                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1161
1162        return properties_locs
1163
1164    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1165        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1166            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1167        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1168
1169    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1170        property_cls = expression.__class__
1171        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1172            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1173
1174        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1175        if not property_name:
1176            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1177
1178        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1179
1180    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1181        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1182        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1183        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1184
1185    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1186        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1187        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1188        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1189
1190    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1191        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1192        local = expression.args.get("local")
1193        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1194        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1195        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1196        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1197        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1198
1199    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1200        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1201        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1202        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1203
1204    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1205        if expression.args.get("default"):
1206            property = "DEFAULT"
1207        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1208            property = "ON"
1209        else:
1210            property = "OFF"
1211        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1212
1213    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1214        if expression.args.get("no"):
1215            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1216        if expression.args.get("default"):
1217            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1218
1219        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1220        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1221
1222    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1223        default = expression.args.get("default")
1224        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1225        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1226        if default or minimum or maximum:
1227            if default:
1228                prop = "DEFAULT"
1229            elif minimum:
1230                prop = "MINIMUM"
1231            else:
1232                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1233            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1234        units = expression.args.get("units")
1235        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1236        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1237
1238    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1239        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1240        always = expression.args.get("always")
1241        default = expression.args.get("default")
1242        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1243        never = expression.args.get("never")
1244
1245        if autotemp is not None:
1246            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1247        elif always:
1248            prop = "ALWAYS"
1249        elif default:
1250            prop = "DEFAULT"
1251        elif manual:
1252            prop = "MANUAL"
1253        elif never:
1254            prop = "NEVER"
1255        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1256
1257    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1258        no = expression.args.get("no")
1259        no = " NO" if no else ""
1260        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1261        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1262
1263        for_ = ""
1264        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1265            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1266        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1267            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1268        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1269            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1270        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1271
1272    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1273        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1274            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1275        if expression.this:
1276            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1277            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1278            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1279
1280        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1281        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1282        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1283
1284    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1285        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1286
1287        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1288        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1289            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1290        else:
1291            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1292
1293        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1294
1295    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1296        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1297        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1298        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1299        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1300        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1301        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1302        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1303
1304    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1305        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1306        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1307        statistics_sql = ""
1308        if statistics is not None:
1309            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1310        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1311
1312    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1313        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
1314
1315        if expression.this:
1316            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
1317            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
1318
1319            if expression.expression:
1320                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1321                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
1322
1323            sql = f"{sql})"
1324
1325        return f"{sql})"
1326
1327    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1328        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1329
1330        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1331            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1332        else:
1333            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1334
1335        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1336        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1337        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1338
1339        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1340
1341        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1342        partition_sql = (
1343            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1344        )
1345        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1346        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1347        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1348        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1349        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1350        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1351
1352        if self.RETURNING_END:
1353            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1354        else:
1355            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1356
1357        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1358        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1359
1360    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1361        return self.prepend_ctes(
1362            expression,
1363            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1364        )
1365
1366    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1367        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1368
1369    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1370        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1371
1372    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1373        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1374        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1375        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1376        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1377        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1378
1379    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1380        return expression.name.upper()
1381
1382    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1383        return expression.name.upper()
1384
1385    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1386        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1387        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1388        if constraint:
1389            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1390        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1391        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1392        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1393        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1394        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1395        if expressions:
1396            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1397        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1398
1399    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1400        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1401
1402    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1403        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1404        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1405        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1406        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1407        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1408        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1409        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1410        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1411        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1412        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1413        null = expression.args.get("null")
1414        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1415        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1416
1417    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1418        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1419
1420    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1421        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1422        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1423        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1424        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1425
1426    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1427        table = ".".join(
1428            part
1429            for part in [
1430                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1431                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1432                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1433            ]
1434            if part
1435        )
1436
1437        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1438        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1439        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1440        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1441        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1442        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1443        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1444        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1445        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1446        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1447
1448        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1449        if file_format:
1450            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1451            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1452            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1453
1454        index = self.sql(expression, "index")
1455        index = f" AT {index}" if index else ""
1456
1457        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1458        if ordinality:
1459            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1460            alias = ""
1461
1462        return f"{table}{version}{file_format}{alias}{index}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1463
1464    def tablesample_sql(
1465        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1466    ) -> str:
1467        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1468            table = expression.this.copy()
1469            table.set("alias", None)
1470            this = self.sql(table)
1471            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1472        else:
1473            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1474            alias = ""
1475
1476        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1477        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1478        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1479        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1480        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1481        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1482        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1483        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1484        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1485        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1486        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1487
1488        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1489        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1490            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1491
1492        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1493        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1494        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1495
1496        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}"
1497        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1498            expr = f"({expr})"
1499
1500        return f"{this} {kind} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1501
1502    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1503        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1504
1505        if expression.this:
1506            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1507            if not expressions:
1508                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1509
1510            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1511            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1512            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1513            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1514            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1515
1516        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1517        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1518        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1519        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1520        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1521        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1522        if include_nulls is not None:
1523            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1524        else:
1525            nulls = ""
1526        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1527
1528    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1529        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1530        kind = expression.text("kind")
1531        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1532        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1533
1534    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1535        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1536
1537    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1538        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1539        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1540        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1541        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1542        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1543        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1544        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1545        if self.RETURNING_END:
1546            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1547        else:
1548            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1549        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1550        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1551
1552    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1553        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1554        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1555            args = self.expressions(expression)
1556            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1557            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1558            values = (
1559                f"({values})"
1560                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1561                else values
1562            )
1563            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1564
1565        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1566        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1567        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1568
1569        selects: t.List[exp.Subqueryable] = []
1570
1571        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1572            row = tup.expressions
1573
1574            if i == 0 and column_names:
1575                row = [
1576                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1577                ]
1578
1579            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1580
1581        if self.pretty:
1582            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1583            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1584            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1585            subqueryable = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1586            return self.subquery_sql(
1587                subqueryable.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False)
1588            )
1589
1590        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1591        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1592        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1593
1594    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1595        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1596
1597    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1598        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1599        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1600        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1601
1602    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1603        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1604
1605    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1606        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1607
1608        if expression.args.get("all"):
1609            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1610
1611        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1612        grouping_sets = (
1613            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1614        )
1615
1616        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1617        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1618            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1619        else:
1620            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1621            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1622
1623        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1624        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1625            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1626        else:
1627            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1628            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1629
1630        groupings = csv(
1631            grouping_sets,
1632            cube_sql,
1633            rollup_sql,
1634            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1635            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1636        )
1637
1638        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1639            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1640
1641        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1642
1643    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1644        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1645        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1646
1647    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1648        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1649        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1650        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1651        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY {connect}")
1652        return start + connect
1653
1654    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1655        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1656
1657    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1658        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1659            side = None
1660        else:
1661            side = expression.side
1662
1663        op_sql = " ".join(
1664            op
1665            for op in (
1666                expression.method,
1667                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1668                side,
1669                expression.kind,
1670                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1671            )
1672            if op
1673        )
1674        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1675        using = expression.args.get("using")
1676
1677        if not on_sql and using:
1678            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1679
1680        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1681
1682        if on_sql:
1683            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1684            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1685            if using:
1686                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1687            else:
1688                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1689        elif not op_sql:
1690            return f", {this_sql}"
1691
1692        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1693        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1694
1695    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1696        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1697        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1698        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1699
1700    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1701        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1702
1703        if expression.args.get("view"):
1704            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1705            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1706            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1707            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1708            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1709            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1710
1711        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1712        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1713        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1714
1715    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1716        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1717        args = ", ".join(
1718            self.sql(self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e)
1719            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1720            if e
1721        )
1722        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args}"
1723
1724    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1725        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1726        expression = expression.expression
1727        expression = (
1728            self._simplify_unless_literal(expression) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else expression
1729        )
1730        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression)}"
1731
1732    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1733        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1734        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1735        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1736        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1737        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1738        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1739        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1740        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1741
1742    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1743        expressions = (
1744            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1745        )
1746        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1747        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1748
1749    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1750        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1751
1752    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1753        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1754            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1755            return ""
1756
1757        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1758        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1759        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1760        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1761
1762        if wait is not None:
1763            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1764                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1765            else:
1766                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1767
1768        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1769
1770    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1771        text = expression.this or ""
1772        if expression.is_string:
1773            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1774        return text
1775
1776    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1777        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1778        if self.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES:
1779            text = "".join(self.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES.get(ch, ch) for ch in text)
1780        elif self.pretty:
1781            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1782        return text
1783
1784    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1785        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1786        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1787        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1788        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1789        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1790        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1791        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1792        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1793        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1794        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1795        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1796
1797    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1798        return "NULL"
1799
1800    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1801        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1802
1803    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1804        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1805        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1806        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1807
1808    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1809        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1810
1811    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1812        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1813
1814    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1815        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1816
1817    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1818        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1819        asc = not desc
1820
1821        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1822        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1823        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1824        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1825        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1826
1827        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
1828        nulls_sort_change = ""
1829        if nulls_first and (
1830            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1831        ):
1832            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1833        elif (
1834            nulls_last
1835            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1836            and not nulls_are_last
1837        ):
1838            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1839
1840        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1841            self.unsupported(
1842                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1843            )
1844            nulls_sort_change = ""
1845
1846        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1847
1848    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1849        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1850        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1851        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1852        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1853        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1854        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1855        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1856        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1857        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1858        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1859        definition_sqls = [
1860            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1861            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1862        ]
1863        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1864        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1865        body = "".join(
1866            (
1867                partition,
1868                order,
1869                measures,
1870                rows,
1871                after,
1872                pattern,
1873                define,
1874            )
1875        )
1876        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1877        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1878        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1879
1880    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1881        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1882
1883        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1884        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1885
1886        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1887            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1888        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1889            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1890
1891        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1892
1893        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1894            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1895            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1896            else []
1897        )
1898
1899        return csv(
1900            *sqls,
1901            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1902            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
1903            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1904            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1905            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1906            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1907            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1908            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1909            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1910            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1911            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1912            sep="",
1913        )
1914
1915    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1916        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1917    ) -> t.List[str]:
1918        return [
1919            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1920            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1921        ]
1922
1923    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1924        return [
1925            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1926            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1927            if expression.args.get("windows")
1928            else "",
1929            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1930            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1931            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1932        ]
1933
1934    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1935        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1936        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1937        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1938
1939    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1940        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1941        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1942        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1943        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1944        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1945        top = (
1946            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1947            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1948            else ""
1949        )
1950
1951        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1952
1953        if kind:
1954            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1955                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1956            else:
1957                if kind == "STRUCT":
1958                    expressions = self.expressions(
1959                        sqls=[
1960                            self.sql(
1961                                exp.Struct(
1962                                    expressions=[
1963                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1964                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1965                                        )
1966                                        for e in expression.expressions
1967                                    ]
1968                                )
1969                            )
1970                        ]
1971                    )
1972                kind = ""
1973
1974        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1975        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1976            expression,
1977            f"SELECT{top}{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1978            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1979            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1980        )
1981        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1982
1983    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1984        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1985        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1986        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
1987
1988    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1989        if expression.expressions:
1990            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1991        return ""
1992
1993    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1994        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1995        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1996        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1997        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1998        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
1999
2000    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2001        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2002        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}" if self.SUPPORTS_PARAMETERS else this
2003
2004    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2005        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2006        kind = expression.text("kind")
2007        if kind:
2008            kind = f"{kind}."
2009        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2010
2011    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2012        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
2013
2014    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2015        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2016        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2017
2018        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2019        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2020
2021        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2022        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2023
2024    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2025        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2026        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2027
2028    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2029        return self.prepend_ctes(
2030            expression,
2031            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
2032        )
2033
2034    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2035        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2036        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2037        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2038        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2039
2040    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2041        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2042
2043        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2044        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2045
2046        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2047            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2048                alias.append("columns", offset)
2049
2050        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2051            columns = alias.columns
2052            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2053        else:
2054            alias = self.sql(alias)
2055
2056        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2057        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2058            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2059        else:
2060            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2061                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2062            elif offset:
2063                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2064            else:
2065                suffix = alias
2066
2067        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2068
2069    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2070        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2071        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2072
2073    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2074        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2075        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2076        order = expression.args.get("order")
2077        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2078        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2079        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2080        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2081
2082        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2083
2084        first = expression.args.get("first")
2085        if first is None:
2086            first = ""
2087        else:
2088            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2089
2090        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2091            return f"{this} {alias}"
2092
2093        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2094        return f"{this} ({args})"
2095
2096    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2097        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2098        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2099
2100    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2101        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2102        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2103        end = (
2104            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2105            or "CURRENT ROW"
2106        )
2107        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2108
2109    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2110        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2111        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2112        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2113
2114    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2115        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2116        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2117        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2118        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2119
2120    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2121        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
2122        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2123
2124        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2125
2126    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
2127        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
2128
2129    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2130        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2131
2132    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2133        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2134        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
2135            this = self.wrap(this)
2136        return f"ANY {this}"
2137
2138    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2139        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2140
2141    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2142        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2143        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2144
2145        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2146            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2147            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2148
2149        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2150
2151        if default:
2152            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2153
2154        statements.append("END")
2155
2156        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
2157            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2158
2159        return " ".join(statements)
2160
2161    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2162        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2163        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2164        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2165
2166    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2167        order = expression.args.get("order")
2168        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2169        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2170
2171    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2172        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2173        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2174        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2175
2176    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2177        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2178
2179        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2180            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2181        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2182            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2183        else:
2184            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2185
2186    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
2187        expressions = expression.expressions
2188        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2189            expressions = [exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions]
2190        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2191
2192    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2193        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2194        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2195
2196    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2197        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2198        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2199        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2200        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2201        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2202        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2203        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2204        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2205
2206    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2207        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2208        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2209        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2210        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2211
2212    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2213        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2214
2215    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2216        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2217        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2218        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2219
2220    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2221        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2222
2223    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2224        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2225
2226    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
2227        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2228        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2229        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2230        if unique_keys is not None:
2231            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2232        else:
2233            unique_keys = ""
2234        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2235        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2236        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2237        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2238        return self.func(
2239            "JSON_OBJECT",
2240            *expression.expressions,
2241            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2242        )
2243
2244    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2245        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2246        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2247        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2248        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2249        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2250        return self.func(
2251            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2252        )
2253
2254    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2255        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2256        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2257        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2258        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2259        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2260        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2261        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2262        return self.func(
2263            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2264            this,
2265            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2266        )
2267
2268    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2269        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2270        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2271        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2272
2273        if nested_schema:
2274            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2275
2276        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2277        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2278        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2279        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2280
2281    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2282        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2283
2284    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2285        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2286        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2287        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2288        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2289        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2290        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2291        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2292        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2293        return self.func(
2294            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2295        )
2296
2297    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2298        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2299        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2300        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2301        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2302        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2303        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2304
2305    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2306        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2307        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2308        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2309        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2310        with_ = (
2311            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2312            if expressions
2313            else ""
2314        )
2315        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2316
2317    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2318        query = expression.args.get("query")
2319        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2320        field = expression.args.get("field")
2321        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2322
2323        if query:
2324            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2325        elif unnest:
2326            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2327        elif field:
2328            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2329        else:
2330            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2331
2332        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2333
2334    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2335        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2336
2337    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2338        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2339        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2340            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
2341        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2342
2343        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2344            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2345            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2346
2347        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2348        if this:
2349            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2350            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2351
2352        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2353
2354    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2355        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2356
2357    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2358        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2359        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2360        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2361        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2362        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2363        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2364
2365    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2366        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
2367
2368    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2369        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2370            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2371        else:
2372            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2373            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2374
2375        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2376
2377    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2378        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2379        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2380        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2381        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2382
2383    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2384        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2385
2386    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2387        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2388        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2389        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2390
2391    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2392        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2393
2394    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2395        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2396        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2397        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2398
2399    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2400        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2401
2402    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2403        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
2404
2405    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2406        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
2407
2408    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2409        if not self.pretty:
2410            return self.binary(expression, op)
2411
2412        sqls = tuple(
2413            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2414            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2415        )
2416
2417        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2418        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
2419
2420    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2421        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2422
2423    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2424        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2425
2426    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2427        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2428
2429    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2430        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2431
2432    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2433        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2434
2435    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2436        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2437
2438    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2439        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2440        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2441        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2442        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2443        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql})"
2444
2445    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2446        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2447        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2448
2449    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2450        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2451            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2452        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2453
2454    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2455        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2456
2457    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2458        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2459        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2460        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2461        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2462        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2463
2464    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2465        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2466        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2467        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2468        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2469        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2470        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2471        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2472        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2473        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2474
2475    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2476        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2477        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2478        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2479        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2480
2481        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2482            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2483
2484        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2485
2486    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2487        return "BEGIN"
2488
2489    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2490        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2491        if chain is not None:
2492            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2493
2494        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2495
2496    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2497        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2498        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2499        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2500
2501    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2502        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2503
2504        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2505        if dtype:
2506            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2507            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2508            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2509            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2510            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2511
2512        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2513        if default:
2514            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2515
2516        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2517            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2518
2519        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2520
2521    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2522        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2523            # Remove db from tables
2524            expression = expression.transform(
2525                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2526            )
2527        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2528        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2529
2530    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2531        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2532
2533        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2534            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
2535        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2536            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2537        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2538            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2539        else:
2540            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2541
2542        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2543        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2544        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2545
2546    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2547        if self.ALTER_TABLE_ADD_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
2548            return self.expressions(
2549                expression,
2550                key="actions",
2551                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
2552            )
2553        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
2554
2555    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2556        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2557        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2558        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2559
2560    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2561        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2562        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2563        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2564
2565        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2566        if enforced is not None:
2567            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2568
2569        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2570
2571    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2572        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2573        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2574
2575        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2576        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2577        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2578
2579    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2580        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2581
2582    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2583        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2584
2585    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2586        return self.sql(
2587            exp.Cast(
2588                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2589                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2590            )
2591        )
2592
2593    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2594        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2595
2596    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2597        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2598            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2599        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
2600
2601    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2602        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
2603
2604        if not self.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
2605            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
2606
2607        if self.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
2608            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.FLOAT_TYPES) and not r.is_type(
2609                *exp.DataType.FLOAT_TYPES
2610            ):
2611                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
2612
2613        elif not self.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
2614            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
2615                return self.sql(
2616                    exp.cast(
2617                        l / r,
2618                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
2619                    )
2620                )
2621
2622        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2623
2624    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2625        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2626
2627    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2628        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2629
2630    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2631        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2632
2633    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2634        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2635
2636    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
2637        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2638
2639    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2640        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2641
2642    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2643        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2644
2645    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2646        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2647
2648    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2649        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2650
2651    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2652        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2653
2654    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2655        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2656
2657    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2658        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2659            return self.sql(
2660                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2661            )
2662        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2663
2664    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2665        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2666
2667    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2668        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2669
2670    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2671        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2672
2673    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2674        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2675
2676    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2677        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2678
2679    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2680        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2681
2682    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2683        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2684
2685    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2686        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2687
2688    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2689        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2690
2691    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2692        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2693
2694    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2695        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2696
2697    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2698        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2699
2700    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2701        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2702
2703    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2704        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
2705
2706    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
2707        args = list(expression.args.values())
2708        if not self.LOG_BASE_FIRST:
2709            args.reverse()
2710        return self.func("LOG", *args)
2711
2712    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2713        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2714        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2715        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2716        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2717        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2718
2719    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2720        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2721        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2722
2723    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2724        args = []
2725
2726        for key in expression.arg_types:
2727            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2728
2729            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2730                for value in arg_value:
2731                    args.append(value)
2732            elif arg_value is not None:
2733                args.append(arg_value)
2734
2735        if self.normalize_functions:
2736            name = expression.sql_name()
2737        else:
2738            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2739
2740        return self.func(name, *args)
2741
2742    def func(
2743        self,
2744        name: str,
2745        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2746        prefix: str = "(",
2747        suffix: str = ")",
2748    ) -> str:
2749        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2750
2751    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2752        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2753        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2754            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2755        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2756
2757    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2758        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2759
2760    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2761        return format_time(
2762            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2763        )
2764
2765    def expressions(
2766        self,
2767        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2768        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2769        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2770        flat: bool = False,
2771        indent: bool = True,
2772        skip_first: bool = False,
2773        sep: str = ", ",
2774        prefix: str = "",
2775    ) -> str:
2776        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2777
2778        if not expressions:
2779            return ""
2780
2781        if flat:
2782            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2783
2784        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2785
2786        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2787        pad = " " * self.pad
2788        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2789
2790        result_sqls = []
2791        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2792            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2793            if not sql:
2794                continue
2795
2796            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2797
2798            if self.pretty:
2799                if self.leading_comma:
2800                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2801                else:
2802                    result_sqls.append(
2803                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2804                    )
2805            else:
2806                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2807
2808        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2809        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
2810
2811    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2812        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2813        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2814        if flat:
2815            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2816        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2817
2818    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2819        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2820        if not property_name:
2821            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2822        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2823
2824    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Union, op: str) -> str:
2825        this = self.maybe_comment(self.sql(expression, "this"), comments=expression.comments)
2826        op = self.seg(op)
2827        return self.query_modifiers(
2828            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2829        )
2830
2831    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2832        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2833
2834    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2835        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2836
2837    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2838        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2839        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2840        expressions = (
2841            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2842        )
2843        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2844
2845    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2846        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2847        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2848        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2849
2850    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2851        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2852
2853    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2854        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2855        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2856        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2857        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2858
2859        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2860        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2861            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2862            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2863                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2864        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2865            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2866                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2867            else:
2868                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2869        else:
2870            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2871        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2872
2873    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2874        table = expression.this
2875        table_alias = ""
2876
2877        hints = table.args.get("hints")
2878        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
2879            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
2880            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
2881
2882        this = self.sql(table)
2883        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2884        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2885        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
2886
2887        return self.prepend_ctes(
2888            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
2889        )
2890
2891    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2892        if expression.args.get("format"):
2893            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2894
2895        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2896
2897    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2898        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2899        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2900        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2901        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2902        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2903
2904    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2905        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2906        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2907        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2908        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2909
2910    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2911        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
2912
2913    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2914        return ""
2915
2916    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2917        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2918        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2919        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2920        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2921        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
2922
2923    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2924        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2925        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2926
2927        if having:
2928            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2929
2930        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
2931
2932    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2933        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2934        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2935        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2936        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2937        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2938        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2939        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2940        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2941        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2942        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2943        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2944        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
2945        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
2946
2947    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2948        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
2949        if key_block_size:
2950            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
2951
2952        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2953        if using:
2954            return f"USING {using}"
2955
2956        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
2957        if parser:
2958            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
2959
2960        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2961        if comment:
2962            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
2963
2964        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
2965        if visible is not None:
2966            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
2967
2968        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
2969        if engine_attr:
2970            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
2971
2972        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
2973        if secondary_engine_attr:
2974            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
2975
2976        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
2977        return ""
2978
2979    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2980        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2981        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
2982        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2983        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2984        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
2985        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
2986        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2987        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
2988        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
2989        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2990        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{schema}{options}"
2991
2992    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
2993        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
2994            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2995
2996        case = exp.Case().when(
2997            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
2998            expression.args["true"],
2999            copy=False,
3000        )
3001        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3002        if else_cond:
3003            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3004
3005        return self.sql(case)
3006
3007    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3008        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3009        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3010        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3011        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3012        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3013        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3014
3015    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3016        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3017
3018    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3019        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3020
3021    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3022        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3023        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3024        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3025        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3026        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3027        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3028
3029    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3030        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3031        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3032        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3033
3034    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3035        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3036            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3037
3038            expression = simplify(expression)
3039
3040        return expression

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

Arguments:
  • pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
  • identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  • normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
  • pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
  • unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True)
430    def __init__(
431        self,
432        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
433        identify: str | bool = False,
434        normalize: bool = False,
435        pad: int = 2,
436        indent: int = 2,
437        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
438        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
439        max_unsupported: int = 3,
440        leading_comma: bool = False,
441        max_text_width: int = 80,
442        comments: bool = True,
443    ):
444        import sqlglot
445
446        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
447        self.identify = identify
448        self.normalize = normalize
449        self.pad = pad
450        self._indent = indent
451        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
452        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
453        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
454        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
455        self.comments = comments
456
457        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
458        self.normalize_functions = (
459            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
460        )
461
462        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
463        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.QUOTE_END
464        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
465            self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.IDENTIFIER_END
466        )
TRANSFORMS = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsAdd'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalSpan'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NonClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
LOG_BASE_FIRST = True
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXPLICIT_UNION = False
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINT_SEP = ', '
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
RETURNING_END = True
COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
ALTER_TABLE_ADD_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
SUPPORTS_PARAMETERS = True
COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
SUPPORTS_NESTED_CTES = True
CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
TYPED_DIVISION = False
SAFE_DIVISION = False
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.TINYTEXT: 'TINYTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.TINYBLOB: 'TINYBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET'}
STAR_MAPPING = {'except': 'EXCEPT', 'replace': 'REPLACE'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'microseconds': 'microsecond', 'seconds': 'second', 'minutes': 'minute', 'hours': 'hour', 'days': 'day', 'weeks': 'week', 'months': 'month', 'quarters': 'quarter', 'years': 'year'}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Binary'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Union'>)
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: Dict[str, str] = {}
INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: Dict = {}
INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES: Dict[str, str] = {}
INDEX_OFFSET = 0
UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = 'upper'
NULL_ORDERING = 'nulls_are_small'
@classmethod
def can_identify(text: str, identify: str | bool = 'safe') -> bool:
288    @classmethod
289    def can_identify(cls, text: str, identify: str | bool = "safe") -> bool:
290        """Checks if text can be identified given an identify option.
291
292        Args:
293            text: The text to check.
294            identify:
295                "always" or `True`: Always returns true.
296                "safe": True if the identifier is case-insensitive.
297
298        Returns:
299            Whether or not the given text can be identified.
300        """
301        if identify is True or identify == "always":
302            return True
303
304        if identify == "safe":
305            return not cls.case_sensitive(text)
306
307        return False

Checks if text can be identified given an identify option.

Arguments:
  • text: The text to check.
  • identify: "always" or True: Always returns true. "safe": True if the identifier is case-insensitive.
Returns:

Whether or not the given text can be identified.

QUOTE_START = "'"
QUOTE_END = "'"
IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
TOKENIZER_CLASS = <class 'sqlglot.tokens.Tokenizer'>
BIT_START: Optional[str] = None
BIT_END: Optional[str] = None
HEX_START: Optional[str] = None
HEX_END: Optional[str] = None
BYTE_START: Optional[str] = None
BYTE_END: Optional[str] = None
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
468    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
469        """
470        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
471
472        Args:
473            expression: The syntax tree.
474            copy: Whether or not to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
475                it is safer to copy.
476
477        Returns:
478            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
479        """
480        if copy:
481            expression = expression.copy()
482
483        # Some dialects only support CTEs at the top level expression, so we need to bubble up nested
484        # CTEs to that level in order to produce a syntactically valid expression. This transformation
485        # happens here to minimize code duplication, since many expressions support CTEs.
486        if (
487            not self.SUPPORTS_NESTED_CTES
488            and isinstance(expression, exp.Expression)
489            and not expression.parent
490            and "with" in expression.arg_types
491            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
492        ):
493            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
494
495            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
496
497        self.unsupported_messages = []
498        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
499
500        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
501            return sql
502
503        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
504            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
505                logger.warning(msg)
506        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
507            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
508
509        if self.pretty:
510            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
511        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

Arguments:
  • expression: The syntax tree.
  • copy: Whether or not to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so it is safer to copy.
Returns:

The SQL string corresponding to expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
513    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
514        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
515            raise UnsupportedError(message)
516        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
518    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
519        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
521    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
522        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
524    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
525        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
526        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
527        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None) -> str:
529    def maybe_comment(
530        self,
531        sql: str,
532        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
533        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
534    ) -> str:
535        comments = (
536            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
537            if self.comments
538            else None
539        )
540
541        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
542            return sql
543
544        comments_sql = " ".join(
545            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
546        )
547
548        if not comments_sql:
549            return sql
550
551        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
552            return (
553                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
554                if sql[0].isspace()
555                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
556            )
557
558        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
560    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
561        this_sql = self.indent(
562            self.sql(expression)
563            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
564            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
565            level=1,
566            pad=0,
567        )
568        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
570    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
571        original = self.identify
572        self.identify = False
573        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
574        self.identify = original
575        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
577    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
578        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
579            return name.upper()
580        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
581            return name.lower()
582        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
584    def indent(
585        self,
586        sql: str,
587        level: int = 0,
588        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
589        skip_first: bool = False,
590        skip_last: bool = False,
591    ) -> str:
592        if not self.pretty:
593            return sql
594
595        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
596        lines = sql.split("\n")
597
598        return "\n".join(
599            line
600            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
601            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
602            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
603        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
605    def sql(
606        self,
607        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
608        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
609        comment: bool = True,
610    ) -> str:
611        if not expression:
612            return ""
613
614        if isinstance(expression, str):
615            return expression
616
617        if key:
618            value = expression.args.get(key)
619            if value:
620                return self.sql(value)
621            return ""
622
623        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
624
625        if callable(transform):
626            sql = transform(self, expression)
627        elif transform:
628            sql = transform
629        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
630            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
631
632            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
633                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
634            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
635                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
636            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
637                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
638            else:
639                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
640        else:
641            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
642
643        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
645    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
646        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
647        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
648        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
650    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
651        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
652        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
653        options = expression.args.get("options")
654        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
655        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
656        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
657        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
658        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
660    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
661        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
662            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
663        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
664        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
666    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
667        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
668
669        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
670            join_mark = ""
671            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
672
673        column = ".".join(
674            self.sql(part)
675            for part in (
676                expression.args.get("catalog"),
677                expression.args.get("db"),
678                expression.args.get("table"),
679                expression.args.get("this"),
680            )
681            if part
682        )
683
684        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
686    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
687        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
688        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
689        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
690        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
692    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
693        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
694        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
695        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
696        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
697        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
698        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
699        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
700        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
701
702        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
703            kind = ""
704
705        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
707    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
708        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
709        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
710        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
712    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
713        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
714        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
715            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
716        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
717            persisted = " PERSISTED"
718        else:
719            persisted = ""
720        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
722    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
723        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
725    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
726        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
727            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
728        else:
729            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
730
731        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
733    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
734        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
735    ) -> str:
736        this = ""
737        if expression.this is not None:
738            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
739            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
740
741        start = expression.args.get("start")
742        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
743        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
744        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
745        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
746        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
747        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
748        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
749        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
750        cycle_sql = ""
751
752        if cycle is not None:
753            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
754            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
755
756        sequence_opts = ""
757        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
758            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
759            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
760
761        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
762        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
763
764        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint) -> str:
766    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
767        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
768    ) -> str:
769        start = "START" if expression.args["start"] else "END"
770        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
771        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint) -> str:
773    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
774        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
775    ) -> str:
776        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
778    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
779        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
781    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
782        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
783        if desc is not None:
784            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
785        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
787    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
788        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
789        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
790        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
791        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
792        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}"
def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: DefaultDict) -> str:
794    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
795        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
797    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
798        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
799        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
800        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
801
802        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
803
804        properties_sql = ""
805        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
806            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
807        ):
808            properties_sql = self.sql(
809                exp.Properties(
810                    expressions=[
811                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
812                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
813                    ]
814                )
815            )
816
817        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
818        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
819
820        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
821        if expression_sql:
822            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
823
824            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
825                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
826                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
827                        exp.Properties(
828                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
829                        ),
830                        wrapped=False,
831                    )
832                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
833                else:
834                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
835
836        postindex_props_sql = ""
837        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
838            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
839                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
840                wrapped=False,
841                prefix=" ",
842            )
843
844        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
845        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
846        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
847
848        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
849        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
850
851        postcreate_props_sql = ""
852        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
853            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
854                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
855                sep=" ",
856                prefix=" ",
857                wrapped=False,
858            )
859
860        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
861
862        postexpression_props_sql = ""
863        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
864            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
865                exp.Properties(
866                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
867                ),
868                sep=" ",
869                prefix=" ",
870                wrapped=False,
871            )
872
873        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
874        no_schema_binding = (
875            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
876        )
877
878        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
879        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
880
881        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
882        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
884    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
885        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
886        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
887        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
888        this = f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
889        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
890
891        if when:
892            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
893            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
894            return f"{this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
895
896        return this
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
898    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
899        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
901    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
902        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
903        if with_:
904            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
905        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
907    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
908        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
909        recursive = (
910            "RECURSIVE "
911            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
912            else ""
913        )
914
915        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
917    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
918        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
919        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
921    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
922        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
923        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
924        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
925
926        if not alias and not self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
927            alias = "_t"
928
929        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
931    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
932        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
933        if self.BIT_START:
934            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
935        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
937    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
938        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
939        if self.HEX_START:
940            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
941        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
943    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
944        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
945        if self.BYTE_START:
946            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
947        return this
def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str:
949    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
950        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
951        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeParam) -> str:
953    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
954        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
955        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
956        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
957        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
959    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
960        type_value = expression.this
961
962        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
963            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
964        else:
965            type_sql = (
966                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
967                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
968                else type_value
969            )
970
971        nested = ""
972        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
973        values = ""
974
975        if interior:
976            if expression.args.get("nested"):
977                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
978                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
979                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
980                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
981                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
982            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
983                nested = f" {interior}"
984            else:
985                nested = f"({interior})"
986
987        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
988        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
989            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
990            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
991        ):
992            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
993
994        return type_sql
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
 996    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 997        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 998        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 999        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1000        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
1002    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1003        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1004        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1005        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1006        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1007        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1008        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1009        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1010        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1011        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1012        if self.RETURNING_END:
1013            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1014        else:
1015            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1016        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
1018    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1019        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1020        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1021        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1022        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1023        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1024        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1025        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1026        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1027        return (
1028            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1029        )
def except_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1031    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1032        return self.prepend_ctes(
1033            expression,
1034            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
1035        )
def except_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1037    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1038        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
1040    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1041        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1042        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
1043        count = expression.args.get("count")
1044        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1045        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1046            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1047        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1048        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
1050    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1051        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1052            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1053            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1054            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1055
1056        agg = expression.this
1057        agg_arg = agg.this
1058        cond = expression.expression.this
1059        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1060        return self.sql(agg)
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
1062    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1063        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1064            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1065            return ""
1066
1067        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
1069    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1070        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1071        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1072        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1073        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1074        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1075        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1076        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1077        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1078        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1079        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1080        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1081        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1082        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1083        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1084        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1085        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}{where}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
1087    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1088        text = expression.name
1089        lower = text.lower()
1090        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1091        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1092        if (
1093            expression.quoted
1094            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1095            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1096            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1097        ):
1098            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1099        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1101    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1102        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1103        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1104        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1105        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1106        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str:
1108    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1109        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1110        return f"{prefix}{string}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
1112    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1113        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1115    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1116        root_properties = []
1117        with_properties = []
1118
1119        for p in expression.expressions:
1120            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1121            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1122                with_properties.append(p)
1123            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1124                root_properties.append(p)
1125
1126        return self.root_properties(
1127            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1128        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1130    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1131        if properties.expressions:
1132            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1133        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
1135    def properties(
1136        self,
1137        properties: exp.Properties,
1138        prefix: str = "",
1139        sep: str = ", ",
1140        suffix: str = "",
1141        wrapped: bool = True,
1142    ) -> str:
1143        if properties.expressions:
1144            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1145            if expressions:
1146                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1147                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1148        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1150    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1151        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
def locate_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> DefaultDict:
1153    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1154        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1155        for p in properties.expressions:
1156            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1157            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1158                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1159            else:
1160                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1161
1162        return properties_locs
def property_name( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1164    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1165        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1166            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1167        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
1169    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1170        property_cls = expression.__class__
1171        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1172            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1173
1174        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1175        if not property_name:
1176            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1177
1178        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
1180    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1181        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1182        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1183        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1185    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1186        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1187        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1188        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
1190    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1191        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1192        local = expression.args.get("local")
1193        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1194        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1195        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1196        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1197        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1199    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1200        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1201        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1202        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1204    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1205        if expression.args.get("default"):
1206            property = "DEFAULT"
1207        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1208            property = "ON"
1209        else:
1210            property = "OFF"
1211        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1213    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1214        if expression.args.get("no"):
1215            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1216        if expression.args.get("default"):
1217            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1218
1219        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1220        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1222    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1223        default = expression.args.get("default")
1224        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1225        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1226        if default or minimum or maximum:
1227            if default:
1228                prop = "DEFAULT"
1229            elif minimum:
1230                prop = "MINIMUM"
1231            else:
1232                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1233            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1234        units = expression.args.get("units")
1235        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1236        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1238    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1239        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1240        always = expression.args.get("always")
1241        default = expression.args.get("default")
1242        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1243        never = expression.args.get("never")
1244
1245        if autotemp is not None:
1246            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1247        elif always:
1248            prop = "ALWAYS"
1249        elif default:
1250            prop = "DEFAULT"
1251        elif manual:
1252            prop = "MANUAL"
1253        elif never:
1254            prop = "NEVER"
1255        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1257    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1258        no = expression.args.get("no")
1259        no = " NO" if no else ""
1260        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1261        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1262
1263        for_ = ""
1264        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1265            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1266        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1267            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1268        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1269            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1270        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1272    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1273        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1274            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1275        if expression.this:
1276            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1277            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1278            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1279
1280        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1281        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1282        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1284    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1285        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1286
1287        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1288        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1289            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1290        else:
1291            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1292
1293        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1295    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1296        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1297        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1298        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1299        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1300        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1301        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1302        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1304    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1305        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1306        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1307        statistics_sql = ""
1308        if statistics is not None:
1309            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1310        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def withsystemversioningproperty_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1312    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1313        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
1314
1315        if expression.this:
1316            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
1317            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
1318
1319            if expression.expression:
1320                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1321                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
1322
1323            sql = f"{sql})"
1324
1325        return f"{sql})"
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1327    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1328        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1329
1330        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1331            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1332        else:
1333            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1334
1335        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1336        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1337        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1338
1339        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1340
1341        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1342        partition_sql = (
1343            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1344        )
1345        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1346        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1347        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1348        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1349        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1350        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1351
1352        if self.RETURNING_END:
1353            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1354        else:
1355            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1356
1357        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1358        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def intersect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1360    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1361        return self.prepend_ctes(
1362            expression,
1363            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1364        )
def intersect_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1366    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1367        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1369    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1370        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def kill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kill) -> str:
1372    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1373        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1374        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1375        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1376        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1377        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1379    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1380        return expression.name.upper()
def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1382    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1383        return expression.name.upper()
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1385    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1386        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1387        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1388        if constraint:
1389            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1390        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1391        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1392        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1393        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1394        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1395        if expressions:
1396            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1397        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1399    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1400        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1402    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1403        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1404        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1405        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1406        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1407        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1408        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1409        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1410        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1411        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1412        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1413        null = expression.args.get("null")
1414        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1415        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint) -> str:
1417    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1418        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1420    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1421        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1422        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1423        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1424        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1426    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1427        table = ".".join(
1428            part
1429            for part in [
1430                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1431                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1432                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1433            ]
1434            if part
1435        )
1436
1437        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1438        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1439        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1440        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1441        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1442        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1443        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1444        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1445        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1446        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1447
1448        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1449        if file_format:
1450            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1451            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1452            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1453
1454        index = self.sql(expression, "index")
1455        index = f" AT {index}" if index else ""
1456
1457        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1458        if ordinality:
1459            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1460            alias = ""
1461
1462        return f"{table}{version}{file_format}{alias}{index}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = 'SEED', sep=' AS ') -> str:
1464    def tablesample_sql(
1465        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1466    ) -> str:
1467        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1468            table = expression.this.copy()
1469            table.set("alias", None)
1470            this = self.sql(table)
1471            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1472        else:
1473            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1474            alias = ""
1475
1476        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1477        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1478        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1479        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1480        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1481        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1482        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1483        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1484        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1485        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1486        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1487
1488        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1489        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1490            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1491
1492        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1493        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1494        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1495
1496        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}"
1497        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1498            expr = f"({expr})"
1499
1500        return f"{this} {kind} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1502    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1503        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1504
1505        if expression.this:
1506            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1507            if not expressions:
1508                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1509
1510            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1511            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1512            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1513            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1514            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1515
1516        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1517        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1518        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1519        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1520        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1521        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1522        if include_nulls is not None:
1523            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1524        else:
1525            nulls = ""
1526        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
def version_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Version) -> str:
1528    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1529        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1530        kind = expression.text("kind")
1531        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1532        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
1534    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1535        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
1537    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1538        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1539        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1540        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1541        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1542        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1543        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1544        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1545        if self.RETURNING_END:
1546            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1547        else:
1548            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1549        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1550        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values) -> str:
1552    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1553        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1554        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1555            args = self.expressions(expression)
1556            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1557            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1558            values = (
1559                f"({values})"
1560                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1561                else values
1562            )
1563            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1564
1565        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1566        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1567        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1568
1569        selects: t.List[exp.Subqueryable] = []
1570
1571        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1572            row = tup.expressions
1573
1574            if i == 0 and column_names:
1575                row = [
1576                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1577                ]
1578
1579            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1580
1581        if self.pretty:
1582            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1583            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1584            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1585            subqueryable = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1586            return self.subquery_sql(
1587                subqueryable.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False)
1588            )
1589
1590        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1591        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1592        return f"({unions}){alias}"
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
1594    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1595        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
1597    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1598        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1599        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1600        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
1602    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1603        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
1605    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1606        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1607
1608        if expression.args.get("all"):
1609            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1610
1611        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1612        grouping_sets = (
1613            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1614        )
1615
1616        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1617        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1618            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1619        else:
1620            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1621            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1622
1623        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1624        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1625            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1626        else:
1627            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1628            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1629
1630        groupings = csv(
1631            grouping_sets,
1632            cube_sql,
1633            rollup_sql,
1634            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1635            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1636        )
1637
1638        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1639            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1640
1641        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
1643    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1644        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1645        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def connect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connect) -> str:
1647    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1648        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1649        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1650        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1651        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY {connect}")
1652        return start + connect
def prior_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Prior) -> str:
1654    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1655        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
1657    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1658        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1659            side = None
1660        else:
1661            side = expression.side
1662
1663        op_sql = " ".join(
1664            op
1665            for op in (
1666                expression.method,
1667                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1668                side,
1669                expression.kind,
1670                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1671            )
1672            if op
1673        )
1674        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1675        using = expression.args.get("using")
1676
1677        if not on_sql and using:
1678            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1679
1680        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1681
1682        if on_sql:
1683            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1684            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1685            if using:
1686                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1687            else:
1688                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1689        elif not op_sql:
1690            return f", {this_sql}"
1691
1692        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1693        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
1695    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1696        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1697        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1698        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
1700    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1701        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1702
1703        if expression.args.get("view"):
1704            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1705            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1706            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1707            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1708            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1709            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1710
1711        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1712        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1713        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1715    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1716        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1717        args = ", ".join(
1718            self.sql(self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e)
1719            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1720            if e
1721        )
1722        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
1724    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1725        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1726        expression = expression.expression
1727        expression = (
1728            self._simplify_unless_literal(expression) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else expression
1729        )
1730        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression)}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
1732    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1733        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1734        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1735        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1736        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1737        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1738        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1739        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1740        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
1742    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1743        expressions = (
1744            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1745        )
1746        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1747        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
1749    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1750        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
1752    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1753        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1754            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1755            return ""
1756
1757        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1758        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1759        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1760        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1761
1762        if wait is not None:
1763            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1764                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1765            else:
1766                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1767
1768        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
1770    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1771        text = expression.this or ""
1772        if expression.is_string:
1773            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1774        return text
def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1776    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1777        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1778        if self.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES:
1779            text = "".join(self.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES.get(ch, ch) for ch in text)
1780        elif self.pretty:
1781            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1782        return text
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
1784    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1785        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1786        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1787        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1788        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1789        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1790        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1791        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1792        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1793        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1794        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1795        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1797    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1798        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
1800    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1801        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1803    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1804        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1805        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1806        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
1808    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1809        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
1811    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1812        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
1814    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1815        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
1817    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1818        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1819        asc = not desc
1820
1821        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1822        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1823        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1824        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1825        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1826
1827        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
1828        nulls_sort_change = ""
1829        if nulls_first and (
1830            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1831        ):
1832            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1833        elif (
1834            nulls_last
1835            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1836            and not nulls_are_last
1837        ):
1838            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1839
1840        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1841            self.unsupported(
1842                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1843            )
1844            nulls_sort_change = ""
1845
1846        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1848    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1849        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1850        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1851        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1852        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1853        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1854        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1855        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1856        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1857        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1858        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1859        definition_sqls = [
1860            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1861            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1862        ]
1863        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1864        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1865        body = "".join(
1866            (
1867                partition,
1868                order,
1869                measures,
1870                rows,
1871                after,
1872                pattern,
1873                define,
1874            )
1875        )
1876        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1877        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1878        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1880    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1881        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1882
1883        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1884        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1885
1886        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1887            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1888        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1889            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1890
1891        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1892
1893        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1894            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1895            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1896            else []
1897        )
1898
1899        return csv(
1900            *sqls,
1901            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1902            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
1903            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1904            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1905            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1906            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1907            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1908            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1909            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1910            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1911            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1912            sep="",
1913        )
def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]:
1915    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1916        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1917    ) -> t.List[str]:
1918        return [
1919            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1920            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1921        ]
def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
1923    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1924        return [
1925            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1926            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1927            if expression.args.get("windows")
1928            else "",
1929            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1930            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1931            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1932        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
1934    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1935        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1936        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1937        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
1939    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1940        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1941        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1942        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1943        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1944        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1945        top = (
1946            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1947            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1948            else ""
1949        )
1950
1951        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1952
1953        if kind:
1954            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1955                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1956            else:
1957                if kind == "STRUCT":
1958                    expressions = self.expressions(
1959                        sqls=[
1960                            self.sql(
1961                                exp.Struct(
1962                                    expressions=[
1963                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1964                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1965                                        )
1966                                        for e in expression.expressions
1967                                    ]
1968                                )
1969                            )
1970                        ]
1971                    )
1972                kind = ""
1973
1974        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1975        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1976            expression,
1977            f"SELECT{top}{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1978            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1979            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1980        )
1981        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
1983    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1984        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1985        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1986        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
1988    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1989        if expression.expressions:
1990            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1991        return ""
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
1993    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1994        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1995        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1996        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1997        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1998        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
2000    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2001        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2002        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}" if self.SUPPORTS_PARAMETERS else this
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
2004    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2005        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2006        kind = expression.text("kind")
2007        if kind:
2008            kind = f"{kind}."
2009        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
2011    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2012        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
2014    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2015        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2016        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2017
2018        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2019        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2020
2021        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2022        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
2024    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2025        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2026        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def union_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
2028    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2029        return self.prepend_ctes(
2030            expression,
2031            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
2032        )
def union_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
2034    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2035        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2036        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2037        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2038        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2040    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2041        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2042
2043        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2044        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2045
2046        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2047            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2048                alias.append("columns", offset)
2049
2050        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2051            columns = alias.columns
2052            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2053        else:
2054            alias = self.sql(alias)
2055
2056        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2057        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2058            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2059        else:
2060            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2061                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2062            elif offset:
2063                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2064            else:
2065                suffix = alias
2066
2067        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
2069    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2070        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2071        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
2073    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2074        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2075        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2076        order = expression.args.get("order")
2077        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2078        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2079        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2080        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2081
2082        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2083
2084        first = expression.args.get("first")
2085        if first is None:
2086            first = ""
2087        else:
2088            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2089
2090        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2091            return f"{this} {alias}"
2092
2093        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2094        return f"{this} ({args})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2096    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2097        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2098        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
2100    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2101        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2102        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2103        end = (
2104            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2105            or "CURRENT ROW"
2106        )
2107        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
2109    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2110        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2111        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2112        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
2114    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2115        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2116        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2117        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2118        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
2120    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2121        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
2122        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2123
2124        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def safebracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeBracket) -> str:
2126    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
2127        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
2129    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2130        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
2132    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2133        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2134        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
2135            this = self.wrap(this)
2136        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
2138    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2139        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
2141    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2142        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2143        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2144
2145        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2146            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2147            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2148
2149        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2150
2151        if default:
2152            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2153
2154        statements.append("END")
2155
2156        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
2157            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2158
2159        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
2161    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2162        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2163        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2164        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
2166    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2167        order = expression.args.get("order")
2168        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2169        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
2171    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2172        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2173        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2174        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
2176    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2177        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2178
2179        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2180            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2181        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2182            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2183        else:
2184            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeConcat) -> str:
2186    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
2187        expressions = expression.expressions
2188        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2189            expressions = [exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions]
2190        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
2192    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2193        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2194        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2196    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2197        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2198        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2199        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2200        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2201        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2202        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2203        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2204        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2206    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2207        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2208        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2209        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2210        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
2212    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2213        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2215    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2216        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2217        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2218        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2220    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2221        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def formatjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FormatJson) -> str:
2223    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2224        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject) -> str:
2226    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
2227        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2228        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2229        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2230        if unique_keys is not None:
2231            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2232        else:
2233            unique_keys = ""
2234        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2235        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2236        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2237        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2238        return self.func(
2239            "JSON_OBJECT",
2240            *expression.expressions,
2241            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2242        )
def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArray) -> str:
2244    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2245        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2246        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2247        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2248        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2249        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2250        return self.func(
2251            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2252        )
def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2254    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2255        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2256        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2257        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2258        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2259        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2260        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2261        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2262        return self.func(
2263            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2264            this,
2265            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2266        )
def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2268    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2269        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2270        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2271        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2272
2273        if nested_schema:
2274            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2275
2276        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2277        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2278        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2279        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONSchema) -> str:
2281    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2282        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
def jsontable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONTable) -> str:
2284    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2285        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2286        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2287        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2288        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2289        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2290        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2291        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2292        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2293        return self.func(
2294            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2295        )
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2297    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2298        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2299        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2300        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2301        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2302        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2303        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
2305    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2306        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2307        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2308        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2309        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2310        with_ = (
2311            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2312            if expressions
2313            else ""
2314        )
2315        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
2317    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2318        query = expression.args.get("query")
2319        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2320        field = expression.args.get("field")
2321        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2322
2323        if query:
2324            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2325        elif unnest:
2326            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2327        elif field:
2328            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2329        else:
2330            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2331
2332        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2334    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2335        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
2337    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2338        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2339        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2340            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
2341        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2342
2343        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2344            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2345            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2346
2347        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2348        if this:
2349            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2350            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2351
2352        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
2354    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2355        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
2357    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2358        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2359        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2360        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2361        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2362        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2363        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
2365    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2366        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
2368    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2369        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2370            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2371        else:
2372            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2373            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2374
2375        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
2377    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2378        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2379        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2380        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2381        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
2383    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2384        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
2386    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2387        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2388        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2389        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
2391    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2392        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2394    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2395        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2396        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2397        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
2399    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2400        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And) -> str:
2402    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2403        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
def xor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Xor) -> str:
2405    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2406        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
def connector_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2408    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2409        if not self.pretty:
2410            return self.binary(expression, op)
2411
2412        sqls = tuple(
2413            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2414            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2415        )
2416
2417        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2418        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2420    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2421        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2423    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2424        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2426    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2427        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2429    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2430        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2432    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2433        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2435    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2436        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2438    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2439        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2440        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2441        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2442        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2443        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
2445    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2446        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2447        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
2449    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2450        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2451            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2452        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
2454    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2455        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
2457    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2458        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2459        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2460        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2461        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2462        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2464    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2465        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2466        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2467        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2468        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2469        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2470        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2471        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2472        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2473        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2475    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2476        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2477        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2478        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2479        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2480
2481        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2482            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2483
2484        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
2486    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2487        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
2489    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2490        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2491        if chain is not None:
2492            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2493
2494        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
2496    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2497        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2498        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2499        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
2501    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2502        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2503
2504        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2505        if dtype:
2506            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2507            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2508            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2509            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2510            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2511
2512        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2513        if default:
2514            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2515
2516        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2517            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2518
2519        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str:
2521    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2522        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2523            # Remove db from tables
2524            expression = expression.transform(
2525                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2526            )
2527        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2528        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def altertable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
2530    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2531        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2532
2533        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2534            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
2535        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2536            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2537        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2538            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2539        else:
2540            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2541
2542        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2543        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2544        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
def add_column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
2546    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2547        if self.ALTER_TABLE_ADD_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
2548            return self.expressions(
2549                expression,
2550                key="actions",
2551                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
2552            )
2553        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
2555    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2556        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2557        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2558        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
2560    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2561        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2562        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2563        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2564
2565        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2566        if enforced is not None:
2567            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2568
2569        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
2571    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2572        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2573        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2574
2575        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2576        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2577        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2579    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2580        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
2582    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2583        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
2585    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2586        return self.sql(
2587            exp.Cast(
2588                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2589                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2590            )
2591        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
2593    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2594        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2596    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2597        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2598            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2599        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
2601    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2602        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
2603
2604        if not self.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
2605            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
2606
2607        if self.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
2608            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.FLOAT_TYPES) and not r.is_type(
2609                *exp.DataType.FLOAT_TYPES
2610            ):
2611                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
2612
2613        elif not self.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
2614            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
2615                return self.sql(
2616                    exp.cast(
2617                        l / r,
2618                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
2619                    )
2620                )
2621
2622        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
2624    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2625        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
2627    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2628        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
2630    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2631        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
2633    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2634        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PropertyEQ) -> str:
2636    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
2637        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
2639    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2640        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
2642    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2643        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
2645    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2646        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
2648    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2649        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
2651    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2652        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
2654    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2655        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
2657    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2658        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2659            return self.sql(
2660                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2661            )
2662        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
2664    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2665        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
2667    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2668        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
2670    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2671        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
2673    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2674        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
2676    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2677        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
2679    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2680        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
2682    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2683        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
2685    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2686        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2688    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2689        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2691    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2692        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def or_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or) -> str:
2694    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2695        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
2697    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2698        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
2700    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2701        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
2703    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2704        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
def log_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Log) -> str:
2706    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
2707        args = list(expression.args.values())
2708        if not self.LOG_BASE_FIRST:
2709            args.reverse()
2710        return self.func("LOG", *args)
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
2712    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2713        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2714        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2715        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2716        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2717        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2719    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2720        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2721        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
2723    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2724        args = []
2725
2726        for key in expression.arg_types:
2727            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2728
2729            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2730                for value in arg_value:
2731                    args.append(value)
2732            elif arg_value is not None:
2733                args.append(arg_value)
2734
2735        if self.normalize_functions:
2736            name = expression.sql_name()
2737        else:
2738            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2739
2740        return self.func(name, *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')') -> str:
2742    def func(
2743        self,
2744        name: str,
2745        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2746        prefix: str = "(",
2747        suffix: str = ")",
2748    ) -> str:
2749        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
2751    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2752        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2753        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2754            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2755        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
def text_width(self, args: Iterable) -> int:
2757    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2758        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
def format_time(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> Optional[str]:
2760    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2761        return format_time(
2762            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2763        )
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[Collection[Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression]]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, skip_first: bool = False, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '') -> str:
2765    def expressions(
2766        self,
2767        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2768        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2769        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2770        flat: bool = False,
2771        indent: bool = True,
2772        skip_first: bool = False,
2773        sep: str = ", ",
2774        prefix: str = "",
2775    ) -> str:
2776        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2777
2778        if not expressions:
2779            return ""
2780
2781        if flat:
2782            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2783
2784        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2785
2786        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2787        pad = " " * self.pad
2788        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2789
2790        result_sqls = []
2791        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2792            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2793            if not sql:
2794                continue
2795
2796            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2797
2798            if self.pretty:
2799                if self.leading_comma:
2800                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2801                else:
2802                    result_sqls.append(
2803                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2804                    )
2805            else:
2806                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2807
2808        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2809        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2811    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2812        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2813        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2814        if flat:
2815            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2816        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
2818    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2819        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2820        if not property_name:
2821            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2822        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def set_operation(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union, op: str) -> str:
2824    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Union, op: str) -> str:
2825        this = self.maybe_comment(self.sql(expression, "this"), comments=expression.comments)
2826        op = self.seg(op)
2827        return self.query_modifiers(
2828            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2829        )
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
2831    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2832        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
2834    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2835        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2837    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2838        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2839        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2840        expressions = (
2841            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2842        )
2843        return f"{this}{expressions}"
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
2845    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2846        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2847        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2848        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
2850    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2851        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
2853    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2854        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2855        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2856        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2857        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2858
2859        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2860        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2861            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2862            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2863                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2864        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2865            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2866                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2867            else:
2868                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2869        else:
2870            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2871        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
2873    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2874        table = expression.this
2875        table_alias = ""
2876
2877        hints = table.args.get("hints")
2878        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
2879            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
2880            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
2881
2882        this = self.sql(table)
2883        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2884        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2885        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
2886
2887        return self.prepend_ctes(
2888            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
2889        )
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
2891    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2892        if expression.args.get("format"):
2893            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2894
2895        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str:
2897    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2898        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2899        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2900        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2901        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2902        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str:
2904    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2905        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2906        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2907        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2908        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2910    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2911        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str:
2913    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2914        return ""
def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2916    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2917        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2918        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2919        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2920        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2921        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue) -> str:
2923    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2924        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2925        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2926
2927        if having:
2928            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2929
2930        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
def querytransform_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryTransform) -> str:
2932    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2933        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2934        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2935        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2936        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2937        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2938        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2939        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2940        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2941        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2942        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2943        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2944        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
2945        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2947    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2948        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
2949        if key_block_size:
2950            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
2951
2952        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2953        if using:
2954            return f"USING {using}"
2955
2956        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
2957        if parser:
2958            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
2959
2960        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2961        if comment:
2962            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
2963
2964        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
2965        if visible is not None:
2966            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
2967
2968        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
2969        if engine_attr:
2970            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
2971
2972        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
2973        if secondary_engine_attr:
2974            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
2975
2976        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
2977        return ""
def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2979    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2980        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2981        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
2982        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2983        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2984        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
2985        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
2986        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2987        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
2988        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
2989        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2990        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{schema}{options}"
def nvl2_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Nvl2) -> str:
2992    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
2993        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
2994            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2995
2996        case = exp.Case().when(
2997            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
2998            expression.args["true"],
2999            copy=False,
3000        )
3001        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3002        if else_cond:
3003            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3004
3005        return self.sql(case)
def comprehension_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comprehension) -> str:
3007    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3008        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3009        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3010        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3011        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3012        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3013        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3015    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3016        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def opclass_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Opclass) -> str:
3018    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3019        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def predict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Predict) -> str:
3021    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3022        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3023        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3024        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3025        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3026        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3027        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
def forin_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForIn) -> str:
3029    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3030        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3031        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3032        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"