Edit on GitHub

sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import re
   5import typing as t
   6from collections import defaultdict
   7from functools import reduce
   8
   9from sqlglot import exp
  10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, seq_get
  12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
  13from sqlglot.time import format_time
  14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  15
  16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  17    from sqlglot._typing import E
  18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  19
  20logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  21
  22ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
  23
  24
  25class _Generator(type):
  26    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
  27        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
  28
  29        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
  30        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
  31            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
  32
  33        return klass
  34
  35
  36class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  37    """
  38    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  39
  40    Args:
  41        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  42            Default: False.
  43        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  44            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  45            True or 'always': Always quote.
  46            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  47        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  48            Default: False.
  49        pad: The pad size in a formatted string.
  50            Default: 2.
  51        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string.
  52            Default: 2.
  53        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  54            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  55            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  56            False: Disables function name normalization.
  57        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  58            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  59        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  60            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  61            Default: 3
  62        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  63            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  64            Default: False
  65        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  66            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  67            line length.
  68            Default: 80
  69        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  70            Default: True
  71    """
  72
  73    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
  74        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
  75        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  76        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  77        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
  78        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  79        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  80        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
  81        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  82        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  83        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  84        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  85        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  86        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
  87        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  88            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  89        ),
  90        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  92        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
  94        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  95        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
  96        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
  97        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
  98        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
  99        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 100        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 101        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 102        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 103        exp.JSONExtract: lambda self, e: self.func(
 104            "JSON_EXTRACT", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 105        ),
 106        exp.JSONExtractScalar: lambda self, e: self.func(
 107            "JSON_EXTRACT_SCALAR", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 108        ),
 109        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 110        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 111        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 112        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 113        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 114        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 115        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 116        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 117        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 118        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 119        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 120        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 121        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 122        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 123        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 124        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 125        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 126        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 127        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 128        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 129        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 130        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 131        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 132        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 133        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 134        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 135        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 136        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 137        exp.Timestamp: lambda self, e: self.func("TIMESTAMP", e.this, e.expression),
 138        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 139        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 140        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 141        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 142        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 143        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 144        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 145        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 146        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 147    }
 148
 149    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 150    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
 151    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 152
 153    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 154    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 155    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 156
 157    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 158    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 159
 160    # Always do union distinct or union all
 161    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 162
 163    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 164    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 165
 166    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 167    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 168
 169    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 170    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 171
 172    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 173    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 174
 175    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 176    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 177
 178    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 179    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 180
 181    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 182    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 183
 184    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 185    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 186
 187    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 188    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 189
 190    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 191    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 192
 193    # Whether join hints should be generated
 194    JOIN_HINTS = True
 195
 196    # Whether table hints should be generated
 197    TABLE_HINTS = True
 198
 199    # Whether query hints should be generated
 200    QUERY_HINTS = True
 201
 202    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 203    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 204
 205    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 206    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 207
 208    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 209    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 210
 211    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 212    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 213
 214    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 215    RETURNING_END = True
 216
 217    # Whether to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 218    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 219
 220    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 221    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 222
 223    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 224    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 225
 226    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 227    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 228
 229    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 230    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 231
 232    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 233    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 234    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 235    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 236
 237    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 238    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 239
 240    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 241    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 242
 243    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 244    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 245
 246    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 247    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 248
 249    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 250    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 251
 252    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 253    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 254
 255    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 256    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 257
 258    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 259    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 260
 261    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 262    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 263
 264    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 265    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 266
 267    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 268    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 269
 270    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 271    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 272
 273    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 274    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 275
 276    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 277    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 278
 279    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 280    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 281
 282    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 283    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 284
 285    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 286    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 287
 288    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 289    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 290
 291    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 292    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 293
 294    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 295    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 296
 297    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 298    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 299
 300    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 301    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 302
 303    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 304    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 305
 306    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 307    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 308
 309    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 310    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 311
 312    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 313    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 314    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 315
 316    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 317    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 318
 319    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 320    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 321
 322    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 323    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 324
 325    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 326    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 327
 328    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 329    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 330
 331    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 332    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 333
 334    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 335        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 336        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 337        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 338        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 339        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 340        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 341        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 342        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 343        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 344    }
 345
 346    STAR_MAPPING = {
 347        "except": "EXCEPT",
 348        "replace": "REPLACE",
 349    }
 350
 351    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 352        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 353        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 354        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 355        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 356        "DAYS": "DAY",
 357        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 358        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 359        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 360        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 361    }
 362
 363    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 364        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 365        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 366        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 367        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 368        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 369            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 370            if e.args.get("windows")
 371            else ""
 372        ),
 373    }
 374
 375    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 376
 377    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 378
 379    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 380    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 381
 382    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 383        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 384        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 385        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 386        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 387        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 388        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 389        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 390        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 391        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 392        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 393        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 394        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 395        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 396        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 397        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 398        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 399        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 400        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 401        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 402        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 403        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 404        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 405        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 406        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 407        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 408        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 409        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 410        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 411        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 412        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 413        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 414        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 415        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 416        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 417        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 418        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 419        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 420        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 421        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 422        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 423        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 424        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 425        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 426        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 427        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 428        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 429        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 430        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 431        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 432        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 433        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 434        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 435        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 436        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 437        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 438        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 439        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 440        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 441        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 442        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 443        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 444        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 445        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 446        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 447        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 448        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 449        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 450        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 451        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 452        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 453        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 454        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 455        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 456        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 457        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 458    }
 459
 460    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 461    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 462
 463    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 464    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 465        exp.Create,
 466        exp.Delete,
 467        exp.Drop,
 468        exp.From,
 469        exp.Insert,
 470        exp.Join,
 471        exp.Select,
 472        exp.Union,
 473        exp.Update,
 474        exp.Where,
 475        exp.With,
 476    )
 477
 478    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 479    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 480        exp.Binary,
 481        exp.Union,
 482    )
 483
 484    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 485    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 486        exp.Column,
 487        exp.Literal,
 488        exp.Neg,
 489        exp.Paren,
 490    )
 491
 492    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 493        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 494        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 495        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 496        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 497    }
 498
 499    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 500    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 501
 502    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 503
 504    __slots__ = (
 505        "pretty",
 506        "identify",
 507        "normalize",
 508        "pad",
 509        "_indent",
 510        "normalize_functions",
 511        "unsupported_level",
 512        "max_unsupported",
 513        "leading_comma",
 514        "max_text_width",
 515        "comments",
 516        "dialect",
 517        "unsupported_messages",
 518        "_escaped_quote_end",
 519        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 520    )
 521
 522    def __init__(
 523        self,
 524        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 525        identify: str | bool = False,
 526        normalize: bool = False,
 527        pad: int = 2,
 528        indent: int = 2,
 529        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 530        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 531        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 532        leading_comma: bool = False,
 533        max_text_width: int = 80,
 534        comments: bool = True,
 535        dialect: DialectType = None,
 536    ):
 537        import sqlglot
 538        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 539
 540        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 541        self.identify = identify
 542        self.normalize = normalize
 543        self.pad = pad
 544        self._indent = indent
 545        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 546        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 547        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 548        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 549        self.comments = comments
 550        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 551
 552        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 553        self.normalize_functions = (
 554            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 555        )
 556
 557        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 558        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 559            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 560        )
 561        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 562            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 563        )
 564
 565    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 566        """
 567        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 568
 569        Args:
 570            expression: The syntax tree.
 571            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 572                it is safer to copy.
 573
 574        Returns:
 575            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 576        """
 577        if copy:
 578            expression = expression.copy()
 579
 580        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 581
 582        self.unsupported_messages = []
 583        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 584
 585        if self.pretty:
 586            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 587
 588        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 589            return sql
 590
 591        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 592            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 593                logger.warning(msg)
 594        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 595            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 596
 597        return sql
 598
 599    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 600        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 601        if (
 602            not expression.parent
 603            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 604            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 605        ):
 606            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 607
 608            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 609
 610        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 611            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 612
 613            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 614
 615        return expression
 616
 617    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 618        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 619            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 620        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 621
 622    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 623        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 624
 625    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 626        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 627
 628    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 629        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 630        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 631        return comment
 632
 633    def maybe_comment(
 634        self,
 635        sql: str,
 636        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 637        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 638    ) -> str:
 639        comments = (
 640            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 641            if self.comments
 642            else None
 643        )
 644
 645        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 646            return sql
 647
 648        comments_sql = " ".join(
 649            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 650        )
 651
 652        if not comments_sql:
 653            return sql
 654
 655        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 656            return (
 657                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 658                if sql[0].isspace()
 659                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 660            )
 661
 662        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 663
 664    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 665        this_sql = self.indent(
 666            (
 667                self.sql(expression)
 668                if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 669                else self.sql(expression, "this")
 670            ),
 671            level=1,
 672            pad=0,
 673        )
 674        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 675
 676    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 677        original = self.identify
 678        self.identify = False
 679        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 680        self.identify = original
 681        return result
 682
 683    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 684        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 685            return name.upper()
 686        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 687            return name.lower()
 688        return name
 689
 690    def indent(
 691        self,
 692        sql: str,
 693        level: int = 0,
 694        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 695        skip_first: bool = False,
 696        skip_last: bool = False,
 697    ) -> str:
 698        if not self.pretty:
 699            return sql
 700
 701        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 702        lines = sql.split("\n")
 703
 704        return "\n".join(
 705            (
 706                line
 707                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 708                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 709            )
 710            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 711        )
 712
 713    def sql(
 714        self,
 715        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 716        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 717        comment: bool = True,
 718    ) -> str:
 719        if not expression:
 720            return ""
 721
 722        if isinstance(expression, str):
 723            return expression
 724
 725        if key:
 726            value = expression.args.get(key)
 727            if value:
 728                return self.sql(value)
 729            return ""
 730
 731        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 732
 733        if callable(transform):
 734            sql = transform(self, expression)
 735        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 736            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 737
 738            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 739                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 740            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 741                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 742            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 743                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 744            else:
 745                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 746        else:
 747            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 748
 749        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 750
 751    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 752        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 753        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 754        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 755
 756    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 757        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 758        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 759        options = expression.args.get("options")
 760        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 761        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 762        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 763        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 764        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 765
 766    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 767        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 768            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 769        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 770        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 771
 772    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 773        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 774
 775        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 776            join_mark = ""
 777            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 778
 779        column = ".".join(
 780            self.sql(part)
 781            for part in (
 782                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 783                expression.args.get("db"),
 784                expression.args.get("table"),
 785                expression.args.get("this"),
 786            )
 787            if part
 788        )
 789
 790        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 791
 792    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 793        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 794        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 795        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 796        return f"{position}{this}"
 797
 798    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 799        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 800        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 801        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 802        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 803        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 804        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 805        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 806        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 807
 808        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 809            kind = ""
 810
 811        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 812
 813    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 814        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 815        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 816        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 817
 818    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 819        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 820        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 821            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 822        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 823            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 824        else:
 825            persisted = ""
 826        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 827
 828    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 829        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 830
 831    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 832        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 833            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 834        else:
 835            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 836
 837        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 838
 839    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 840        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 841    ) -> str:
 842        this = ""
 843        if expression.this is not None:
 844            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 845            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 846
 847        start = expression.args.get("start")
 848        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 849        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 850        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 851        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 852        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 853        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 854        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 855        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 856        cycle_sql = ""
 857
 858        if cycle is not None:
 859            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 860            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 861
 862        sequence_opts = ""
 863        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 864            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 865            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 866
 867        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 868        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 869
 870        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 871
 872    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 873        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 874    ) -> str:
 875        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
 876        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 877        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 878
 879    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 880        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 881    ) -> str:
 882        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 883
 884    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 885        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 886
 887    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 888        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 889
 890    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 891        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 892        if desc is not None:
 893            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 894        return "PRIMARY KEY"
 895
 896    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 897        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 898        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 899        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 900        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 901        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
 902        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
 903        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
 904
 905    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 906        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 907
 908    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 909        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 910        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 911        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 912
 913        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 914
 915        properties_sql = ""
 916        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 917            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 918        ):
 919            properties_sql = self.sql(
 920                exp.Properties(
 921                    expressions=[
 922                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 923                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 924                    ]
 925                )
 926            )
 927
 928        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 929        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 930
 931        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 932        if expression_sql:
 933            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 934
 935            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 936                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 937                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 938                        exp.Properties(
 939                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 940                        ),
 941                        wrapped=False,
 942                    )
 943                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 944                else:
 945                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 946
 947        postindex_props_sql = ""
 948        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 949            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 950                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 951                wrapped=False,
 952                prefix=" ",
 953            )
 954
 955        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 956        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 957        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 958
 959        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 960        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 961
 962        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 963        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 964            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 965                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 966                sep=" ",
 967                prefix=" ",
 968                wrapped=False,
 969            )
 970
 971        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 972
 973        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 974        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 975            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 976                exp.Properties(
 977                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 978                ),
 979                sep=" ",
 980                prefix=" ",
 981                wrapped=False,
 982            )
 983
 984        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 985        no_schema_binding = (
 986            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 987        )
 988
 989        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 990        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 991
 992        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 993        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 994
 995    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
 996        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
 997        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 998        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
 999        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1000        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1001        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1002        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1003        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1004        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1005        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1006
1007        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1008        if cache is None:
1009            cache_str = ""
1010        elif cache is True:
1011            cache_str = " CACHE"
1012        else:
1013            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1014
1015        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1016        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1017
1018        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1019
1020    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1021        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1022        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1023        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1024        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1025
1026    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1027        extended = " EXTENDED" if expression.args.get("extended") else ""
1028        return f"DESCRIBE{extended} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1029
1030    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1031        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1032        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1033
1034    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1035        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1036        if with_:
1037            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1038        return sql
1039
1040    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1041        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1042        recursive = (
1043            "RECURSIVE "
1044            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1045            else ""
1046        )
1047
1048        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1049
1050    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1051        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1052        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
1053
1054    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1055        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1056        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1057        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1058
1059        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1060            columns = ""
1061            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1062
1063        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1064            alias = "_t"
1065
1066        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1067
1068    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1069        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1070        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1071            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1072        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1073
1074    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1075        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1076        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1077            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1078        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1079
1080    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1081        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1082        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1083            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1084        return this
1085
1086    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1087        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1088        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1089
1090        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1091            escape = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if escape else ""
1092            return f"{self.dialect.UNICODE_START}{this}{self.dialect.UNICODE_END}{escape}"
1093
1094        if escape:
1095            pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1096        else:
1097            pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1098
1099        this = pattern.sub(r"\\u\1", this)
1100        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1101
1102    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1103        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
1104        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1105
1106    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1107        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1108        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1109        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1110        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1111
1112    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1113        type_value = expression.this
1114
1115        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1116            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1117        else:
1118            type_sql = (
1119                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1120                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1121                else type_value
1122            )
1123
1124        nested = ""
1125        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1126        values = ""
1127
1128        if interior:
1129            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1130                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1131                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1132                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1133                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1134                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1135            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1136                nested = f" {interior}"
1137            else:
1138                nested = f"({interior})"
1139
1140        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1141        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1142            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1143            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1144        ):
1145            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1146
1147        return type_sql
1148
1149    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1150        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1151        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1152        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1153        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1154
1155    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1156        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1157        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1158        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1159        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1160        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1161        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1162        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1163        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1164        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1165        if self.RETURNING_END:
1166            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1167        else:
1168            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1169        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1170
1171    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1172        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1173        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1174        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1175        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1176        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1177        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1178        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1179        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1180        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1181        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1182        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1183
1184    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1185        return self.set_operations(expression)
1186
1187    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1188        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1189
1190    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1191        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1192        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1193        count = expression.args.get("count")
1194        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1195        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1196            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1197        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1198        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1199
1200    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1201        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1202            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1203            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1204            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1205
1206        agg = expression.this
1207        agg_arg = agg.this
1208        cond = expression.expression.this
1209        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1210        return self.sql(agg)
1211
1212    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1213        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1214            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1215            return ""
1216
1217        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1218
1219    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1220        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1221        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1222        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1223        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1224        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1225        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1226        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1227        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1228        if include:
1229            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1230        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1231        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1232        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1233        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1234
1235        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}"
1236
1237    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1238        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1239        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1240        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1241        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1242        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1243        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1244        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1245
1246        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1247
1248        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1249        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1250
1251    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1252        text = expression.name
1253        lower = text.lower()
1254        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1255        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1256        if (
1257            expression.quoted
1258            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1259            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1260            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1261        ):
1262            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1263        return text
1264
1265    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1266        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1267        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1268        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1269        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1270        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1271
1272    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1273        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1274        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1275
1276    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1277        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1278
1279    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1280        root_properties = []
1281        with_properties = []
1282
1283        for p in expression.expressions:
1284            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1285            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1286                with_properties.append(p)
1287            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1288                root_properties.append(p)
1289
1290        return self.root_properties(
1291            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1292        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1293
1294    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1295        if properties.expressions:
1296            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1297        return ""
1298
1299    def properties(
1300        self,
1301        properties: exp.Properties,
1302        prefix: str = "",
1303        sep: str = ", ",
1304        suffix: str = "",
1305        wrapped: bool = True,
1306    ) -> str:
1307        if properties.expressions:
1308            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1309            if expressions:
1310                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1311                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1312        return ""
1313
1314    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1315        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1316
1317    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1318        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1319        for p in properties.expressions:
1320            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1321            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1322                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1323            else:
1324                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1325
1326        return properties_locs
1327
1328    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1329        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1330            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1331        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1332
1333    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1334        property_cls = expression.__class__
1335        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1336            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1337
1338        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1339        if not property_name:
1340            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1341
1342        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1343
1344    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1345        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1346            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1347            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1348
1349            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1350            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1351                like = f"({like})"
1352
1353            return like
1354
1355        if expression.expressions:
1356            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1357
1358        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1359        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1360
1361    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1362        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1363        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1364        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1365
1366    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1367        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1368        local = expression.args.get("local")
1369        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1370        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1371        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1372        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1373        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1374
1375    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1376        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1377        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1378        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1379
1380    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1381        if expression.args.get("default"):
1382            property = "DEFAULT"
1383        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1384            property = "ON"
1385        else:
1386            property = "OFF"
1387        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1388
1389    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1390        if expression.args.get("no"):
1391            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1392        if expression.args.get("default"):
1393            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1394
1395        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1396        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1397
1398    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1399        default = expression.args.get("default")
1400        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1401        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1402        if default or minimum or maximum:
1403            if default:
1404                prop = "DEFAULT"
1405            elif minimum:
1406                prop = "MINIMUM"
1407            else:
1408                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1409            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1410        units = expression.args.get("units")
1411        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1412        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1413
1414    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1415        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1416        always = expression.args.get("always")
1417        default = expression.args.get("default")
1418        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1419        never = expression.args.get("never")
1420
1421        if autotemp is not None:
1422            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1423        elif always:
1424            prop = "ALWAYS"
1425        elif default:
1426            prop = "DEFAULT"
1427        elif manual:
1428            prop = "MANUAL"
1429        elif never:
1430            prop = "NEVER"
1431        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1432
1433    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1434        no = expression.args.get("no")
1435        no = " NO" if no else ""
1436        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1437        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1438
1439        for_ = ""
1440        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1441            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1442        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1443            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1444        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1445            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1446        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1447
1448    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1449        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1450            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1451        if expression.this:
1452            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1453            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1454            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1455
1456        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1457        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1458        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1459
1460    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1461        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1462
1463        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1464        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1465            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1466        else:
1467            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1468
1469        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1470
1471    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1472        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1473        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1474        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1475        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1476        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1477        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1478        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1479
1480    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1481        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1482        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1483        statistics_sql = ""
1484        if statistics is not None:
1485            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1486        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1487
1488    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1489        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
1490
1491        if expression.this:
1492            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
1493            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
1494
1495            if expression.expression:
1496                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1497                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
1498
1499            sql = f"{sql})"
1500
1501        return f"{sql})"
1502
1503    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1504        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1505        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1506
1507        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1508            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1509        else:
1510            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1511
1512        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1513        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1514        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1515        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1516        if is_function:
1517            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1518        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1519
1520        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1521        partition_sql = (
1522            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1523        )
1524        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1525        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1526        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1527        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1528        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1529        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1530        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1531
1532        if self.RETURNING_END:
1533            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1534        else:
1535            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1536
1537        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1538        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1539
1540    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1541        return self.set_operations(expression)
1542
1543    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1544        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1545
1546    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1547        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1548
1549    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1550        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1551        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1552        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1553        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1554        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1555
1556    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1557        return expression.name
1558
1559    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1560        return expression.name
1561
1562    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1563        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1564
1565        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1566        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1567
1568        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1569        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1570        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1571
1572        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1573        if expressions:
1574            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1575            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1576
1577        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1578
1579    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1580        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1581
1582    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1583        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1584        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1585        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1586        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1587        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1588        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1589        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1590        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1591        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1592        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1593        null = expression.args.get("null")
1594        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1595        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1596
1597    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1598        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1599
1600    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1601        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1602        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1603        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1604        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1605
1606    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1607        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1608        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1609        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1610        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1611
1612    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1613        return ".".join(
1614            self.sql(part)
1615            for part in (
1616                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1617                expression.args.get("db"),
1618                expression.args.get("this"),
1619            )
1620            if part is not None
1621        )
1622
1623    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1624        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1625        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1626        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1627        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1628        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1629        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1630        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1631        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1632        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1633        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1634        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1635        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1636
1637        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1638        if file_format:
1639            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1640            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1641            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1642
1643        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1644        if ordinality:
1645            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1646            alias = ""
1647
1648        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1649        if when:
1650            table = f"{table} {when}"
1651
1652        return f"{only}{table}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1653
1654    def tablesample_sql(
1655        self,
1656        expression: exp.TableSample,
1657        sep: str = " AS ",
1658        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1659    ) -> str:
1660        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1661            table = expression.this.copy()
1662            table.set("alias", None)
1663            this = self.sql(table)
1664            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1665        else:
1666            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1667            alias = ""
1668
1669        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1670        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1671        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1672        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1673        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1674        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1675        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1676        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1677        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1678
1679        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1680        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1681            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1682
1683        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1684        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1685            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1686
1687        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1688        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1689            expr = f"({expr})"
1690
1691        return (
1692            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1693        )
1694
1695    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1696        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1697
1698        if expression.this:
1699            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1700            if not expressions:
1701                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1702
1703            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1704            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1705            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1706            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1707            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1708
1709        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1710        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1711        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1712        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1713        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1714        if include_nulls is not None:
1715            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1716        else:
1717            nulls = ""
1718        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1719
1720    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1721        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1722        kind = expression.text("kind")
1723        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1724        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1725
1726    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1727        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1728
1729    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1730        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1731        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1732        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1733        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1734        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1735        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1736        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1737        if self.RETURNING_END:
1738            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1739        else:
1740            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1741        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1742        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1743
1744    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1745        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1746        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1747            args = self.expressions(expression)
1748            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1749            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1750            values = (
1751                f"({values})"
1752                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1753                else values
1754            )
1755            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1756
1757        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1758        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1759        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1760
1761        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1762
1763        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1764            row = tup.expressions
1765
1766            if i == 0 and column_names:
1767                row = [
1768                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1769                ]
1770
1771            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1772
1773        if self.pretty:
1774            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1775            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1776            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1777            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1778            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1779
1780        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1781        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1782        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1783
1784    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1785        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1786
1787    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1788        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1789        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1790        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1791
1792    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1793        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1794
1795    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1796        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1797
1798        if expression.args.get("all"):
1799            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1800
1801        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1802        grouping_sets = (
1803            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1804        )
1805
1806        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1807        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1808            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1809        else:
1810            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1811            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1812
1813        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1814        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1815            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1816        else:
1817            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1818            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1819
1820        groupings = csv(
1821            grouping_sets,
1822            cube_sql,
1823            rollup_sql,
1824            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1825            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1826        )
1827
1828        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1829            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1830
1831        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1832
1833    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1834        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1835        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1836
1837    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1838        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1839        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1840        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1841        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY {connect}")
1842        return start + connect
1843
1844    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1845        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1846
1847    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1848        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1849            side = None
1850        else:
1851            side = expression.side
1852
1853        op_sql = " ".join(
1854            op
1855            for op in (
1856                expression.method,
1857                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1858                side,
1859                expression.kind,
1860                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1861            )
1862            if op
1863        )
1864        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1865        using = expression.args.get("using")
1866
1867        if not on_sql and using:
1868            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1869
1870        this = expression.this
1871        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1872
1873        if on_sql:
1874            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1875            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1876            if using:
1877                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1878            else:
1879                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1880        elif not op_sql:
1881            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
1882                return f" {this_sql}"
1883
1884            return f", {this_sql}"
1885
1886        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1887        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1888
1889    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1890        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1891        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1892        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1893
1894    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1895        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
1896
1897        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
1898        if cross_apply is True:
1899            op = "INNER JOIN "
1900        elif cross_apply is False:
1901            op = "LEFT JOIN "
1902        else:
1903            op = ""
1904
1905        return f"{op}LATERAL"
1906
1907    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1908        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1909
1910        if expression.args.get("view"):
1911            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1912            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1913            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1914            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1915            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1916            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1917
1918        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1919        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1920        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
1921
1922    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1923        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1924
1925        args = [
1926            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
1927            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1928            if e
1929        ]
1930
1931        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
1932        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
1933        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1934        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1935
1936        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
1937
1938    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1939        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1940        value = expression.expression
1941        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
1942        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1943        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1944        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
1945
1946    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1947        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1948        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1949        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1950        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1951        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1952        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1953        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1954        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1955
1956    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1957        expressions = (
1958            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1959        )
1960        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1961        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1962
1963    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1964        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1965
1966    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1967        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1968            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1969            return ""
1970
1971        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1972        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1973        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1974        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1975
1976        if wait is not None:
1977            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1978                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1979            else:
1980                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1981
1982        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1983
1984    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1985        text = expression.this or ""
1986        if expression.is_string:
1987            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1988        return text
1989
1990    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1991        text = text.replace(self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1992        if self.dialect.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES:
1993            text = "".join(self.dialect.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES.get(ch, ch) for ch in text)
1994        elif self.pretty:
1995            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1996        return text
1997
1998    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1999        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2000        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2001        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2002        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2003        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2004        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2005        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2006        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2007        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2008        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2009        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2010
2011    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2012        return "NULL"
2013
2014    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2015        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2016
2017    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2018        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2019        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2020        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2021        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2022        interpolated_values = [
2023            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2024            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2025        ]
2026        interpolate = (
2027            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2028        )
2029        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
2030
2031    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2032        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2033        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2034        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2035        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2036        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2037        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2038        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
2039
2040    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2041        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2042
2043    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2044        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2045
2046    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2047        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2048
2049    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2050        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2051        asc = not desc
2052
2053        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2054        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2055        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2056        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2057        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2058
2059        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2060
2061        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2062        nulls_sort_change = ""
2063        if nulls_first and (
2064            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2065        ):
2066            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2067        elif (
2068            nulls_last
2069            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2070            and not nulls_are_last
2071        ):
2072            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2073
2074        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2075        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2076            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2077            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2078                self.unsupported(
2079                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2080                )
2081                nulls_sort_change = ""
2082            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2083                if expression.this.is_int:
2084                    self.unsupported(
2085                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2086                    )
2087                else:
2088                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2089                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2090                nulls_sort_change = ""
2091
2092        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2093        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2094
2095        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2096
2097    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2098        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2099        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2100        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2101        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2102        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2103        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2104        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2105        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2106        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2107        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2108        definition_sqls = [
2109            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2110            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2111        ]
2112        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2113        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2114        body = "".join(
2115            (
2116                partition,
2117                order,
2118                measures,
2119                rows,
2120                after,
2121                pattern,
2122                define,
2123            )
2124        )
2125        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2126        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2127        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2128
2129    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2130        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2131
2132        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2133            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2134        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2135            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2136
2137        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2138        if options:
2139            options = f" OPTION{self.wrap(options)}"
2140
2141        return csv(
2142            *sqls,
2143            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2144            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2145            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2146            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2147            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2148            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2149            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2150            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2151            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2152            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2153            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2154            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2155            options,
2156            sep="",
2157        )
2158
2159    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2160        return ""
2161
2162    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2163        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2164    ) -> t.List[str]:
2165        return [
2166            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2167            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2168        ]
2169
2170    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2171        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2172        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2173        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2174
2175    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2176        into = expression.args.get("into")
2177        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2178            into.pop()
2179
2180        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2181        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2182        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2183        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2184
2185        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2186        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2187            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2188            limit.pop()
2189        else:
2190            top = ""
2191
2192        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2193
2194        if kind:
2195            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2196                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2197            else:
2198                if kind == "STRUCT":
2199                    expressions = self.expressions(
2200                        sqls=[
2201                            self.sql(
2202                                exp.Struct(
2203                                    expressions=[
2204                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2205                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2206                                        else e
2207                                        for e in expression.expressions
2208                                    ]
2209                                )
2210                            )
2211                        ]
2212                    )
2213                kind = ""
2214
2215        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2216        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2217        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2218        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2219        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2220            expression,
2221            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2222            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2223            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2224        )
2225
2226        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2227
2228        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2229            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2230                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2231            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2232                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2233            else:
2234                table_kind = ""
2235            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2236
2237        return sql
2238
2239    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2240        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2241        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2242        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2243
2244    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2245        if expression.expressions:
2246            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2247        return ""
2248
2249    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2250        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2251        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2252        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2253        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2254        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
2255
2256    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2257        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2258        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2259
2260    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2261        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2262        kind = expression.text("kind")
2263        if kind:
2264            kind = f"{kind}."
2265        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2266
2267    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2268        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
2269
2270    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2271        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2272        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2273
2274        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2275        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2276
2277        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2278        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2279
2280    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2281        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2282        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2283
2284    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2285        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2286        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2287
2288        while stack:
2289            node = stack.pop()
2290
2291            if isinstance(node, exp.Union):
2292                stack.append(node.expression)
2293                stack.append(
2294                    self.maybe_comment(
2295                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2296                        expression=node.this,
2297                        comments=node.comments,
2298                    )
2299                )
2300                stack.append(node.this)
2301            else:
2302                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2303
2304        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2305        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2306        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
2307
2308    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2309        return self.set_operations(expression)
2310
2311    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2312        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2313        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2314        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2315        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2316
2317    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2318        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2319
2320        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2321        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2322
2323        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2324            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2325                alias.append("columns", offset)
2326
2327        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2328            columns = alias.columns
2329            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2330        else:
2331            alias = self.sql(alias)
2332
2333        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2334        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2335            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2336        else:
2337            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2338                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2339            elif offset:
2340                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2341            else:
2342                suffix = alias
2343
2344        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2345
2346    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2347        return ""
2348
2349    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2350        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2351        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2352
2353    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2354        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2355        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2356        order = expression.args.get("order")
2357        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2358        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2359        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2360        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2361
2362        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2363
2364        first = expression.args.get("first")
2365        if first is None:
2366            first = ""
2367        else:
2368            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2369
2370        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2371            return f"{this} {alias}"
2372
2373        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2374        return f"{this} ({args})"
2375
2376    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2377        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2378        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2379
2380    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2381        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2382        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2383        end = (
2384            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2385            or "CURRENT ROW"
2386        )
2387        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2388
2389    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2390        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2391        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2392        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2393
2394    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2395        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2396        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2397        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2398        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2399
2400    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2401        expressions = apply_index_offset(
2402            expression.this,
2403            expression.expressions,
2404            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2405        )
2406        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2407        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2408
2409    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2410        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2411
2412    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2413        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2414        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2415            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2416                this = self.wrap(this)
2417            return f"ANY{this}"
2418        return f"ANY {this}"
2419
2420    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2421        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2422
2423    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2424        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2425        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2426
2427        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2428            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2429            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2430
2431        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2432
2433        if default:
2434            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2435
2436        statements.append("END")
2437
2438        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
2439            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2440
2441        return " ".join(statements)
2442
2443    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2444        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2445        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2446        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2447
2448    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2449        order = expression.args.get("order")
2450        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2451        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2452
2453    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2454        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2455        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2456        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2457
2458    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2459        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2460
2461        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2462            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2463        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2464            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2465        else:
2466            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2467
2468    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2469        args = expression.expressions
2470        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2471            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2472
2473        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2474            args = [exp.cast(e, "text") for e in args]
2475
2476        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2477            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2478
2479        return args
2480
2481    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2482        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2483
2484        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2485        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2486            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2487
2488        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2489
2490    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2491        return self.func(
2492            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2493        )
2494
2495    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2496        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2497        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2498
2499    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2500        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2501        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2502        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2503        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2504        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2505        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2506        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2507        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2508
2509    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2510        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2511        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2512        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2513        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2514
2515    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2516        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2517
2518    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2519        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2520        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2521        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2522
2523    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2524        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2525
2526    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2527        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2528        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2529
2530    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2531        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2532            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2533            if not callable(transform):
2534                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2535                return ""
2536
2537            return transform(self, expression)
2538
2539        if isinstance(expression, int):
2540            return str(expression)
2541
2542        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2543            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2544            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2545        else:
2546            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2547            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2548
2549        return escaped
2550
2551    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2552        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2553
2554    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2555        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2556        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2557
2558        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2559        if unique_keys is not None:
2560            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2561        else:
2562            unique_keys = ""
2563
2564        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2565        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2566        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2567        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2568
2569        return self.func(
2570            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2571            *expression.expressions,
2572            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2573        )
2574
2575    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2576        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2577
2578    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2579        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2580        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2581        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2582        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2583        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2584        return self.func(
2585            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2586        )
2587
2588    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2589        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2590        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2591        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2592        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2593        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2594        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2595        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2596        return self.func(
2597            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2598            this,
2599            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2600        )
2601
2602    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2603        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2604        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2605        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2606
2607        if nested_schema:
2608            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2609
2610        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2611        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2612        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2613        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2614
2615    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2616        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2617
2618    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2619        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2620        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2621        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2622        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2623        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2624        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2625        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2626        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2627        return self.func(
2628            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2629        )
2630
2631    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2632        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2633        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2634        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2635        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2636        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2637        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2638
2639    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2640        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2641        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2642        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2643        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2644        with_ = (
2645            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2646            if expressions
2647            else ""
2648        )
2649        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2650
2651    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2652        query = expression.args.get("query")
2653        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2654        field = expression.args.get("field")
2655        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2656
2657        if query:
2658            in_sql = self.wrap(self.sql(query))
2659        elif unnest:
2660            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2661        elif field:
2662            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2663        else:
2664            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2665
2666        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2667
2668    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2669        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2670
2671    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2672        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2673        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2674            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2675        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2676
2677        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2678            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2679            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2680
2681        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2682        if this:
2683            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2684            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2685
2686        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2687
2688    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2689        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2690
2691    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2692        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2693        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2694        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2695        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2696        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2697        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2698
2699    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2700        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
2701
2702    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2703        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2704        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2705
2706    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2707        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2708        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2709        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2710        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2711
2712    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2713        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2714
2715    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2716        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2717        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2718        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2719
2720    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2721        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2722        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2723
2724        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2725            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2726        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2727            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2728
2729        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2730
2731    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2732        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2733
2734    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2735        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2736        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2737        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2738
2739    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2740        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2741        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2742        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2743
2744    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2745        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2746        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2747        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
2748
2749    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2750        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2751
2752    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2753        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
2754
2755    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2756        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
2757
2758    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2759        if not self.pretty:
2760            return self.binary(expression, op)
2761
2762        sqls = tuple(
2763            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2764            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2765        )
2766
2767        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2768        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
2769
2770    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2771        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2772
2773    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2774        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2775
2776    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2777        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2778
2779    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2780        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2781
2782    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2783        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2784
2785    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2786        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2787
2788    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2789        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2790        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2791        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2792        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2793        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
2794        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
2795        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
2796
2797    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2798        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2799        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2800
2801    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2802        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)
2803
2804    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2805        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2806            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2807        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2808
2809    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2810        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2811
2812    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2813        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2814        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2815        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2816        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2817        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2818
2819    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2820        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2821        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2822        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2823        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2824        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2825        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2826        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2827        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2828        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2829
2830    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2831        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2832        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2833        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2834        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2835
2836        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2837            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2838
2839        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2840
2841    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2842        return "BEGIN"
2843
2844    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2845        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2846        if chain is not None:
2847            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2848
2849        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2850
2851    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2852        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2853        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2854        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2855
2856    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2857        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2858
2859        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2860        if dtype:
2861            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2862            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2863            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2864            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2865            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2866
2867        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2868        if default:
2869            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2870
2871        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2872        if comment:
2873            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
2874
2875        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2876            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2877
2878        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2879
2880    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2881        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2882            # Remove db from tables
2883            expression = expression.transform(
2884                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2885            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
2886        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2887        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2888
2889    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
2890        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2891        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
2892        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
2893        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
2894
2895    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2896        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2897
2898        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2899            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
2900        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2901            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2902        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2903            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2904        else:
2905            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2906
2907        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2908        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2909        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2910        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
2911        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}{options}"
2912
2913    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2914        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
2915            return self.expressions(
2916                expression,
2917                key="actions",
2918                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
2919            )
2920        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
2921
2922    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2923        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2924        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2925        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2926
2927    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2928        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
2929
2930    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2931        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2932
2933        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
2934            case = exp.case()
2935            for arg in expression.expressions:
2936                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
2937            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
2938
2939        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2940
2941        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2942        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2943        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2944
2945    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2946        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
2947
2948    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2949        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
2950
2951    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
2952        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2953        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2954        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
2955        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
2956
2957    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
2958        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
2959            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
2960            mods = sorted(
2961                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
2962                key=lambda x: 0
2963                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
2964                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
2965            )
2966
2967            if mods:
2968                mod = mods[0]
2969                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
2970                this.meta["inline"] = True
2971                mod.this.replace(this)
2972                return self.sql(expression.this)
2973
2974            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
2975
2976            if agg_func:
2977                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
2978
2979        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
2980
2981    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2982        return self.sql(
2983            exp.Cast(
2984                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2985                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2986            )
2987        )
2988
2989    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2990        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2991            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2992        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2993
2994    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2995        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
2996
2997        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
2998            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
2999
3000        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3001            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3002                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3003
3004        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3005            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3006                return self.sql(
3007                    exp.cast(
3008                        l / r,
3009                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3010                    )
3011                )
3012
3013        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3014
3015    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3016        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3017
3018    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3019        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3020
3021    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3022        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3023
3024    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3025        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3026
3027    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3028        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3029
3030    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3031        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3032
3033    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3034        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3035
3036    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3037        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3038
3039    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3040        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3041
3042    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3043        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3044
3045    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3046        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3047
3048    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3049        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3050            return self.sql(
3051                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3052            )
3053        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3054
3055    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3056        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3057
3058    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3059        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3060
3061    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3062        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3063
3064    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3065        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3066
3067    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3068        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3069
3070    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3071        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3072
3073    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3074        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3075
3076    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3077        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3078
3079    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3080        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3081
3082    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3083        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3084
3085    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
3086        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
3087
3088    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3089        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3090
3091    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3092        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3093
3094    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3095        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3096
3097    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3098        this = expression.this
3099        expr = expression.expression
3100
3101        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3102            this, expr = expr, this
3103        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3104            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3105                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3106
3107            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3108
3109        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3110
3111    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3112        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3113        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3114        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3115        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3116        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3117
3118    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3119        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3120        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3121
3122    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3123        args = []
3124
3125        for key in expression.arg_types:
3126            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3127
3128            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3129                for value in arg_value:
3130                    args.append(value)
3131            elif arg_value is not None:
3132                args.append(arg_value)
3133
3134        if self.normalize_functions:
3135            name = expression.sql_name()
3136        else:
3137            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3138
3139        return self.func(name, *args)
3140
3141    def func(
3142        self,
3143        name: str,
3144        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3145        prefix: str = "(",
3146        suffix: str = ")",
3147    ) -> str:
3148        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3149
3150    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3151        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
3152        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
3153            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3154        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3155
3156    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
3157        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
3158
3159    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
3160        return format_time(
3161            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3162            self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3163            self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3164        )
3165
3166    def expressions(
3167        self,
3168        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3169        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3170        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3171        flat: bool = False,
3172        indent: bool = True,
3173        skip_first: bool = False,
3174        sep: str = ", ",
3175        prefix: str = "",
3176    ) -> str:
3177        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3178
3179        if not expressions:
3180            return ""
3181
3182        if flat:
3183            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3184
3185        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3186
3187        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
3188        pad = " " * self.pad
3189        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
3190
3191        result_sqls = []
3192        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3193            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3194            if not sql:
3195                continue
3196
3197            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3198
3199            if self.pretty:
3200                if self.leading_comma:
3201                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3202                else:
3203                    result_sqls.append(
3204                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3205                    )
3206            else:
3207                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3208
3209        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
3210        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
3211
3212    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3213        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3214        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3215        if flat:
3216            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3217        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3218
3219    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3220        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3221        if not property_name:
3222            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3223        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3224
3225    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3226        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3227
3228    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3229        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3230
3231    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3232        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3233        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3234        expressions = (
3235            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3236        )
3237        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3238
3239    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3240        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3241        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3242        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3243
3244    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3245        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3246
3247    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3248        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3249        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3250        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3251        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3252
3253        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3254        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3255            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
3256            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
3257                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
3258        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3259            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3260                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3261            else:
3262                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3263        else:
3264            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3265        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3266
3267    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3268        table = expression.this
3269        table_alias = ""
3270
3271        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3272        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3273            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3274            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3275
3276        this = self.sql(table)
3277        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3278        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3279        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
3280
3281        return self.prepend_ctes(
3282            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
3283        )
3284
3285    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3286        if expression.args.get("format"):
3287            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3288
3289        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
3290
3291    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3292        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3293            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3294            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "double"))
3295
3296        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3297        if not fmt:
3298            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3299            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "double"))
3300
3301        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3302
3303    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3304        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3305        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3306        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3307        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3308        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3309
3310    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3311        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3312        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3313        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3314        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3315
3316    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3317        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3318
3319    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3320        return ""
3321
3322    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3323        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3324        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3325        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3326        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3327        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3328
3329    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3330        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3331        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3332
3333        if having:
3334            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3335
3336        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3337
3338    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3339        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3340        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3341        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3342        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3343        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3344        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3345        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3346        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3347        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3348        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3349        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3350        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3351        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3352
3353    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3354        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3355        if key_block_size:
3356            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3357
3358        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3359        if using:
3360            return f"USING {using}"
3361
3362        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3363        if parser:
3364            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3365
3366        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3367        if comment:
3368            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3369
3370        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3371        if visible is not None:
3372            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3373
3374        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3375        if engine_attr:
3376            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3377
3378        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3379        if secondary_engine_attr:
3380            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3381
3382        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3383        return ""
3384
3385    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3386        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3387        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3388
3389    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3390        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3391        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3392        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3393        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3394        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3395        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3396        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3397        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
3398        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3399        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3400        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{schema}{options}"
3401
3402    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3403        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3404            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3405
3406        case = exp.Case().when(
3407            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3408            expression.args["true"],
3409            copy=False,
3410        )
3411        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3412        if else_cond:
3413            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3414
3415        return self.sql(case)
3416
3417    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3418        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3419        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3420        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3421        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3422        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3423        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3424
3425    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3426        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3427
3428    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3429        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3430
3431    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3432        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3433        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3434        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3435        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3436        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3437        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3438
3439    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3440        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3441        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3442        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3443
3444    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3445        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3446        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3447        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3448
3449    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3450        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3451
3452    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3453        arg = expression.this
3454        if not arg.type:
3455            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3456
3457            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3458
3459        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3460            return self.sql(arg)
3461
3462        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3463        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3464
3465    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3466        this = expression.this
3467        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3468            return self.sql(this)
3469
3470        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "time"))
3471
3472    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3473        this = expression.this
3474        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3475
3476        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3477            return self.sql(
3478                exp.cast(exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]), "date")
3479            )
3480
3481        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3482            return self.sql(this)
3483
3484        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "date"))
3485
3486    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3487        return self.sql(
3488            exp.func(
3489                "DATEDIFF",
3490                expression.this,
3491                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), "date"),
3492                "day",
3493            )
3494        )
3495
3496    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3497        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3498            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3499
3500        unit = expression.text("unit")
3501        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3502            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3503
3504        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3505
3506    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3507        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3508            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3509            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3510            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3511            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3512
3513        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3514
3515        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3516        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3517            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3518
3519        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3520
3521    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
3522        this = expression.this
3523        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
3524            this = self.json_path_part(this)
3525            return f".{this}" if this else ""
3526
3527        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
3528            return f".{this}"
3529
3530        this = self.json_path_part(this)
3531        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
3532
3533    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
3534        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
3535        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
3536
3537    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3538        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3539            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3540
3541            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3542
3543        return expression
3544
3545    def generateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3546        expression.set("is_end_exclusive", None)
3547        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3548
3549    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3550        expression.set(
3551            "expressions",
3552            [
3553                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.this) if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ) else e
3554                for e in expression.expressions
3555            ],
3556        )
3557
3558        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3559
3560    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3561        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3562        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3563
3564        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3565
3566    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3567        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3568        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3569
3570        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3571
3572        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3573        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3574
3575        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3576        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3577
3578        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3579        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3580
3581        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3582        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3583
3584        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3585
3586    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3587    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3588    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3589        to = expression.this
3590        value = expression.expression
3591        style = expression.args.get("style")
3592        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3593        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3594
3595        if not to or not value:
3596            return ""
3597
3598        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3599        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3600            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3601
3602        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3603        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3604
3605        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3606        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3607            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3608
3609            style_value = style.name
3610            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3611            if not converted_style:
3612                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3613
3614            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3615
3616            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3617                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3618            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3619                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3620            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3621                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3622            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3623                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3624
3625        if not transformed:
3626            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3627
3628        return self.sql(transformed)
logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile('\\\\(\\d+)')
class Generator:
  37class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  38    """
  39    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  40
  41    Args:
  42        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  43            Default: False.
  44        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  45            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  46            True or 'always': Always quote.
  47            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  48        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  49            Default: False.
  50        pad: The pad size in a formatted string.
  51            Default: 2.
  52        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string.
  53            Default: 2.
  54        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  55            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  56            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  57            False: Disables function name normalization.
  58        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  59            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  60        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  61            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  62            Default: 3
  63        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  64            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  65            Default: False
  66        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  67            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  68            line length.
  69            Default: 80
  70        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  71            Default: True
  72    """
  73
  74    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
  75        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
  76        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  77        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  78        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
  79        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  80        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  81        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
  82        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  83        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  84        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  85        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  86        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  87        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
  88        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  89            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  90        ),
  91        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  92        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
  95        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  96        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
  97        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
  98        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
  99        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 100        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 101        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 102        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 103        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 104        exp.JSONExtract: lambda self, e: self.func(
 105            "JSON_EXTRACT", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 106        ),
 107        exp.JSONExtractScalar: lambda self, e: self.func(
 108            "JSON_EXTRACT_SCALAR", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 109        ),
 110        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 111        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 112        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 113        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 114        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 115        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 116        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 117        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 118        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 119        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 120        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 121        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 122        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 123        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 124        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 125        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 126        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 127        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 128        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 129        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 130        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 131        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 132        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 133        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 134        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 135        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 136        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 137        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 138        exp.Timestamp: lambda self, e: self.func("TIMESTAMP", e.this, e.expression),
 139        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 140        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 141        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 142        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 143        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 144        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 145        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 146        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 147        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 148    }
 149
 150    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 151    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
 152    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 153
 154    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 155    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 156    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 157
 158    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 159    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 160
 161    # Always do union distinct or union all
 162    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 163
 164    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 165    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 166
 167    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 168    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 169
 170    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 171    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 172
 173    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 174    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 175
 176    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 177    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 178
 179    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 180    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 181
 182    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 183    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 184
 185    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 186    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 187
 188    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 189    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 190
 191    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 192    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 193
 194    # Whether join hints should be generated
 195    JOIN_HINTS = True
 196
 197    # Whether table hints should be generated
 198    TABLE_HINTS = True
 199
 200    # Whether query hints should be generated
 201    QUERY_HINTS = True
 202
 203    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 204    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 205
 206    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 207    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 208
 209    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 210    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 211
 212    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 213    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 214
 215    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 216    RETURNING_END = True
 217
 218    # Whether to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 219    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 220
 221    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 222    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 223
 224    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 225    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 226
 227    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 228    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 229
 230    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 231    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 232
 233    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 234    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 235    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 236    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 237
 238    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 239    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 240
 241    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 242    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 243
 244    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 245    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 246
 247    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 248    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 249
 250    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 251    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 252
 253    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 254    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 255
 256    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 257    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 258
 259    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 260    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 261
 262    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 263    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 264
 265    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 266    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 267
 268    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 269    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 270
 271    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 272    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 273
 274    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 275    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 276
 277    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 278    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 279
 280    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 281    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 282
 283    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 284    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 285
 286    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 287    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 288
 289    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 290    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 291
 292    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 293    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 294
 295    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 296    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 297
 298    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 299    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 300
 301    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 302    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 303
 304    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 305    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 306
 307    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 308    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 309
 310    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 311    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 312
 313    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 314    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 315    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 316
 317    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 318    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 319
 320    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 321    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 322
 323    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 324    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 325
 326    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 327    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 328
 329    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 330    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 331
 332    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 333    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 334
 335    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 336        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 337        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 338        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 339        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 340        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 341        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 342        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 343        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 344        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 345    }
 346
 347    STAR_MAPPING = {
 348        "except": "EXCEPT",
 349        "replace": "REPLACE",
 350    }
 351
 352    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 353        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 354        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 355        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 356        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 357        "DAYS": "DAY",
 358        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 359        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 360        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 361        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 362    }
 363
 364    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 365        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 366        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 367        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 368        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 369        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 370            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 371            if e.args.get("windows")
 372            else ""
 373        ),
 374    }
 375
 376    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 377
 378    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 379
 380    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 381    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 382
 383    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 384        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 385        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 386        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 387        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 388        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 389        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 390        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 391        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 392        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 393        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 394        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 395        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 396        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 397        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 398        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 399        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 400        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 401        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 402        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 403        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 404        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 405        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 406        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 407        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 408        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 409        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 410        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 411        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 412        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 413        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 414        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 415        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 416        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 417        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 418        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 419        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 420        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 421        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 422        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 423        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 424        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 425        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 426        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 427        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 428        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 429        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 430        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 431        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 432        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 433        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 434        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 435        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 436        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 437        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 438        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 439        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 440        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 441        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 442        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 443        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 444        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 445        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 446        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 447        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 448        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 449        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 450        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 451        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 452        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 453        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 454        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 455        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 456        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 457        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 458        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 459    }
 460
 461    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 462    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 463
 464    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 465    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 466        exp.Create,
 467        exp.Delete,
 468        exp.Drop,
 469        exp.From,
 470        exp.Insert,
 471        exp.Join,
 472        exp.Select,
 473        exp.Union,
 474        exp.Update,
 475        exp.Where,
 476        exp.With,
 477    )
 478
 479    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 480    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 481        exp.Binary,
 482        exp.Union,
 483    )
 484
 485    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 486    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 487        exp.Column,
 488        exp.Literal,
 489        exp.Neg,
 490        exp.Paren,
 491    )
 492
 493    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 494        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 495        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 496        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 497        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 498    }
 499
 500    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 501    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 502
 503    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 504
 505    __slots__ = (
 506        "pretty",
 507        "identify",
 508        "normalize",
 509        "pad",
 510        "_indent",
 511        "normalize_functions",
 512        "unsupported_level",
 513        "max_unsupported",
 514        "leading_comma",
 515        "max_text_width",
 516        "comments",
 517        "dialect",
 518        "unsupported_messages",
 519        "_escaped_quote_end",
 520        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 521    )
 522
 523    def __init__(
 524        self,
 525        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 526        identify: str | bool = False,
 527        normalize: bool = False,
 528        pad: int = 2,
 529        indent: int = 2,
 530        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 531        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 532        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 533        leading_comma: bool = False,
 534        max_text_width: int = 80,
 535        comments: bool = True,
 536        dialect: DialectType = None,
 537    ):
 538        import sqlglot
 539        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 540
 541        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 542        self.identify = identify
 543        self.normalize = normalize
 544        self.pad = pad
 545        self._indent = indent
 546        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 547        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 548        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 549        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 550        self.comments = comments
 551        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 552
 553        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 554        self.normalize_functions = (
 555            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 556        )
 557
 558        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 559        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 560            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 561        )
 562        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 563            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 564        )
 565
 566    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 567        """
 568        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 569
 570        Args:
 571            expression: The syntax tree.
 572            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 573                it is safer to copy.
 574
 575        Returns:
 576            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 577        """
 578        if copy:
 579            expression = expression.copy()
 580
 581        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 582
 583        self.unsupported_messages = []
 584        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 585
 586        if self.pretty:
 587            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 588
 589        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 590            return sql
 591
 592        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 593            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 594                logger.warning(msg)
 595        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 596            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 597
 598        return sql
 599
 600    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 601        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 602        if (
 603            not expression.parent
 604            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 605            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 606        ):
 607            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 608
 609            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 610
 611        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 612            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 613
 614            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 615
 616        return expression
 617
 618    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 619        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 620            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 621        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 622
 623    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 624        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 625
 626    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 627        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 628
 629    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 630        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 631        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 632        return comment
 633
 634    def maybe_comment(
 635        self,
 636        sql: str,
 637        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 638        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 639    ) -> str:
 640        comments = (
 641            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 642            if self.comments
 643            else None
 644        )
 645
 646        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 647            return sql
 648
 649        comments_sql = " ".join(
 650            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 651        )
 652
 653        if not comments_sql:
 654            return sql
 655
 656        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 657            return (
 658                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 659                if sql[0].isspace()
 660                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 661            )
 662
 663        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 664
 665    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 666        this_sql = self.indent(
 667            (
 668                self.sql(expression)
 669                if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 670                else self.sql(expression, "this")
 671            ),
 672            level=1,
 673            pad=0,
 674        )
 675        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 676
 677    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 678        original = self.identify
 679        self.identify = False
 680        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 681        self.identify = original
 682        return result
 683
 684    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 685        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 686            return name.upper()
 687        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 688            return name.lower()
 689        return name
 690
 691    def indent(
 692        self,
 693        sql: str,
 694        level: int = 0,
 695        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 696        skip_first: bool = False,
 697        skip_last: bool = False,
 698    ) -> str:
 699        if not self.pretty:
 700            return sql
 701
 702        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 703        lines = sql.split("\n")
 704
 705        return "\n".join(
 706            (
 707                line
 708                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 709                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 710            )
 711            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 712        )
 713
 714    def sql(
 715        self,
 716        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 717        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 718        comment: bool = True,
 719    ) -> str:
 720        if not expression:
 721            return ""
 722
 723        if isinstance(expression, str):
 724            return expression
 725
 726        if key:
 727            value = expression.args.get(key)
 728            if value:
 729                return self.sql(value)
 730            return ""
 731
 732        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 733
 734        if callable(transform):
 735            sql = transform(self, expression)
 736        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 737            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 738
 739            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 740                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 741            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 742                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 743            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 744                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 745            else:
 746                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 747        else:
 748            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 749
 750        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 751
 752    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 753        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 754        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 755        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 756
 757    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 758        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 759        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 760        options = expression.args.get("options")
 761        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 762        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 763        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 764        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 765        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 766
 767    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 768        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 769            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 770        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 771        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 772
 773    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 774        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 775
 776        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 777            join_mark = ""
 778            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 779
 780        column = ".".join(
 781            self.sql(part)
 782            for part in (
 783                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 784                expression.args.get("db"),
 785                expression.args.get("table"),
 786                expression.args.get("this"),
 787            )
 788            if part
 789        )
 790
 791        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 792
 793    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 794        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 795        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 796        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 797        return f"{position}{this}"
 798
 799    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 800        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 801        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 802        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 803        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 804        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 805        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 806        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 807        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 808
 809        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 810            kind = ""
 811
 812        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 813
 814    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 815        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 816        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 817        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 818
 819    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 820        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 821        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 822            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 823        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 824            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 825        else:
 826            persisted = ""
 827        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 828
 829    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 830        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 831
 832    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 833        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 834            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 835        else:
 836            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 837
 838        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 839
 840    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 841        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 842    ) -> str:
 843        this = ""
 844        if expression.this is not None:
 845            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 846            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 847
 848        start = expression.args.get("start")
 849        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 850        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 851        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 852        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 853        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 854        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 855        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 856        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 857        cycle_sql = ""
 858
 859        if cycle is not None:
 860            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 861            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 862
 863        sequence_opts = ""
 864        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 865            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 866            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 867
 868        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 869        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 870
 871        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 872
 873    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 874        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 875    ) -> str:
 876        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
 877        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 878        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 879
 880    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 881        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 882    ) -> str:
 883        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 884
 885    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 886        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 887
 888    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 889        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 890
 891    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 892        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 893        if desc is not None:
 894            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 895        return "PRIMARY KEY"
 896
 897    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 898        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 899        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 900        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 901        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 902        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
 903        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
 904        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
 905
 906    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 907        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 908
 909    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 910        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 911        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 912        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 913
 914        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 915
 916        properties_sql = ""
 917        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 918            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 919        ):
 920            properties_sql = self.sql(
 921                exp.Properties(
 922                    expressions=[
 923                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 924                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 925                    ]
 926                )
 927            )
 928
 929        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 930        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 931
 932        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 933        if expression_sql:
 934            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 935
 936            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 937                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 938                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 939                        exp.Properties(
 940                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 941                        ),
 942                        wrapped=False,
 943                    )
 944                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 945                else:
 946                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 947
 948        postindex_props_sql = ""
 949        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 950            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 951                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 952                wrapped=False,
 953                prefix=" ",
 954            )
 955
 956        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 957        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 958        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 959
 960        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 961        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 962
 963        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 964        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 965            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 966                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 967                sep=" ",
 968                prefix=" ",
 969                wrapped=False,
 970            )
 971
 972        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 973
 974        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 975        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 976            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 977                exp.Properties(
 978                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 979                ),
 980                sep=" ",
 981                prefix=" ",
 982                wrapped=False,
 983            )
 984
 985        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 986        no_schema_binding = (
 987            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 988        )
 989
 990        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 991        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 992
 993        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 994        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 995
 996    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
 997        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
 998        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 999        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1000        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1001        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1002        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1003        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1004        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1005        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1006        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1007
1008        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1009        if cache is None:
1010            cache_str = ""
1011        elif cache is True:
1012            cache_str = " CACHE"
1013        else:
1014            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1015
1016        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1017        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1018
1019        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1020
1021    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1022        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1023        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1024        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1025        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1026
1027    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1028        extended = " EXTENDED" if expression.args.get("extended") else ""
1029        return f"DESCRIBE{extended} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1030
1031    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1032        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1033        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1034
1035    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1036        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1037        if with_:
1038            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1039        return sql
1040
1041    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1042        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1043        recursive = (
1044            "RECURSIVE "
1045            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1046            else ""
1047        )
1048
1049        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1050
1051    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1052        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1053        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
1054
1055    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1056        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1057        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1058        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1059
1060        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1061            columns = ""
1062            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1063
1064        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1065            alias = "_t"
1066
1067        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1068
1069    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1070        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1071        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1072            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1073        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1074
1075    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1076        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1077        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1078            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1079        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1080
1081    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1082        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1083        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1084            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1085        return this
1086
1087    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1088        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1089        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1090
1091        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1092            escape = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if escape else ""
1093            return f"{self.dialect.UNICODE_START}{this}{self.dialect.UNICODE_END}{escape}"
1094
1095        if escape:
1096            pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1097        else:
1098            pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1099
1100        this = pattern.sub(r"\\u\1", this)
1101        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1102
1103    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1104        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
1105        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1106
1107    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1108        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1109        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1110        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1111        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1112
1113    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1114        type_value = expression.this
1115
1116        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1117            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1118        else:
1119            type_sql = (
1120                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1121                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1122                else type_value
1123            )
1124
1125        nested = ""
1126        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1127        values = ""
1128
1129        if interior:
1130            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1131                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1132                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1133                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1134                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1135                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1136            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1137                nested = f" {interior}"
1138            else:
1139                nested = f"({interior})"
1140
1141        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1142        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1143            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1144            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1145        ):
1146            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1147
1148        return type_sql
1149
1150    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1151        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1152        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1153        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1154        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1155
1156    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1157        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1158        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1159        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1160        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1161        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1162        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1163        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1164        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1165        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1166        if self.RETURNING_END:
1167            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1168        else:
1169            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1170        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1171
1172    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1173        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1174        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1175        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1176        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1177        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1178        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1179        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1180        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1181        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1182        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1183        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1184
1185    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1186        return self.set_operations(expression)
1187
1188    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1189        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1190
1191    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1192        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1193        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1194        count = expression.args.get("count")
1195        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1196        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1197            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1198        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1199        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1200
1201    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1202        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1203            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1204            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1205            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1206
1207        agg = expression.this
1208        agg_arg = agg.this
1209        cond = expression.expression.this
1210        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1211        return self.sql(agg)
1212
1213    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1214        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1215            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1216            return ""
1217
1218        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1219
1220    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1221        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1222        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1223        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1224        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1225        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1226        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1227        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1228        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1229        if include:
1230            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1231        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1232        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1233        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1234        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1235
1236        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}"
1237
1238    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1239        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1240        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1241        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1242        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1243        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1244        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1245        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1246
1247        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1248
1249        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1250        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1251
1252    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1253        text = expression.name
1254        lower = text.lower()
1255        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1256        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1257        if (
1258            expression.quoted
1259            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1260            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1261            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1262        ):
1263            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1264        return text
1265
1266    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1267        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1268        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1269        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1270        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1271        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1272
1273    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1274        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1275        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1276
1277    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1278        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1279
1280    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1281        root_properties = []
1282        with_properties = []
1283
1284        for p in expression.expressions:
1285            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1286            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1287                with_properties.append(p)
1288            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1289                root_properties.append(p)
1290
1291        return self.root_properties(
1292            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1293        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1294
1295    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1296        if properties.expressions:
1297            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1298        return ""
1299
1300    def properties(
1301        self,
1302        properties: exp.Properties,
1303        prefix: str = "",
1304        sep: str = ", ",
1305        suffix: str = "",
1306        wrapped: bool = True,
1307    ) -> str:
1308        if properties.expressions:
1309            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1310            if expressions:
1311                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1312                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1313        return ""
1314
1315    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1316        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1317
1318    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1319        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1320        for p in properties.expressions:
1321            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1322            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1323                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1324            else:
1325                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1326
1327        return properties_locs
1328
1329    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1330        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1331            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1332        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1333
1334    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1335        property_cls = expression.__class__
1336        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1337            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1338
1339        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1340        if not property_name:
1341            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1342
1343        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1344
1345    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1346        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1347            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1348            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1349
1350            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1351            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1352                like = f"({like})"
1353
1354            return like
1355
1356        if expression.expressions:
1357            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1358
1359        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1360        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1361
1362    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1363        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1364        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1365        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1366
1367    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1368        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1369        local = expression.args.get("local")
1370        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1371        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1372        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1373        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1374        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1375
1376    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1377        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1378        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1379        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1380
1381    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1382        if expression.args.get("default"):
1383            property = "DEFAULT"
1384        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1385            property = "ON"
1386        else:
1387            property = "OFF"
1388        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1389
1390    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1391        if expression.args.get("no"):
1392            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1393        if expression.args.get("default"):
1394            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1395
1396        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1397        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1398
1399    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1400        default = expression.args.get("default")
1401        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1402        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1403        if default or minimum or maximum:
1404            if default:
1405                prop = "DEFAULT"
1406            elif minimum:
1407                prop = "MINIMUM"
1408            else:
1409                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1410            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1411        units = expression.args.get("units")
1412        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1413        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1414
1415    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1416        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1417        always = expression.args.get("always")
1418        default = expression.args.get("default")
1419        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1420        never = expression.args.get("never")
1421
1422        if autotemp is not None:
1423            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1424        elif always:
1425            prop = "ALWAYS"
1426        elif default:
1427            prop = "DEFAULT"
1428        elif manual:
1429            prop = "MANUAL"
1430        elif never:
1431            prop = "NEVER"
1432        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1433
1434    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1435        no = expression.args.get("no")
1436        no = " NO" if no else ""
1437        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1438        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1439
1440        for_ = ""
1441        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1442            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1443        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1444            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1445        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1446            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1447        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1448
1449    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1450        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1451            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1452        if expression.this:
1453            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1454            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1455            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1456
1457        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1458        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1459        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1460
1461    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1462        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1463
1464        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1465        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1466            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1467        else:
1468            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1469
1470        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1471
1472    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1473        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1474        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1475        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1476        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1477        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1478        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1479        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1480
1481    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1482        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1483        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1484        statistics_sql = ""
1485        if statistics is not None:
1486            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1487        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1488
1489    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1490        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
1491
1492        if expression.this:
1493            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
1494            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
1495
1496            if expression.expression:
1497                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1498                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
1499
1500            sql = f"{sql})"
1501
1502        return f"{sql})"
1503
1504    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1505        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1506        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1507
1508        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1509            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1510        else:
1511            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1512
1513        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1514        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1515        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1516        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1517        if is_function:
1518            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1519        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1520
1521        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1522        partition_sql = (
1523            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1524        )
1525        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1526        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1527        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1528        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1529        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1530        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1531        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1532
1533        if self.RETURNING_END:
1534            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1535        else:
1536            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1537
1538        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1539        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1540
1541    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1542        return self.set_operations(expression)
1543
1544    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1545        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1546
1547    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1548        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1549
1550    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1551        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1552        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1553        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1554        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1555        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1556
1557    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1558        return expression.name
1559
1560    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1561        return expression.name
1562
1563    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1564        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1565
1566        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1567        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1568
1569        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1570        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1571        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1572
1573        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1574        if expressions:
1575            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1576            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1577
1578        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1579
1580    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1581        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1582
1583    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1584        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1585        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1586        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1587        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1588        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1589        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1590        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1591        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1592        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1593        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1594        null = expression.args.get("null")
1595        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1596        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1597
1598    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1599        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1600
1601    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1602        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1603        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1604        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1605        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1606
1607    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1608        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1609        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1610        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1611        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1612
1613    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1614        return ".".join(
1615            self.sql(part)
1616            for part in (
1617                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1618                expression.args.get("db"),
1619                expression.args.get("this"),
1620            )
1621            if part is not None
1622        )
1623
1624    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1625        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1626        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1627        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1628        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1629        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1630        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1631        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1632        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1633        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1634        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1635        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1636        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1637
1638        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1639        if file_format:
1640            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1641            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1642            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1643
1644        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1645        if ordinality:
1646            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1647            alias = ""
1648
1649        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1650        if when:
1651            table = f"{table} {when}"
1652
1653        return f"{only}{table}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1654
1655    def tablesample_sql(
1656        self,
1657        expression: exp.TableSample,
1658        sep: str = " AS ",
1659        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1660    ) -> str:
1661        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1662            table = expression.this.copy()
1663            table.set("alias", None)
1664            this = self.sql(table)
1665            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1666        else:
1667            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1668            alias = ""
1669
1670        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1671        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1672        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1673        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1674        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1675        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1676        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1677        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1678        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1679
1680        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1681        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1682            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1683
1684        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1685        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1686            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1687
1688        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1689        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1690            expr = f"({expr})"
1691
1692        return (
1693            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1694        )
1695
1696    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1697        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1698
1699        if expression.this:
1700            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1701            if not expressions:
1702                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1703
1704            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1705            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1706            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1707            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1708            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1709
1710        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1711        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1712        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1713        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1714        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1715        if include_nulls is not None:
1716            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1717        else:
1718            nulls = ""
1719        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1720
1721    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1722        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1723        kind = expression.text("kind")
1724        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1725        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1726
1727    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1728        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1729
1730    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1731        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1732        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1733        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1734        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1735        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1736        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1737        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1738        if self.RETURNING_END:
1739            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1740        else:
1741            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1742        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1743        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1744
1745    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1746        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1747        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1748            args = self.expressions(expression)
1749            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1750            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1751            values = (
1752                f"({values})"
1753                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1754                else values
1755            )
1756            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1757
1758        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1759        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1760        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1761
1762        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1763
1764        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1765            row = tup.expressions
1766
1767            if i == 0 and column_names:
1768                row = [
1769                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1770                ]
1771
1772            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1773
1774        if self.pretty:
1775            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1776            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1777            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1778            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1779            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1780
1781        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1782        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1783        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1784
1785    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1786        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1787
1788    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1789        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1790        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1791        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1792
1793    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1794        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1795
1796    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1797        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1798
1799        if expression.args.get("all"):
1800            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1801
1802        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1803        grouping_sets = (
1804            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1805        )
1806
1807        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1808        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1809            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1810        else:
1811            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1812            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1813
1814        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1815        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1816            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1817        else:
1818            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1819            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1820
1821        groupings = csv(
1822            grouping_sets,
1823            cube_sql,
1824            rollup_sql,
1825            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1826            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1827        )
1828
1829        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1830            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1831
1832        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1833
1834    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1835        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1836        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1837
1838    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1839        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1840        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1841        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1842        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY {connect}")
1843        return start + connect
1844
1845    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1846        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1847
1848    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1849        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1850            side = None
1851        else:
1852            side = expression.side
1853
1854        op_sql = " ".join(
1855            op
1856            for op in (
1857                expression.method,
1858                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1859                side,
1860                expression.kind,
1861                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1862            )
1863            if op
1864        )
1865        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1866        using = expression.args.get("using")
1867
1868        if not on_sql and using:
1869            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1870
1871        this = expression.this
1872        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1873
1874        if on_sql:
1875            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1876            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1877            if using:
1878                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1879            else:
1880                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1881        elif not op_sql:
1882            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
1883                return f" {this_sql}"
1884
1885            return f", {this_sql}"
1886
1887        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1888        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1889
1890    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1891        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1892        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1893        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1894
1895    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1896        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
1897
1898        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
1899        if cross_apply is True:
1900            op = "INNER JOIN "
1901        elif cross_apply is False:
1902            op = "LEFT JOIN "
1903        else:
1904            op = ""
1905
1906        return f"{op}LATERAL"
1907
1908    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1909        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1910
1911        if expression.args.get("view"):
1912            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1913            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1914            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1915            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1916            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1917            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1918
1919        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1920        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1921        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
1922
1923    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1924        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1925
1926        args = [
1927            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
1928            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1929            if e
1930        ]
1931
1932        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
1933        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
1934        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1935        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1936
1937        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
1938
1939    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1940        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1941        value = expression.expression
1942        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
1943        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1944        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1945        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
1946
1947    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1948        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1949        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1950        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1951        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1952        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1953        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1954        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1955        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1956
1957    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1958        expressions = (
1959            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1960        )
1961        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1962        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1963
1964    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1965        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1966
1967    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1968        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1969            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1970            return ""
1971
1972        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1973        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1974        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1975        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1976
1977        if wait is not None:
1978            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1979                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1980            else:
1981                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1982
1983        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1984
1985    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1986        text = expression.this or ""
1987        if expression.is_string:
1988            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1989        return text
1990
1991    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1992        text = text.replace(self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1993        if self.dialect.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES:
1994            text = "".join(self.dialect.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES.get(ch, ch) for ch in text)
1995        elif self.pretty:
1996            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1997        return text
1998
1999    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2000        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2001        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2002        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2003        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2004        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2005        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2006        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2007        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2008        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2009        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2010        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2011
2012    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2013        return "NULL"
2014
2015    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2016        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2017
2018    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2019        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2020        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2021        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2022        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2023        interpolated_values = [
2024            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2025            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2026        ]
2027        interpolate = (
2028            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2029        )
2030        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
2031
2032    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2033        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2034        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2035        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2036        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2037        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2038        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2039        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
2040
2041    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2042        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2043
2044    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2045        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2046
2047    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2048        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2049
2050    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2051        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2052        asc = not desc
2053
2054        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2055        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2056        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2057        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2058        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2059
2060        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2061
2062        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2063        nulls_sort_change = ""
2064        if nulls_first and (
2065            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2066        ):
2067            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2068        elif (
2069            nulls_last
2070            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2071            and not nulls_are_last
2072        ):
2073            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2074
2075        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2076        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2077            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2078            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2079                self.unsupported(
2080                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2081                )
2082                nulls_sort_change = ""
2083            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2084                if expression.this.is_int:
2085                    self.unsupported(
2086                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2087                    )
2088                else:
2089                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2090                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2091                nulls_sort_change = ""
2092
2093        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2094        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2095
2096        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2097
2098    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2099        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2100        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2101        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2102        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2103        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2104        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2105        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2106        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2107        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2108        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2109        definition_sqls = [
2110            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2111            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2112        ]
2113        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2114        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2115        body = "".join(
2116            (
2117                partition,
2118                order,
2119                measures,
2120                rows,
2121                after,
2122                pattern,
2123                define,
2124            )
2125        )
2126        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2127        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2128        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2129
2130    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2131        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2132
2133        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2134            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2135        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2136            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2137
2138        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2139        if options:
2140            options = f" OPTION{self.wrap(options)}"
2141
2142        return csv(
2143            *sqls,
2144            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2145            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2146            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2147            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2148            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2149            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2150            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2151            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2152            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2153            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2154            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2155            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2156            options,
2157            sep="",
2158        )
2159
2160    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2161        return ""
2162
2163    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2164        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2165    ) -> t.List[str]:
2166        return [
2167            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2168            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2169        ]
2170
2171    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2172        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2173        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2174        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2175
2176    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2177        into = expression.args.get("into")
2178        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2179            into.pop()
2180
2181        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2182        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2183        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2184        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2185
2186        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2187        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2188            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2189            limit.pop()
2190        else:
2191            top = ""
2192
2193        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2194
2195        if kind:
2196            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2197                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2198            else:
2199                if kind == "STRUCT":
2200                    expressions = self.expressions(
2201                        sqls=[
2202                            self.sql(
2203                                exp.Struct(
2204                                    expressions=[
2205                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2206                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2207                                        else e
2208                                        for e in expression.expressions
2209                                    ]
2210                                )
2211                            )
2212                        ]
2213                    )
2214                kind = ""
2215
2216        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2217        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2218        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2219        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2220        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2221            expression,
2222            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2223            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2224            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2225        )
2226
2227        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2228
2229        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2230            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2231                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2232            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2233                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2234            else:
2235                table_kind = ""
2236            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2237
2238        return sql
2239
2240    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2241        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2242        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2243        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2244
2245    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2246        if expression.expressions:
2247            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2248        return ""
2249
2250    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2251        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2252        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2253        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2254        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2255        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
2256
2257    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2258        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2259        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2260
2261    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2262        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2263        kind = expression.text("kind")
2264        if kind:
2265            kind = f"{kind}."
2266        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2267
2268    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2269        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
2270
2271    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2272        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2273        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2274
2275        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2276        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2277
2278        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2279        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2280
2281    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2282        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2283        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2284
2285    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2286        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2287        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2288
2289        while stack:
2290            node = stack.pop()
2291
2292            if isinstance(node, exp.Union):
2293                stack.append(node.expression)
2294                stack.append(
2295                    self.maybe_comment(
2296                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2297                        expression=node.this,
2298                        comments=node.comments,
2299                    )
2300                )
2301                stack.append(node.this)
2302            else:
2303                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2304
2305        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2306        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2307        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
2308
2309    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2310        return self.set_operations(expression)
2311
2312    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2313        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2314        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2315        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2316        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2317
2318    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2319        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2320
2321        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2322        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2323
2324        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2325            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2326                alias.append("columns", offset)
2327
2328        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2329            columns = alias.columns
2330            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2331        else:
2332            alias = self.sql(alias)
2333
2334        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2335        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2336            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2337        else:
2338            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2339                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2340            elif offset:
2341                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2342            else:
2343                suffix = alias
2344
2345        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2346
2347    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2348        return ""
2349
2350    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2351        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2352        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2353
2354    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2355        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2356        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2357        order = expression.args.get("order")
2358        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2359        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2360        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2361        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2362
2363        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2364
2365        first = expression.args.get("first")
2366        if first is None:
2367            first = ""
2368        else:
2369            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2370
2371        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2372            return f"{this} {alias}"
2373
2374        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2375        return f"{this} ({args})"
2376
2377    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2378        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2379        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2380
2381    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2382        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2383        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2384        end = (
2385            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2386            or "CURRENT ROW"
2387        )
2388        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2389
2390    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2391        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2392        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2393        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2394
2395    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2396        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2397        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2398        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2399        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2400
2401    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2402        expressions = apply_index_offset(
2403            expression.this,
2404            expression.expressions,
2405            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2406        )
2407        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2408        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2409
2410    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2411        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2412
2413    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2414        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2415        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2416            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2417                this = self.wrap(this)
2418            return f"ANY{this}"
2419        return f"ANY {this}"
2420
2421    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2422        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2423
2424    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2425        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2426        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2427
2428        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2429            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2430            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2431
2432        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2433
2434        if default:
2435            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2436
2437        statements.append("END")
2438
2439        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
2440            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2441
2442        return " ".join(statements)
2443
2444    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2445        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2446        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2447        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2448
2449    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2450        order = expression.args.get("order")
2451        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2452        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2453
2454    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2455        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2456        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2457        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2458
2459    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2460        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2461
2462        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2463            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2464        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2465            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2466        else:
2467            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2468
2469    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2470        args = expression.expressions
2471        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2472            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2473
2474        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2475            args = [exp.cast(e, "text") for e in args]
2476
2477        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2478            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2479
2480        return args
2481
2482    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2483        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2484
2485        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2486        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2487            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2488
2489        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2490
2491    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2492        return self.func(
2493            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2494        )
2495
2496    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2497        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2498        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2499
2500    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2501        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2502        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2503        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2504        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2505        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2506        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2507        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2508        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2509
2510    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2511        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2512        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2513        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2514        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2515
2516    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2517        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2518
2519    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2520        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2521        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2522        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2523
2524    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2525        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2526
2527    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2528        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2529        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2530
2531    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2532        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2533            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2534            if not callable(transform):
2535                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2536                return ""
2537
2538            return transform(self, expression)
2539
2540        if isinstance(expression, int):
2541            return str(expression)
2542
2543        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2544            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2545            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2546        else:
2547            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2548            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2549
2550        return escaped
2551
2552    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2553        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2554
2555    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2556        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2557        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2558
2559        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2560        if unique_keys is not None:
2561            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2562        else:
2563            unique_keys = ""
2564
2565        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2566        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2567        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2568        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2569
2570        return self.func(
2571            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2572            *expression.expressions,
2573            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2574        )
2575
2576    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2577        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2578
2579    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2580        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2581        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2582        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2583        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2584        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2585        return self.func(
2586            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2587        )
2588
2589    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2590        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2591        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2592        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2593        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2594        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2595        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2596        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2597        return self.func(
2598            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2599            this,
2600            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2601        )
2602
2603    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2604        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2605        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2606        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2607
2608        if nested_schema:
2609            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2610
2611        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2612        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2613        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2614        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2615
2616    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2617        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2618
2619    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2620        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2621        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2622        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2623        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2624        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2625        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2626        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2627        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2628        return self.func(
2629            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2630        )
2631
2632    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2633        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2634        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2635        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2636        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2637        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2638        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2639
2640    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2641        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2642        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2643        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2644        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2645        with_ = (
2646            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2647            if expressions
2648            else ""
2649        )
2650        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2651
2652    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2653        query = expression.args.get("query")
2654        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2655        field = expression.args.get("field")
2656        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2657
2658        if query:
2659            in_sql = self.wrap(self.sql(query))
2660        elif unnest:
2661            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2662        elif field:
2663            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2664        else:
2665            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2666
2667        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2668
2669    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2670        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2671
2672    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2673        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2674        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2675            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2676        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2677
2678        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2679            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2680            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2681
2682        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2683        if this:
2684            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2685            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2686
2687        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2688
2689    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2690        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2691
2692    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2693        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2694        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2695        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2696        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2697        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2698        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2699
2700    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2701        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
2702
2703    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2704        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2705        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2706
2707    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2708        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2709        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2710        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2711        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2712
2713    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2714        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2715
2716    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2717        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2718        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2719        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2720
2721    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2722        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2723        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2724
2725        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2726            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2727        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2728            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2729
2730        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2731
2732    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2733        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2734
2735    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2736        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2737        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2738        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2739
2740    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2741        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2742        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2743        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2744
2745    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2746        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2747        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2748        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
2749
2750    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2751        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2752
2753    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2754        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
2755
2756    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2757        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
2758
2759    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2760        if not self.pretty:
2761            return self.binary(expression, op)
2762
2763        sqls = tuple(
2764            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2765            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2766        )
2767
2768        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2769        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
2770
2771    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2772        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2773
2774    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2775        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2776
2777    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2778        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2779
2780    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2781        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2782
2783    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2784        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2785
2786    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2787        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2788
2789    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2790        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2791        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2792        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2793        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2794        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
2795        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
2796        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
2797
2798    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2799        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2800        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2801
2802    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2803        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)
2804
2805    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2806        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2807            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2808        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2809
2810    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2811        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2812
2813    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2814        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2815        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2816        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2817        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2818        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2819
2820    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2821        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2822        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2823        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2824        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2825        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2826        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2827        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2828        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2829        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2830
2831    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2832        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2833        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2834        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2835        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2836
2837        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2838            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2839
2840        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2841
2842    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2843        return "BEGIN"
2844
2845    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2846        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2847        if chain is not None:
2848            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2849
2850        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2851
2852    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2853        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2854        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2855        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2856
2857    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2858        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2859
2860        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2861        if dtype:
2862            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2863            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2864            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2865            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2866            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2867
2868        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2869        if default:
2870            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2871
2872        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2873        if comment:
2874            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
2875
2876        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2877            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2878
2879        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2880
2881    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2882        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2883            # Remove db from tables
2884            expression = expression.transform(
2885                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2886            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
2887        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2888        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2889
2890    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
2891        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2892        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
2893        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
2894        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
2895
2896    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2897        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2898
2899        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2900            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
2901        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2902            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2903        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2904            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2905        else:
2906            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2907
2908        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2909        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2910        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2911        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
2912        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}{options}"
2913
2914    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2915        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
2916            return self.expressions(
2917                expression,
2918                key="actions",
2919                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
2920            )
2921        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
2922
2923    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2924        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2925        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2926        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2927
2928    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2929        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
2930
2931    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2932        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2933
2934        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
2935            case = exp.case()
2936            for arg in expression.expressions:
2937                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
2938            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
2939
2940        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2941
2942        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2943        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2944        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2945
2946    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2947        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
2948
2949    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2950        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
2951
2952    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
2953        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2954        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2955        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
2956        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
2957
2958    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
2959        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
2960            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
2961            mods = sorted(
2962                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
2963                key=lambda x: 0
2964                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
2965                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
2966            )
2967
2968            if mods:
2969                mod = mods[0]
2970                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
2971                this.meta["inline"] = True
2972                mod.this.replace(this)
2973                return self.sql(expression.this)
2974
2975            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
2976
2977            if agg_func:
2978                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
2979
2980        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
2981
2982    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2983        return self.sql(
2984            exp.Cast(
2985                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2986                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2987            )
2988        )
2989
2990    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2991        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2992            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2993        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2994
2995    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2996        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
2997
2998        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
2999            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3000
3001        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3002            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3003                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3004
3005        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3006            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3007                return self.sql(
3008                    exp.cast(
3009                        l / r,
3010                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3011                    )
3012                )
3013
3014        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3015
3016    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3017        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3018
3019    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3020        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3021
3022    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3023        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3024
3025    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3026        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3027
3028    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3029        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3030
3031    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3032        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3033
3034    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3035        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3036
3037    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3038        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3039
3040    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3041        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3042
3043    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3044        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3045
3046    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3047        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3048
3049    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3050        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3051            return self.sql(
3052                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3053            )
3054        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3055
3056    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3057        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3058
3059    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3060        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3061
3062    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3063        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3064
3065    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3066        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3067
3068    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3069        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3070
3071    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3072        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3073
3074    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3075        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3076
3077    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3078        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3079
3080    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3081        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3082
3083    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3084        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3085
3086    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
3087        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
3088
3089    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3090        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3091
3092    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3093        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3094
3095    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3096        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3097
3098    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3099        this = expression.this
3100        expr = expression.expression
3101
3102        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3103            this, expr = expr, this
3104        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3105            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3106                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3107
3108            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3109
3110        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3111
3112    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3113        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3114        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3115        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3116        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3117        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3118
3119    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3120        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3121        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3122
3123    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3124        args = []
3125
3126        for key in expression.arg_types:
3127            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3128
3129            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3130                for value in arg_value:
3131                    args.append(value)
3132            elif arg_value is not None:
3133                args.append(arg_value)
3134
3135        if self.normalize_functions:
3136            name = expression.sql_name()
3137        else:
3138            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3139
3140        return self.func(name, *args)
3141
3142    def func(
3143        self,
3144        name: str,
3145        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3146        prefix: str = "(",
3147        suffix: str = ")",
3148    ) -> str:
3149        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3150
3151    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3152        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
3153        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
3154            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3155        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3156
3157    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
3158        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
3159
3160    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
3161        return format_time(
3162            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3163            self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3164            self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3165        )
3166
3167    def expressions(
3168        self,
3169        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3170        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3171        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3172        flat: bool = False,
3173        indent: bool = True,
3174        skip_first: bool = False,
3175        sep: str = ", ",
3176        prefix: str = "",
3177    ) -> str:
3178        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3179
3180        if not expressions:
3181            return ""
3182
3183        if flat:
3184            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3185
3186        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3187
3188        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
3189        pad = " " * self.pad
3190        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
3191
3192        result_sqls = []
3193        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3194            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3195            if not sql:
3196                continue
3197
3198            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3199
3200            if self.pretty:
3201                if self.leading_comma:
3202                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3203                else:
3204                    result_sqls.append(
3205                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3206                    )
3207            else:
3208                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3209
3210        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
3211        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
3212
3213    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3214        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3215        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3216        if flat:
3217            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3218        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3219
3220    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3221        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3222        if not property_name:
3223            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3224        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3225
3226    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3227        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3228
3229    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3230        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3231
3232    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3233        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3234        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3235        expressions = (
3236            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3237        )
3238        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3239
3240    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3241        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3242        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3243        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3244
3245    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3246        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3247
3248    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3249        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3250        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3251        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3252        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3253
3254        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3255        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3256            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
3257            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
3258                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
3259        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3260            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3261                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3262            else:
3263                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3264        else:
3265            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3266        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3267
3268    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3269        table = expression.this
3270        table_alias = ""
3271
3272        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3273        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3274            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3275            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3276
3277        this = self.sql(table)
3278        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3279        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3280        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
3281
3282        return self.prepend_ctes(
3283            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
3284        )
3285
3286    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3287        if expression.args.get("format"):
3288            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3289
3290        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
3291
3292    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3293        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3294            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3295            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "double"))
3296
3297        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3298        if not fmt:
3299            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3300            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "double"))
3301
3302        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3303
3304    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3305        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3306        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3307        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3308        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3309        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3310
3311    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3312        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3313        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3314        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3315        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3316
3317    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3318        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3319
3320    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3321        return ""
3322
3323    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3324        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3325        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3326        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3327        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3328        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3329
3330    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3331        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3332        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3333
3334        if having:
3335            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3336
3337        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3338
3339    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3340        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3341        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3342        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3343        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3344        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3345        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3346        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3347        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3348        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3349        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3350        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3351        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3352        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3353
3354    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3355        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3356        if key_block_size:
3357            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3358
3359        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3360        if using:
3361            return f"USING {using}"
3362
3363        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3364        if parser:
3365            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3366
3367        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3368        if comment:
3369            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3370
3371        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3372        if visible is not None:
3373            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3374
3375        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3376        if engine_attr:
3377            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3378
3379        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3380        if secondary_engine_attr:
3381            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3382
3383        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3384        return ""
3385
3386    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3387        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3388        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3389
3390    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3391        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3392        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3393        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3394        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3395        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3396        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3397        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3398        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
3399        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3400        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3401        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{schema}{options}"
3402
3403    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3404        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3405            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3406
3407        case = exp.Case().when(
3408            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3409            expression.args["true"],
3410            copy=False,
3411        )
3412        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3413        if else_cond:
3414            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3415
3416        return self.sql(case)
3417
3418    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3419        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3420        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3421        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3422        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3423        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3424        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3425
3426    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3427        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3428
3429    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3430        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3431
3432    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3433        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3434        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3435        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3436        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3437        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3438        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3439
3440    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3441        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3442        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3443        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3444
3445    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3446        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3447        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3448        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3449
3450    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3451        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3452
3453    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3454        arg = expression.this
3455        if not arg.type:
3456            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3457
3458            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3459
3460        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3461            return self.sql(arg)
3462
3463        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3464        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3465
3466    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3467        this = expression.this
3468        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3469            return self.sql(this)
3470
3471        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "time"))
3472
3473    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3474        this = expression.this
3475        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3476
3477        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3478            return self.sql(
3479                exp.cast(exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]), "date")
3480            )
3481
3482        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3483            return self.sql(this)
3484
3485        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "date"))
3486
3487    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3488        return self.sql(
3489            exp.func(
3490                "DATEDIFF",
3491                expression.this,
3492                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), "date"),
3493                "day",
3494            )
3495        )
3496
3497    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3498        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3499            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3500
3501        unit = expression.text("unit")
3502        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3503            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3504
3505        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3506
3507    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3508        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3509            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3510            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3511            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3512            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3513
3514        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3515
3516        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3517        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3518            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3519
3520        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3521
3522    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
3523        this = expression.this
3524        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
3525            this = self.json_path_part(this)
3526            return f".{this}" if this else ""
3527
3528        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
3529            return f".{this}"
3530
3531        this = self.json_path_part(this)
3532        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
3533
3534    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
3535        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
3536        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
3537
3538    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3539        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3540            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3541
3542            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3543
3544        return expression
3545
3546    def generateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3547        expression.set("is_end_exclusive", None)
3548        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3549
3550    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3551        expression.set(
3552            "expressions",
3553            [
3554                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.this) if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ) else e
3555                for e in expression.expressions
3556            ],
3557        )
3558
3559        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3560
3561    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3562        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3563        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3564
3565        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3566
3567    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3568        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3569        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3570
3571        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3572
3573        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3574        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3575
3576        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3577        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3578
3579        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3580        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3581
3582        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3583        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3584
3585        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3586
3587    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3588    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3589    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3590        to = expression.this
3591        value = expression.expression
3592        style = expression.args.get("style")
3593        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3594        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3595
3596        if not to or not value:
3597            return ""
3598
3599        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3600        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3601            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3602
3603        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3604        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3605
3606        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3607        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3608            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3609
3610            style_value = style.name
3611            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3612            if not converted_style:
3613                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3614
3615            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3616
3617            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3618                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3619            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3620                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3621            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3622                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3623            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3624                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3625
3626        if not transformed:
3627            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3628
3629        return self.sql(transformed)

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

Arguments:
  • pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
  • identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  • normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
  • pad: The pad size in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
  • unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True, dialect: Union[str, sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect, Type[sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect], NoneType] = None)
523    def __init__(
524        self,
525        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
526        identify: str | bool = False,
527        normalize: bool = False,
528        pad: int = 2,
529        indent: int = 2,
530        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
531        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
532        max_unsupported: int = 3,
533        leading_comma: bool = False,
534        max_text_width: int = 80,
535        comments: bool = True,
536        dialect: DialectType = None,
537    ):
538        import sqlglot
539        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
540
541        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
542        self.identify = identify
543        self.normalize = normalize
544        self.pad = pad
545        self._indent = indent
546        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
547        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
548        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
549        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
550        self.comments = comments
551        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
552
553        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
554        self.normalize_functions = (
555            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
556        )
557
558        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
559        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
560            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
561        )
562        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
563            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
564        )
TRANSFORMS: Dict[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], Callable[..., str]] = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathFilter'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathKey'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRecursive'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRoot'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathScript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSelector'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSlice'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSubscript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathUnion'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathWildcard'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExcludeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalSpan'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONExtract'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONExtractScalar'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NonClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Timestamp'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithOperator'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: Optional[bool] = True
IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXPLICIT_UNION = False
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINT_SEP = ', '
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
RETURNING_END = True
COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = 'TABLESAMPLE'
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = 'SEED'
COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
ENSURE_BOOLS = False
CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ':'
INSERT_OVERWRITE = ' OVERWRITE TABLE'
SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.TINYTEXT: 'TINYTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.TINYBLOB: 'TINYBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET'}
STAR_MAPPING = {'except': 'EXCEPT', 'replace': 'REPLACE'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'MICROSECONDS': 'MICROSECOND', 'SECONDS': 'SECOND', 'MINUTES': 'MINUTE', 'HOURS': 'HOUR', 'DAYS': 'DAY', 'WEEKS': 'WEEK', 'MONTHS': 'MONTH', 'QUARTERS': 'QUARTER', 'YEARS': 'YEAR'}
AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {'cluster': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'distribute': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'qualify': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'sort': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'windows': <function Generator.<lambda>>}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ':'
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Binary'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Union'>)
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>, <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>, <Type.VARCHAR: 'VARCHAR'>, <Type.CHAR: 'CHAR'>}
EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: Set[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = set()
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
dialect
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
566    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
567        """
568        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
569
570        Args:
571            expression: The syntax tree.
572            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
573                it is safer to copy.
574
575        Returns:
576            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
577        """
578        if copy:
579            expression = expression.copy()
580
581        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
582
583        self.unsupported_messages = []
584        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
585
586        if self.pretty:
587            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
588
589        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
590            return sql
591
592        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
593            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
594                logger.warning(msg)
595        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
596            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
597
598        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

Arguments:
  • expression: The syntax tree.
  • copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so it is safer to copy.
Returns:

The SQL string corresponding to expression.

def preprocess( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> sqlglot.expressions.Expression:
600    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
601        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
602        if (
603            not expression.parent
604            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
605            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
606        ):
607            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
608
609            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
610
611        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
612            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
613
614            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
615
616        return expression

Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
618    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
619        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
620            raise UnsupportedError(message)
621        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
623    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
624        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
626    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
627        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
629    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
630        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
631        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
632        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None) -> str:
634    def maybe_comment(
635        self,
636        sql: str,
637        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
638        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
639    ) -> str:
640        comments = (
641            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
642            if self.comments
643            else None
644        )
645
646        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
647            return sql
648
649        comments_sql = " ".join(
650            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
651        )
652
653        if not comments_sql:
654            return sql
655
656        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
657            return (
658                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
659                if sql[0].isspace()
660                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
661            )
662
663        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
665    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
666        this_sql = self.indent(
667            (
668                self.sql(expression)
669                if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
670                else self.sql(expression, "this")
671            ),
672            level=1,
673            pad=0,
674        )
675        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
677    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
678        original = self.identify
679        self.identify = False
680        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
681        self.identify = original
682        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
684    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
685        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
686            return name.upper()
687        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
688            return name.lower()
689        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
691    def indent(
692        self,
693        sql: str,
694        level: int = 0,
695        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
696        skip_first: bool = False,
697        skip_last: bool = False,
698    ) -> str:
699        if not self.pretty:
700            return sql
701
702        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
703        lines = sql.split("\n")
704
705        return "\n".join(
706            (
707                line
708                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
709                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
710            )
711            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
712        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
714    def sql(
715        self,
716        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
717        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
718        comment: bool = True,
719    ) -> str:
720        if not expression:
721            return ""
722
723        if isinstance(expression, str):
724            return expression
725
726        if key:
727            value = expression.args.get(key)
728            if value:
729                return self.sql(value)
730            return ""
731
732        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
733
734        if callable(transform):
735            sql = transform(self, expression)
736        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
737            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
738
739            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
740                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
741            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
742                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
743            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
744                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
745            else:
746                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
747        else:
748            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
749
750        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
752    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
753        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
754        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
755        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
757    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
758        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
759        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
760        options = expression.args.get("options")
761        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
762        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
763        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
764        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
765        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
767    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
768        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
769            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
770        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
771        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
773    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
774        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
775
776        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
777            join_mark = ""
778            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
779
780        column = ".".join(
781            self.sql(part)
782            for part in (
783                expression.args.get("catalog"),
784                expression.args.get("db"),
785                expression.args.get("table"),
786                expression.args.get("this"),
787            )
788            if part
789        )
790
791        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
793    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
794        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
795        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
796        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
797        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
799    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
800        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
801        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
802        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
803        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
804        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
805        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
806        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
807        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
808
809        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
810            kind = ""
811
812        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
814    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
815        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
816        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
817        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
819    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
820        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
821        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
822            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
823        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
824            persisted = " PERSISTED"
825        else:
826            persisted = ""
827        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
829    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
830        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
832    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
833        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
834            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
835        else:
836            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
837
838        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
840    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
841        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
842    ) -> str:
843        this = ""
844        if expression.this is not None:
845            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
846            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
847
848        start = expression.args.get("start")
849        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
850        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
851        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
852        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
853        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
854        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
855        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
856        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
857        cycle_sql = ""
858
859        if cycle is not None:
860            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
861            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
862
863        sequence_opts = ""
864        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
865            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
866            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
867
868        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
869        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
870
871        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint) -> str:
873    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
874        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
875    ) -> str:
876        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
877        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
878        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint) -> str:
880    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
881        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
882    ) -> str:
883        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
885    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
886        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
888    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
889        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
891    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
892        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
893        if desc is not None:
894            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
895        return "PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
897    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
898        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
899        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
900        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
901        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
902        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
903        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
904        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: DefaultDict) -> str:
906    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
907        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
909    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
910        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
911        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
912        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
913
914        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
915
916        properties_sql = ""
917        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
918            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
919        ):
920            properties_sql = self.sql(
921                exp.Properties(
922                    expressions=[
923                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
924                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
925                    ]
926                )
927            )
928
929        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
930        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
931
932        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
933        if expression_sql:
934            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
935
936            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
937                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
938                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
939                        exp.Properties(
940                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
941                        ),
942                        wrapped=False,
943                    )
944                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
945                else:
946                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
947
948        postindex_props_sql = ""
949        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
950            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
951                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
952                wrapped=False,
953                prefix=" ",
954            )
955
956        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
957        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
958        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
959
960        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
961        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
962
963        postcreate_props_sql = ""
964        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
965            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
966                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
967                sep=" ",
968                prefix=" ",
969                wrapped=False,
970            )
971
972        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
973
974        postexpression_props_sql = ""
975        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
976            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
977                exp.Properties(
978                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
979                ),
980                sep=" ",
981                prefix=" ",
982                wrapped=False,
983            )
984
985        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
986        no_schema_binding = (
987            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
988        )
989
990        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
991        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
992
993        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
994        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties) -> str:
 996    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
 997        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
 998        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 999        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1000        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1001        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1002        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1003        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1004        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1005        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1006        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1007
1008        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1009        if cache is None:
1010            cache_str = ""
1011        elif cache is True:
1012            cache_str = " CACHE"
1013        else:
1014            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1015
1016        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1017        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1018
1019        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
1021    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1022        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1023        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1024        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1025        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
1027    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1028        extended = " EXTENDED" if expression.args.get("extended") else ""
1029        return f"DESCRIBE{extended} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def heredoc_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Heredoc) -> str:
1031    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1032        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1033        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1035    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1036        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1037        if with_:
1038            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1039        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
1041    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1042        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1043        recursive = (
1044            "RECURSIVE "
1045            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1046            else ""
1047        )
1048
1049        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
1051    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1052        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1053        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
1055    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1056        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1057        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1058        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1059
1060        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1061            columns = ""
1062            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1063
1064        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1065            alias = "_t"
1066
1067        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
1069    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1070        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1071        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1072            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1073        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
1075    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1076        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1077        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1078            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1079        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
1081    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1082        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1083        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1084            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1085        return this
def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnicodeString) -> str:
1087    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1088        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1089        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1090
1091        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1092            escape = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if escape else ""
1093            return f"{self.dialect.UNICODE_START}{this}{self.dialect.UNICODE_END}{escape}"
1094
1095        if escape:
1096            pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1097        else:
1098            pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1099
1100        this = pattern.sub(r"\\u\1", this)
1101        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str:
1103    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1104        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
1105        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1107    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1108        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1109        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1110        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1111        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
1113    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1114        type_value = expression.this
1115
1116        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1117            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1118        else:
1119            type_sql = (
1120                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1121                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1122                else type_value
1123            )
1124
1125        nested = ""
1126        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1127        values = ""
1128
1129        if interior:
1130            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1131                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1132                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1133                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1134                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1135                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1136            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1137                nested = f" {interior}"
1138            else:
1139                nested = f"({interior})"
1140
1141        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1142        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1143            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1144            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1145        ):
1146            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1147
1148        return type_sql
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
1150    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1151        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1152        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1153        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1154        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
1156    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1157        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1158        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1159        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1160        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1161        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1162        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1163        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1164        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1165        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1166        if self.RETURNING_END:
1167            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1168        else:
1169            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1170        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
1172    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1173        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1174        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1175        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1176        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1177        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1178        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1179        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1180        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1181        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1182        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1183        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
def except_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1185    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1186        return self.set_operations(expression)
def except_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1188    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1189        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
1191    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1192        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1193        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1194        count = expression.args.get("count")
1195        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1196        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1197            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1198        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1199        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
1201    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1202        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1203            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1204            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1205            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1206
1207        agg = expression.this
1208        agg_arg = agg.this
1209        cond = expression.expression.this
1210        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1211        return self.sql(agg)
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
1213    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1214        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1215            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1216            return ""
1217
1218        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexParameters) -> str:
1220    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1221        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1222        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1223        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1224        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1225        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1226        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1227        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1228        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1229        if include:
1230            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1231        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1232        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1233        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1234        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1235
1236        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}"
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
1238    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1239        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1240        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1241        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1242        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1243        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1244        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1245        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1246
1247        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1248
1249        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1250        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
1252    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1253        text = expression.name
1254        lower = text.lower()
1255        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1256        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1257        if (
1258            expression.quoted
1259            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1260            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1261            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1262        ):
1263            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1264        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1266    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1267        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1268        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1269        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1270        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1271        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str:
1273    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1274        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1275        return f"{prefix}{string}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
1277    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1278        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1280    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1281        root_properties = []
1282        with_properties = []
1283
1284        for p in expression.expressions:
1285            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1286            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1287                with_properties.append(p)
1288            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1289                root_properties.append(p)
1290
1291        return self.root_properties(
1292            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1293        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1295    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1296        if properties.expressions:
1297            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1298        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
1300    def properties(
1301        self,
1302        properties: exp.Properties,
1303        prefix: str = "",
1304        sep: str = ", ",
1305        suffix: str = "",
1306        wrapped: bool = True,
1307    ) -> str:
1308        if properties.expressions:
1309            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1310            if expressions:
1311                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1312                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1313        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1315    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1316        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
def locate_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> DefaultDict:
1318    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1319        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1320        for p in properties.expressions:
1321            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1322            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1323                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1324            else:
1325                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1326
1327        return properties_locs
def property_name( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1329    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1330        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1331            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1332        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
1334    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1335        property_cls = expression.__class__
1336        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1337            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1338
1339        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1340        if not property_name:
1341            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1342
1343        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
1345    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1346        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1347            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1348            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1349
1350            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1351            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1352                like = f"({like})"
1353
1354            return like
1355
1356        if expression.expressions:
1357            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1358
1359        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1360        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1362    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1363        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1364        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1365        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
1367    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1368        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1369        local = expression.args.get("local")
1370        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1371        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1372        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1373        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1374        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1376    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1377        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1378        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1379        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1381    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1382        if expression.args.get("default"):
1383            property = "DEFAULT"
1384        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1385            property = "ON"
1386        else:
1387            property = "OFF"
1388        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1390    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1391        if expression.args.get("no"):
1392            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1393        if expression.args.get("default"):
1394            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1395
1396        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1397        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1399    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1400        default = expression.args.get("default")
1401        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1402        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1403        if default or minimum or maximum:
1404            if default:
1405                prop = "DEFAULT"
1406            elif minimum:
1407                prop = "MINIMUM"
1408            else:
1409                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1410            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1411        units = expression.args.get("units")
1412        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1413        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1415    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1416        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1417        always = expression.args.get("always")
1418        default = expression.args.get("default")
1419        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1420        never = expression.args.get("never")
1421
1422        if autotemp is not None:
1423            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1424        elif always:
1425            prop = "ALWAYS"
1426        elif default:
1427            prop = "DEFAULT"
1428        elif manual:
1429            prop = "MANUAL"
1430        elif never:
1431            prop = "NEVER"
1432        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1434    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1435        no = expression.args.get("no")
1436        no = " NO" if no else ""
1437        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1438        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1439
1440        for_ = ""
1441        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1442            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1443        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1444            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1445        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1446            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1447        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1449    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1450        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1451            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1452        if expression.this:
1453            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1454            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1455            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1456
1457        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1458        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1459        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1461    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1462        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1463
1464        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1465        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1466            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1467        else:
1468            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1469
1470        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1472    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1473        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1474        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1475        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1476        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1477        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1478        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1479        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1481    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1482        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1483        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1484        statistics_sql = ""
1485        if statistics is not None:
1486            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1487        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def withsystemversioningproperty_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1489    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1490        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
1491
1492        if expression.this:
1493            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
1494            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
1495
1496            if expression.expression:
1497                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1498                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
1499
1500            sql = f"{sql})"
1501
1502        return f"{sql})"
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1504    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1505        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1506        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1507
1508        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1509            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1510        else:
1511            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1512
1513        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1514        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1515        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1516        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1517        if is_function:
1518            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1519        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1520
1521        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1522        partition_sql = (
1523            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1524        )
1525        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1526        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1527        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1528        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1529        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1530        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1531        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1532
1533        if self.RETURNING_END:
1534            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1535        else:
1536            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1537
1538        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1539        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def intersect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1541    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1542        return self.set_operations(expression)
def intersect_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1544    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1545        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1547    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1548        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def kill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kill) -> str:
1550    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1551        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1552        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1553        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1554        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1555        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1557    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1558        return expression.name
def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1560    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1561        return expression.name
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1563    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1564        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1565
1566        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1567        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1568
1569        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1570        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1571        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1572
1573        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1574        if expressions:
1575            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1576            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1577
1578        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1580    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1581        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1583    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1584        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1585        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1586        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1587        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1588        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1589        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1590        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1591        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1592        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1593        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1594        null = expression.args.get("null")
1595        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1596        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint) -> str:
1598    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1599        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1601    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1602        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1603        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1604        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1605        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HistoricalData) -> str:
1607    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1608        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1609        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1610        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1611        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
def table_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table) -> str:
1613    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1614        return ".".join(
1615            self.sql(part)
1616            for part in (
1617                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1618                expression.args.get("db"),
1619                expression.args.get("this"),
1620            )
1621            if part is not None
1622        )
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1624    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1625        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1626        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1627        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1628        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1629        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1630        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1631        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1632        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1633        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1634        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1635        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1636        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1637
1638        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1639        if file_format:
1640            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1641            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1642            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1643
1644        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1645        if ordinality:
1646            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1647            alias = ""
1648
1649        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1650        if when:
1651            table = f"{table} {when}"
1652
1653        return f"{only}{table}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, sep: str = ' AS ', tablesample_keyword: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
1655    def tablesample_sql(
1656        self,
1657        expression: exp.TableSample,
1658        sep: str = " AS ",
1659        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1660    ) -> str:
1661        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1662            table = expression.this.copy()
1663            table.set("alias", None)
1664            this = self.sql(table)
1665            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1666        else:
1667            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1668            alias = ""
1669
1670        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1671        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1672        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1673        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1674        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1675        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1676        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1677        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1678        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1679
1680        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1681        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1682            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1683
1684        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1685        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1686            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1687
1688        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1689        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1690            expr = f"({expr})"
1691
1692        return (
1693            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1694        )
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1696    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1697        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1698
1699        if expression.this:
1700            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1701            if not expressions:
1702                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1703
1704            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1705            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1706            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1707            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1708            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1709
1710        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1711        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1712        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1713        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1714        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1715        if include_nulls is not None:
1716            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1717        else:
1718            nulls = ""
1719        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
def version_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Version) -> str:
1721    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1722        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1723        kind = expression.text("kind")
1724        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1725        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
1727    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1728        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
1730    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1731        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1732        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1733        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1734        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1735        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1736        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1737        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1738        if self.RETURNING_END:
1739            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1740        else:
1741            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1742        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1743        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values) -> str:
1745    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1746        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1747        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1748            args = self.expressions(expression)
1749            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1750            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1751            values = (
1752                f"({values})"
1753                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1754                else values
1755            )
1756            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1757
1758        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1759        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1760        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1761
1762        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1763
1764        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1765            row = tup.expressions
1766
1767            if i == 0 and column_names:
1768                row = [
1769                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1770                ]
1771
1772            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1773
1774        if self.pretty:
1775            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1776            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1777            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1778            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1779            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1780
1781        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1782        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1783        return f"({unions}){alias}"
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
1785    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1786        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
1788    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1789        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1790        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1791        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
1793    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1794        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
1796    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1797        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1798
1799        if expression.args.get("all"):
1800            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1801
1802        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1803        grouping_sets = (
1804            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1805        )
1806
1807        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1808        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1809            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1810        else:
1811            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1812            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1813
1814        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1815        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1816            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1817        else:
1818            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1819            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1820
1821        groupings = csv(
1822            grouping_sets,
1823            cube_sql,
1824            rollup_sql,
1825            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1826            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1827        )
1828
1829        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1830            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1831
1832        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
1834    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1835        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1836        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def connect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connect) -> str:
1838    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1839        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1840        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1841        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1842        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY {connect}")
1843        return start + connect
def prior_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Prior) -> str:
1845    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1846        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
1848    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1849        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1850            side = None
1851        else:
1852            side = expression.side
1853
1854        op_sql = " ".join(
1855            op
1856            for op in (
1857                expression.method,
1858                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1859                side,
1860                expression.kind,
1861                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1862            )
1863            if op
1864        )
1865        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1866        using = expression.args.get("using")
1867
1868        if not on_sql and using:
1869            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1870
1871        this = expression.this
1872        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1873
1874        if on_sql:
1875            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1876            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1877            if using:
1878                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1879            else:
1880                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1881        elif not op_sql:
1882            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
1883                return f" {this_sql}"
1884
1885            return f", {this_sql}"
1886
1887        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1888        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
1890    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1891        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1892        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1893        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
1895    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1896        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
1897
1898        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
1899        if cross_apply is True:
1900            op = "INNER JOIN "
1901        elif cross_apply is False:
1902            op = "LEFT JOIN "
1903        else:
1904            op = ""
1905
1906        return f"{op}LATERAL"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
1908    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1909        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1910
1911        if expression.args.get("view"):
1912            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1913            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1914            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1915            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1916            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1917            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1918
1919        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1920        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1921        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1923    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1924        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1925
1926        args = [
1927            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
1928            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1929            if e
1930        ]
1931
1932        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
1933        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
1934        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1935        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1936
1937        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
1939    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1940        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1941        value = expression.expression
1942        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
1943        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1944        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1945        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
1947    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1948        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1949        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1950        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1951        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1952        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1953        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1954        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1955        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
1957    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1958        expressions = (
1959            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1960        )
1961        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1962        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
1964    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1965        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
1967    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1968        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1969            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1970            return ""
1971
1972        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1973        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1974        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1975        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1976
1977        if wait is not None:
1978            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1979                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1980            else:
1981                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1982
1983        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
1985    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1986        text = expression.this or ""
1987        if expression.is_string:
1988            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1989        return text
def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1991    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1992        text = text.replace(self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1993        if self.dialect.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES:
1994            text = "".join(self.dialect.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES.get(ch, ch) for ch in text)
1995        elif self.pretty:
1996            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1997        return text
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
1999    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2000        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2001        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2002        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2003        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2004        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2005        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2006        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2007        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2008        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2009        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2010        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2012    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2013        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
2015    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2016        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2018    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2019        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2020        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2021        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2022        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2023        interpolated_values = [
2024            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2025            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2026        ]
2027        interpolate = (
2028            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2029        )
2030        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
def withfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithFill) -> str:
2032    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2033        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2034        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2035        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2036        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2037        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2038        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2039        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
2041    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2042        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
2044    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2045        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
2047    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2048        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
2050    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2051        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2052        asc = not desc
2053
2054        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2055        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2056        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2057        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2058        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2059
2060        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2061
2062        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2063        nulls_sort_change = ""
2064        if nulls_first and (
2065            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2066        ):
2067            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2068        elif (
2069            nulls_last
2070            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2071            and not nulls_are_last
2072        ):
2073            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2074
2075        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2076        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2077            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2078            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2079                self.unsupported(
2080                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2081                )
2082                nulls_sort_change = ""
2083            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2084                if expression.this.is_int:
2085                    self.unsupported(
2086                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2087                    )
2088                else:
2089                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2090                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2091                nulls_sort_change = ""
2092
2093        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2094        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2095
2096        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2098    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2099        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2100        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2101        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2102        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2103        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2104        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2105        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2106        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2107        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2108        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2109        definition_sqls = [
2110            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2111            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2112        ]
2113        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2114        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2115        body = "".join(
2116            (
2117                partition,
2118                order,
2119                measures,
2120                rows,
2121                after,
2122                pattern,
2123                define,
2124            )
2125        )
2126        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2127        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2128        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2130    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2131        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2132
2133        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2134            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2135        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2136            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2137
2138        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2139        if options:
2140            options = f" OPTION{self.wrap(options)}"
2141
2142        return csv(
2143            *sqls,
2144            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2145            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2146            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2147            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2148            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2149            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2150            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2151            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2152            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2153            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2154            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2155            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2156            options,
2157            sep="",
2158        )
def queryoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryOption) -> str:
2160    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2161        return ""
def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]:
2163    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2164        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2165    ) -> t.List[str]:
2166        return [
2167            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2168            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2169        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
2171    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2172        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2173        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2174        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
2176    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2177        into = expression.args.get("into")
2178        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2179            into.pop()
2180
2181        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2182        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2183        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2184        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2185
2186        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2187        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2188            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2189            limit.pop()
2190        else:
2191            top = ""
2192
2193        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2194
2195        if kind:
2196            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2197                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2198            else:
2199                if kind == "STRUCT":
2200                    expressions = self.expressions(
2201                        sqls=[
2202                            self.sql(
2203                                exp.Struct(
2204                                    expressions=[
2205                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2206                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2207                                        else e
2208                                        for e in expression.expressions
2209                                    ]
2210                                )
2211                            )
2212                        ]
2213                    )
2214                kind = ""
2215
2216        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2217        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2218        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2219        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2220        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2221            expression,
2222            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2223            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2224            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2225        )
2226
2227        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2228
2229        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2230            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2231                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2232            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2233                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2234            else:
2235                table_kind = ""
2236            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2237
2238        return sql
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2240    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2241        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2242        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2243        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2245    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2246        if expression.expressions:
2247            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2248        return ""
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
2250    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2251        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2252        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2253        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2254        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2255        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
2257    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2258        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2259        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
2261    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2262        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2263        kind = expression.text("kind")
2264        if kind:
2265            kind = f"{kind}."
2266        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
2268    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2269        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
2271    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2272        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2273        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2274
2275        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2276        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2277
2278        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2279        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
2281    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2282        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2283        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def set_operations(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
2285    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2286        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2287        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2288
2289        while stack:
2290            node = stack.pop()
2291
2292            if isinstance(node, exp.Union):
2293                stack.append(node.expression)
2294                stack.append(
2295                    self.maybe_comment(
2296                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2297                        expression=node.this,
2298                        comments=node.comments,
2299                    )
2300                )
2301                stack.append(node.this)
2302            else:
2303                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2304
2305        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2306        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2307        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
def union_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
2309    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2310        return self.set_operations(expression)
def union_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
2312    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2313        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2314        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2315        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2316        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2318    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2319        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2320
2321        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2322        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2323
2324        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2325            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2326                alias.append("columns", offset)
2327
2328        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2329            columns = alias.columns
2330            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2331        else:
2332            alias = self.sql(alias)
2333
2334        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2335        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2336            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2337        else:
2338            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2339                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2340            elif offset:
2341                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2342            else:
2343                suffix = alias
2344
2345        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
def prewhere_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PreWhere) -> str:
2347    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2348        return ""
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
2350    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2351        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2352        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
2354    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2355        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2356        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2357        order = expression.args.get("order")
2358        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2359        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2360        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2361        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2362
2363        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2364
2365        first = expression.args.get("first")
2366        if first is None:
2367            first = ""
2368        else:
2369            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2370
2371        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2372            return f"{this} {alias}"
2373
2374        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2375        return f"{this} ({args})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2377    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2378        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2379        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
2381    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2382        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2383        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2384        end = (
2385            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2386            or "CURRENT ROW"
2387        )
2388        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
2390    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2391        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2392        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2393        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
2395    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2396        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2397        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2398        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2399        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
2401    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2402        expressions = apply_index_offset(
2403            expression.this,
2404            expression.expressions,
2405            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2406        )
2407        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2408        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
2410    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2411        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
2413    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2414        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2415        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2416            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2417                this = self.wrap(this)
2418            return f"ANY{this}"
2419        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
2421    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2422        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
2424    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2425        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2426        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2427
2428        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2429            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2430            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2431
2432        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2433
2434        if default:
2435            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2436
2437        statements.append("END")
2438
2439        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
2440            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2441
2442        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
2444    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2445        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2446        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2447        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
2449    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2450        order = expression.args.get("order")
2451        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2452        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
2454    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2455        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2456        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2457        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
2459    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2460        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2461
2462        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2463            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2464        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2465            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2466        else:
2467            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
def convert_concat_args( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat | sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]:
2469    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2470        args = expression.expressions
2471        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2472            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2473
2474        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2475            args = [exp.cast(e, "text") for e in args]
2476
2477        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2478            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2479
2480        return args
def concat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat) -> str:
2482    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2483        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2484
2485        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2486        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2487            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2488
2489        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
def concatws_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> str:
2491    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2492        return self.func(
2493            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2494        )
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
2496    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2497        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2498        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2500    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2501        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2502        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2503        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2504        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2505        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2506        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2507        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2508        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2510    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2511        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2512        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2513        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2514        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
2516    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2517        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2519    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2520        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2521        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2522        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2524    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2525        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONPath) -> str:
2527    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2528        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2529        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2531    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2532        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2533            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2534            if not callable(transform):
2535                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2536                return ""
2537
2538            return transform(self, expression)
2539
2540        if isinstance(expression, int):
2541            return str(expression)
2542
2543        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2544            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2545            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2546        else:
2547            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2548            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2549
2550        return escaped
def formatjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FormatJson) -> str:
2552    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2553        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
def jsonobject_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject | sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2555    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2556        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2557        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2558
2559        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2560        if unique_keys is not None:
2561            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2562        else:
2563            unique_keys = ""
2564
2565        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2566        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2567        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2568        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2569
2570        return self.func(
2571            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2572            *expression.expressions,
2573            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2574        )
def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2576    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2577        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArray) -> str:
2579    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2580        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2581        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2582        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2583        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2584        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2585        return self.func(
2586            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2587        )
def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2589    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2590        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2591        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2592        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2593        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2594        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2595        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2596        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2597        return self.func(
2598            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2599            this,
2600            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2601        )
def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2603    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2604        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2605        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2606        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2607
2608        if nested_schema:
2609            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2610
2611        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2612        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2613        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2614        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONSchema) -> str:
2616    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2617        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
def jsontable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONTable) -> str:
2619    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2620        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2621        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2622        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2623        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2624        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2625        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2626        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2627        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2628        return self.func(
2629            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2630        )
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2632    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2633        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2634        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2635        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2636        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2637        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2638        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
2640    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2641        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2642        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2643        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2644        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2645        with_ = (
2646            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2647            if expressions
2648            else ""
2649        )
2650        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
2652    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2653        query = expression.args.get("query")
2654        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2655        field = expression.args.get("field")
2656        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2657
2658        if query:
2659            in_sql = self.wrap(self.sql(query))
2660        elif unnest:
2661            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2662        elif field:
2663            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2664        else:
2665            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2666
2667        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2669    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2670        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
2672    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2673        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2674        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2675            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2676        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2677
2678        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2679            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2680            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2681
2682        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2683        if this:
2684            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2685            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2686
2687        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
2689    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2690        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
2692    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2693        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2694        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2695        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2696        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2697        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2698        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
2700    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2701        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
2703    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2704        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2705        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
2707    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2708        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2709        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2710        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2711        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
2713    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2714        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
2716    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2717        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2718        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2719        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PivotAlias) -> str:
2721    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2722        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2723        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2724
2725        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2726            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2727        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2728            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2729
2730        return self.alias_sql(expression)
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
2732    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2733        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def atindex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2735    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2736        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2737        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2738        return f"{this} AT {index}"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2740    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2741        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2742        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2743        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2745    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2746        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2747        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2748        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
2750    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2751        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And) -> str:
2753    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2754        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
def xor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Xor) -> str:
2756    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2757        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
def connector_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2759    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2760        if not self.pretty:
2761            return self.binary(expression, op)
2762
2763        sqls = tuple(
2764            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2765            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2766        )
2767
2768        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2769        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2771    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2772        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2774    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2775        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2777    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2778        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2780    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2781        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2783    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2784        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2786    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2787        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2789    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2790        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2791        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2792        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2793        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2794        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
2795        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
2796        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
2798    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2799        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2800        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2802    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2803        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
2805    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2806        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2807            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2808        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
2810    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2811        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
2813    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2814        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2815        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2816        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2817        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2818        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2820    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2821        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2822        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2823        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2824        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2825        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2826        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2827        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2828        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2829        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2831    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2832        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2833        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2834        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2835        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2836
2837        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2838            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2839
2840        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
2842    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2843        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
2845    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2846        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2847        if chain is not None:
2848            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2849
2850        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
2852    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2853        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2854        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2855        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
2857    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2858        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2859
2860        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2861        if dtype:
2862            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2863            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2864            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2865            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2866            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2867
2868        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2869        if default:
2870            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2871
2872        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2873        if comment:
2874            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
2875
2876        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2877            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2878
2879        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str:
2881    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2882        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2883            # Remove db from tables
2884            expression = expression.transform(
2885                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2886            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
2887        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2888        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameColumn) -> str:
2890    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
2891        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2892        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
2893        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
2894        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
def altertable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
2896    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2897        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2898
2899        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2900            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
2901        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2902            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2903        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2904            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2905        else:
2906            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2907
2908        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2909        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2910        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2911        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
2912        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}{options}"
def add_column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
2914    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2915        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
2916            return self.expressions(
2917                expression,
2918                key="actions",
2919                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
2920            )
2921        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
2923    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2924        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2925        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2926        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
2928    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2929        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
2931    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2932        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2933
2934        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
2935            case = exp.case()
2936            for arg in expression.expressions:
2937                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
2938            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
2939
2940        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2941
2942        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2943        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2944        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2946    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2947        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
2949    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2950        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
def havingmax_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HavingMax) -> str:
2952    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
2953        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2954        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2955        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
2956        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
2982    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2983        return self.sql(
2984            exp.Cast(
2985                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2986                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2987            )
2988        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
2990    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2991        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2992            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2993        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
2995    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2996        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
2997
2998        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
2999            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3000
3001        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3002            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3003                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3004
3005        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3006            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3007                return self.sql(
3008                    exp.cast(
3009                        l / r,
3010                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3011                    )
3012                )
3013
3014        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
3016    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3017        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
3019    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3020        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
3022    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3023        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
3025    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3026        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3028    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3029        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
3031    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3032        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
3034    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3035        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
3037    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3038        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
3040    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3041        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
3043    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3044        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
3046    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3047        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
3049    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3050        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3051            return self.sql(
3052                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3053            )
3054        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
3056    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3057        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
3059    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3060        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
3062    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3063        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
3065    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3066        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
3068    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3069        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
3071    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3072        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
3074    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3075        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
3077    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3078        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3080    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3081        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3083    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3084        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def or_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or) -> str:
3086    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
3087        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
3089    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3090        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
3092    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3093        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
3095    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3096        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
def log_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Log) -> str:
3098    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3099        this = expression.this
3100        expr = expression.expression
3101
3102        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3103            this, expr = expr, this
3104        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3105            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3106                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3107
3108            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3109
3110        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
3112    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3113        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3114        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3115        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3116        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3117        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3119    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3120        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3121        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
3123    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3124        args = []
3125
3126        for key in expression.arg_types:
3127            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3128
3129            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3130                for value in arg_value:
3131                    args.append(value)
3132            elif arg_value is not None:
3133                args.append(arg_value)
3134
3135        if self.normalize_functions:
3136            name = expression.sql_name()
3137        else:
3138            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3139
3140        return self.func(name, *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')') -> str:
3142    def func(
3143        self,
3144        name: str,
3145        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3146        prefix: str = "(",
3147        suffix: str = ")",
3148    ) -> str:
3149        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
3151    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3152        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
3153        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
3154            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3155        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
def text_width(self, args: Iterable) -> int:
3157    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
3158        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
def format_time(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> Optional[str]:
3160    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
3161        return format_time(
3162            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3163            self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3164            self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3165        )
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[Collection[Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression]]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, skip_first: bool = False, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '') -> str:
3167    def expressions(
3168        self,
3169        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3170        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3171        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3172        flat: bool = False,
3173        indent: bool = True,
3174        skip_first: bool = False,
3175        sep: str = ", ",
3176        prefix: str = "",
3177    ) -> str:
3178        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3179
3180        if not expressions:
3181            return ""
3182
3183        if flat:
3184            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3185
3186        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3187
3188        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
3189        pad = " " * self.pad
3190        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
3191
3192        result_sqls = []
3193        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3194            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3195            if not sql:
3196                continue
3197
3198            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3199
3200            if self.pretty:
3201                if self.leading_comma:
3202                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3203                else:
3204                    result_sqls.append(
3205                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3206                    )
3207            else:
3208                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3209
3210        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
3211        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3213    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3214        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3215        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3216        if flat:
3217            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3218        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
3220    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3221        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3222        if not property_name:
3223            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3224        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
3226    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3227        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
3229    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3230        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3232    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3233        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3234        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3235        expressions = (
3236            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3237        )
3238        return f"{this}{expressions}"
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
3240    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3241        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3242        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3243        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
3245    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3246        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
3248    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3249        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3250        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3251        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3252        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3253
3254        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3255        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3256            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
3257            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
3258                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
3259        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3260            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3261                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3262            else:
3263                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3264        else:
3265            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3266        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
3268    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3269        table = expression.this
3270        table_alias = ""
3271
3272        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3273        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3274            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3275            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3276
3277        this = self.sql(table)
3278        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3279        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3280        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
3281
3282        return self.prepend_ctes(
3283            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
3284        )
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
3286    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3287        if expression.args.get("format"):
3288            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3289
3290        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
def tonumber_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToNumber) -> str:
3292    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3293        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3294            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3295            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "double"))
3296
3297        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3298        if not fmt:
3299            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3300            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "double"))
3301
3302        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str:
3304    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3305        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3306        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3307        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3308        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3309        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str:
3311    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3312        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3313        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3314        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3315        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3317    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3318        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str:
3320    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3321        return ""
def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3323    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3324        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3325        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3326        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3327        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3328        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue) -> str:
3330    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3331        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3332        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3333
3334        if having:
3335            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3336
3337        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
def querytransform_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryTransform) -> str:
3339    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3340        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3341        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3342        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3343        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3344        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3345        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3346        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3347        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3348        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3349        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3350        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3351        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3352        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3354    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3355        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3356        if key_block_size:
3357            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3358
3359        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3360        if using:
3361            return f"USING {using}"
3362
3363        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3364        if parser:
3365            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3366
3367        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3368        if comment:
3369            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3370
3371        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3372        if visible is not None:
3373            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3374
3375        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3376        if engine_attr:
3377            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3378
3379        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3380        if secondary_engine_attr:
3381            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3382
3383        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3384        return ""
def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3386    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3387        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3388        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3390    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3391        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3392        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3393        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3394        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3395        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3396        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3397        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3398        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
3399        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3400        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3401        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{schema}{options}"
def nvl2_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Nvl2) -> str:
3403    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3404        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3405            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3406
3407        case = exp.Case().when(
3408            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3409            expression.args["true"],
3410            copy=False,
3411        )
3412        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3413        if else_cond:
3414            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3415
3416        return self.sql(case)
def comprehension_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comprehension) -> str:
3418    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3419        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3420        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3421        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3422        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3423        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3424        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3426    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3427        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def opclass_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Opclass) -> str:
3429    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3430        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def predict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Predict) -> str:
3432    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3433        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3434        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3435        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3436        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3437        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3438        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
def forin_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForIn) -> str:
3440    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3441        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3442        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3443        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
def refresh_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Refresh) -> str:
3445    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3446        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3447        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3448        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
def operator_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Operator) -> str:
3450    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3451        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
def toarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToArray) -> str:
3453    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3454        arg = expression.this
3455        if not arg.type:
3456            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3457
3458            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3459
3460        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3461            return self.sql(arg)
3462
3463        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3464        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3466    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3467        this = expression.this
3468        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3469            return self.sql(this)
3470
3471        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "time"))
def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3473    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3474        this = expression.this
3475        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3476
3477        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3478            return self.sql(
3479                exp.cast(exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]), "date")
3480            )
3481
3482        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3483            return self.sql(this)
3484
3485        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "date"))
def unixdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnixDate) -> str:
3487    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3488        return self.sql(
3489            exp.func(
3490                "DATEDIFF",
3491                expression.this,
3492                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), "date"),
3493                "day",
3494            )
3495        )
def lastday_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LastDay) -> str:
3497    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3498        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3499            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3500
3501        unit = expression.text("unit")
3502        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3503            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3504
3505        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
def arrayany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayAny) -> str:
3507    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3508        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3509            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3510            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3511            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3512            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3513
3514        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3515
3516        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3517        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3518            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3519
3520        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def generateseries_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3546    def generateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3547        expression.set("is_end_exclusive", None)
3548        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def struct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Struct) -> str:
3550    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3551        expression.set(
3552            "expressions",
3553            [
3554                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.this) if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ) else e
3555                for e in expression.expressions
3556            ],
3557        )
3558
3559        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionRange) -> str:
3561    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3562        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3563        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3564
3565        return f"{low} TO {high}"
def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TruncateTable) -> str:
3567    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3568        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3569        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3570
3571        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3572
3573        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3574        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3575
3576        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3577        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3578
3579        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3580        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3581
3582        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3583        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3584
3585        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
def convert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Convert) -> str:
3589    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3590        to = expression.this
3591        value = expression.expression
3592        style = expression.args.get("style")
3593        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3594        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3595
3596        if not to or not value:
3597            return ""
3598
3599        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3600        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3601            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3602
3603        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3604        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3605
3606        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3607        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3608            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3609
3610            style_value = style.name
3611            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3612            if not converted_style:
3613                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3614
3615            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3616
3617            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3618                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3619            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3620                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3621            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3622                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3623            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3624                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3625
3626        if not transformed:
3627            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3628
3629        return self.sql(transformed)