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sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import typing as t
   5from collections import defaultdict
   6
   7from sqlglot import exp
   8from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
   9from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, seq_get
  10from sqlglot.time import format_time
  11from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  12
  13logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  14
  15
  16class Generator:
  17    """
  18    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  19
  20    Args:
  21        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  22            Default: False.
  23        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  24            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  25            True or 'always': Always quote.
  26            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  27        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  28            Default: False.
  29        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  30            Default: 2.
  31        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  32            Default: 2.
  33        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  34            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  35            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  36            False: Disables function name normalization.
  37        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  38            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  39        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  40            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  41            Default: 3
  42        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  43            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  44            Default: False
  45        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  46            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  47            line length.
  48            Default: 80
  49        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  50            Default: True
  51    """
  52
  53    TRANSFORMS = {
  54        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  55            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  56        ),
  57        exp.TsOrDsAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  58            "TS_OR_DS_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  59        ),
  60        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  61        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  62        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  63        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  64        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  65        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  66        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  67        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  68        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  69        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  70        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  71        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  72        exp.HeapProperty: lambda self, e: "HEAP",
  73        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  74        exp.IntervalDayToSecondSpan: "DAY TO SECOND",
  75        exp.IntervalYearToMonthSpan: "YEAR TO MONTH",
  76        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  77        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  78        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  79        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  80        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  81        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  82        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  83        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  84        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  85        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  86        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  87        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
  88        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
  89        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
  90        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
  91        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
  92        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
  94        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
  95        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
  96        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  97    }
  98
  99    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
 100    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
 101
 102    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 103    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 104
 105    # Always do union distinct or union all
 106    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 107
 108    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 109    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 110
 111    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 112    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 113
 114    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 115    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 116
 117    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 118    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 119
 120    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 121    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 122
 123    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 124    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 125
 126    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 127    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 128
 129    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 130    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 131
 132    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 133    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 134
 135    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 136    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 137
 138    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 139    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 140
 141    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 142    JOIN_HINTS = True
 143
 144    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 145    TABLE_HINTS = True
 146
 147    # Whether or not query hints should be generated
 148    QUERY_HINTS = True
 149
 150    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 151    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 152
 153    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 154    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 155
 156    # Whether or not to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 157    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 158
 159    # Whether or not to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 160    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 161
 162    # Whether or not to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 163    RETURNING_END = True
 164
 165    # Whether or not to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 166    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 167
 168    # Whether or not to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 169    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 170
 171    # Whether or not TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 172    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 173
 174    # Whether or not the NVL2 function is supported
 175    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 176
 177    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 178    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 179
 180    # Whether or not VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 181    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 182    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 183    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 184
 185    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 186        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 187        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 188        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 189        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 190        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 191        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 192        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 193    }
 194
 195    STAR_MAPPING = {
 196        "except": "EXCEPT",
 197        "replace": "REPLACE",
 198    }
 199
 200    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 201        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 202        "seconds": "second",
 203        "minutes": "minute",
 204        "hours": "hour",
 205        "days": "day",
 206        "weeks": "week",
 207        "months": "month",
 208        "quarters": "quarter",
 209        "years": "year",
 210    }
 211
 212    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 213
 214    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 215
 216    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 217
 218    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 219        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 220        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 221        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 222        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 223        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 224        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 225        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 226        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 227        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 228        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 229        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 230        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 231        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 232        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 233        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 234        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 235        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 236        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 237        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 238        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 239        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 240        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 241        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 242        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 243        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 244        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 245        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 246        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 247        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 248        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 249        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 250        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 251        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 252        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 253        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 254        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 255        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 256        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 257        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 258        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 259        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 260        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 261        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 262        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 263        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 264        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 265        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 266        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 267        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 268        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 269        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 270        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 271        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 272        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 273        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 274        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 275    }
 276
 277    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 278    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 279
 280    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 281    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 282        exp.Create,
 283        exp.Delete,
 284        exp.Drop,
 285        exp.From,
 286        exp.Insert,
 287        exp.Join,
 288        exp.Select,
 289        exp.Update,
 290        exp.Where,
 291        exp.With,
 292    )
 293
 294    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 295    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 296        exp.Column,
 297        exp.Literal,
 298        exp.Neg,
 299        exp.Paren,
 300    )
 301
 302    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 303
 304    # Autofilled
 305    INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 306    INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: t.Dict = {}
 307    INDEX_OFFSET = 0
 308    UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
 309    ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
 310    IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
 311    STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
 312    NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = "upper"
 313    NULL_ORDERING = "nulls_are_small"
 314    ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK = False
 315
 316    can_identify: t.Callable[[str, str | bool], bool]
 317
 318    # Delimiters for quotes, identifiers and the corresponding escape characters
 319    QUOTE_START = "'"
 320    QUOTE_END = "'"
 321    IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
 322    IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
 323    STRING_ESCAPE = "'"
 324    IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE = '"'
 325
 326    # Delimiters for bit, hex, byte and raw literals
 327    BIT_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 328    BIT_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 329    HEX_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 330    HEX_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 331    BYTE_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 332    BYTE_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 333
 334    __slots__ = (
 335        "pretty",
 336        "identify",
 337        "normalize",
 338        "pad",
 339        "_indent",
 340        "normalize_functions",
 341        "unsupported_level",
 342        "max_unsupported",
 343        "leading_comma",
 344        "max_text_width",
 345        "comments",
 346        "unsupported_messages",
 347        "_escaped_quote_end",
 348        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 349        "_cache",
 350    )
 351
 352    def __init__(
 353        self,
 354        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 355        identify: str | bool = False,
 356        normalize: bool = False,
 357        pad: int = 2,
 358        indent: int = 2,
 359        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 360        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 361        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 362        leading_comma: bool = False,
 363        max_text_width: int = 80,
 364        comments: bool = True,
 365    ):
 366        import sqlglot
 367
 368        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 369        self.identify = identify
 370        self.normalize = normalize
 371        self.pad = pad
 372        self._indent = indent
 373        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 374        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 375        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 376        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 377        self.comments = comments
 378
 379        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 380        self.normalize_functions = (
 381            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 382        )
 383
 384        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 385        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.STRING_ESCAPE + self.QUOTE_END
 386        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = self.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE + self.IDENTIFIER_END
 387        self._cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
 388
 389    def generate(
 390        self,
 391        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
 392        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
 393    ) -> str:
 394        """
 395        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 396
 397        Args:
 398            expression: The syntax tree.
 399            cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression
 400                which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
 401
 402        Returns:
 403            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 404        """
 405        if cache is not None:
 406            self._cache = cache
 407
 408        self.unsupported_messages = []
 409        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 410        self._cache = None
 411
 412        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 413            return sql
 414
 415        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 416            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 417                logger.warning(msg)
 418        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 419            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 420
 421        if self.pretty:
 422            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 423        return sql
 424
 425    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 426        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 427            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 428        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 429
 430    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 431        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 432
 433    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 434        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 435
 436    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 437        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 438        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 439        return comment
 440
 441    def maybe_comment(
 442        self,
 443        sql: str,
 444        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 445        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 446    ) -> str:
 447        comments = (
 448            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 449            if self.comments
 450            else None
 451        )
 452
 453        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
 454            return sql
 455
 456        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
 457        comments_sql = sep.join(
 458            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 459        )
 460
 461        if not comments_sql:
 462            return sql
 463
 464        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 465            return (
 466                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 467                if sql[0].isspace()
 468                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 469            )
 470
 471        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 472
 473    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 474        this_sql = self.indent(
 475            self.sql(expression)
 476            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 477            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 478            level=1,
 479            pad=0,
 480        )
 481        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 482
 483    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 484        original = self.identify
 485        self.identify = False
 486        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 487        self.identify = original
 488        return result
 489
 490    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 491        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 492            return name.upper()
 493        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 494            return name.lower()
 495        return name
 496
 497    def indent(
 498        self,
 499        sql: str,
 500        level: int = 0,
 501        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 502        skip_first: bool = False,
 503        skip_last: bool = False,
 504    ) -> str:
 505        if not self.pretty:
 506            return sql
 507
 508        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 509        lines = sql.split("\n")
 510
 511        return "\n".join(
 512            line
 513            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 514            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 515            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 516        )
 517
 518    def sql(
 519        self,
 520        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 521        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 522        comment: bool = True,
 523    ) -> str:
 524        if not expression:
 525            return ""
 526
 527        if isinstance(expression, str):
 528            return expression
 529
 530        if key:
 531            value = expression.args.get(key)
 532            if value:
 533                return self.sql(value)
 534            return ""
 535
 536        if self._cache is not None:
 537            expression_id = hash(expression)
 538
 539            if expression_id in self._cache:
 540                return self._cache[expression_id]
 541
 542        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 543
 544        if callable(transform):
 545            sql = transform(self, expression)
 546        elif transform:
 547            sql = transform
 548        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 549            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 550
 551            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 552                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 553            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 554                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 555            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 556                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 557            else:
 558                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 559        else:
 560            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 561
 562        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 563
 564        if self._cache is not None:
 565            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
 566        return sql
 567
 568    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 569        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 570        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 571        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 572
 573    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 574        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 575        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 576        options = expression.args.get("options")
 577        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 578        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 579        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 580        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 581        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 582
 583    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 584        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 585            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 586        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 587        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 588
 589    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 590        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 591
 592        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 593            join_mark = ""
 594            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 595
 596        column = ".".join(
 597            self.sql(part)
 598            for part in (
 599                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 600                expression.args.get("db"),
 601                expression.args.get("table"),
 602                expression.args.get("this"),
 603            )
 604            if part
 605        )
 606
 607        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 608
 609    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 610        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 611        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 612        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 613        return f"{position}{this}"
 614
 615    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 616        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 617        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 618        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 619        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 620        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 621        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 622        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 623        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 624
 625        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 626
 627    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 628        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 629        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 630        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 631
 632    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 633        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 634
 635    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 636        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 637            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 638        else:
 639            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 640
 641        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 642
 643    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 644        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 645    ) -> str:
 646        this = ""
 647        if expression.this is not None:
 648            on_null = "ON NULL " if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 649            this = " ALWAYS " if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT {on_null}"
 650
 651        start = expression.args.get("start")
 652        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 653        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 654        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 655        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 656        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 657        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 658        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 659        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 660        cycle_sql = ""
 661
 662        if cycle is not None:
 663            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 664            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 665
 666        sequence_opts = ""
 667        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 668            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 669            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 670
 671        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 672        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 673
 674        return f"GENERATED{this}AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 675
 676    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 677        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 678
 679    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 680        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 681        if desc is not None:
 682            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 683        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 684
 685    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 686        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 687        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 688        return f"UNIQUE{this}"
 689
 690    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 691        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 692
 693    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 694        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 695        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 696        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 697
 698        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 699
 700        properties_sql = ""
 701        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 702            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 703        ):
 704            properties_sql = self.sql(
 705                exp.Properties(
 706                    expressions=[
 707                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 708                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 709                    ]
 710                )
 711            )
 712
 713        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 714        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 715        if expression_sql:
 716            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
 717
 718            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 719                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 720                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 721                        exp.Properties(
 722                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 723                        ),
 724                        wrapped=False,
 725                    )
 726                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 727                else:
 728                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 729
 730        postindex_props_sql = ""
 731        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 732            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 733                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 734                wrapped=False,
 735                prefix=" ",
 736            )
 737
 738        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 739        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 740        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 741
 742        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 743        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 744
 745        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 746        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 747            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 748                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 749                sep=" ",
 750                prefix=" ",
 751                wrapped=False,
 752            )
 753
 754        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 755
 756        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 757        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 758            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 759                exp.Properties(
 760                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 761                ),
 762                sep=" ",
 763                prefix=" ",
 764                wrapped=False,
 765            )
 766
 767        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 768        no_schema_binding = (
 769            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 770        )
 771
 772        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 773        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 774
 775        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 776        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 777
 778    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 779        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 780        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 781
 782        if when:
 783            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 784            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 785            return f"CLONE {this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 786
 787        return f"CLONE {this}"
 788
 789    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 790        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 791
 792    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 793        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 794        if with_:
 795            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 796        return sql
 797
 798    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 799        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 800        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
 801
 802        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 803
 804    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 805        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 806        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 807
 808    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 809        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 810        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 811        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 812        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 813
 814    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 815        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 816        if self.BIT_START:
 817            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
 818        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 819
 820    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 821        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 822        if self.HEX_START:
 823            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
 824        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 825
 826    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 827        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 828        if self.BYTE_START:
 829            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
 830        return this
 831
 832    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 833        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
 834        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
 835
 836    def datatypesize_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeSize) -> str:
 837        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 838        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 839        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
 840        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 841
 842    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 843        type_value = expression.this
 844
 845        type_sql = (
 846            self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 847            if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
 848            else type_value
 849        )
 850
 851        nested = ""
 852        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 853        values = ""
 854
 855        if interior:
 856            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 857                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 858                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 859                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 860                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 861                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 862            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
 863                nested = f" {interior}"
 864            else:
 865                nested = f"({interior})"
 866
 867        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 868        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
 869            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
 870            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
 871        ):
 872            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
 873
 874        return type_sql
 875
 876    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 877        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 878        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 879        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 880        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
 881
 882    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 883        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 884        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 885        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 886        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
 887        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
 888        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
 889        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
 890        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
 891        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
 892        if self.RETURNING_END:
 893            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
 894        else:
 895            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
 896        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
 897
 898    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
 899        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 900        kind = expression.args["kind"]
 901        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
 902        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
 903        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
 904        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
 905        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
 906        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
 907        return (
 908            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
 909        )
 910
 911    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 912        return self.prepend_ctes(
 913            expression,
 914            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
 915        )
 916
 917    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 918        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
 919
 920    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
 921        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
 922        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
 923        count = expression.args.get("count")
 924        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
 925        if expression.args.get("percent"):
 926            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
 927        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
 928        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
 929
 930    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
 931        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 932        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
 933        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
 934
 935    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
 936        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
 937            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
 938            return ""
 939
 940        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
 941
 942    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
 943        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 944        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
 945        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
 946        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
 947        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
 948        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
 949        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table} " if table else ""
 950        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 951        using = f"USING {using} " if using else ""
 952        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
 953        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 954        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 955        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
 956        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
 957        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}"
 958
 959    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
 960        text = expression.name
 961        lower = text.lower()
 962        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
 963        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
 964        if (
 965            expression.quoted
 966            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
 967            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
 968            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
 969        ):
 970            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
 971        return text
 972
 973    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
 974        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
 975        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
 976        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
 977        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
 978        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
 979
 980    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
 981        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
 982        return f"{prefix}{string}"
 983
 984    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
 985        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
 986
 987    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
 988        root_properties = []
 989        with_properties = []
 990
 991        for p in expression.expressions:
 992            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
 993            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
 994                with_properties.append(p.copy())
 995            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
 996                root_properties.append(p.copy())
 997
 998        return self.root_properties(
 999            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1000        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1001
1002    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1003        if properties.expressions:
1004            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1005        return ""
1006
1007    def properties(
1008        self,
1009        properties: exp.Properties,
1010        prefix: str = "",
1011        sep: str = ", ",
1012        suffix: str = "",
1013        wrapped: bool = True,
1014    ) -> str:
1015        if properties.expressions:
1016            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1017            if expressions:
1018                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1019                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1020        return ""
1021
1022    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1023        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1024
1025    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1026        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1027        for p in properties.expressions:
1028            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1029            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1030                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p.copy())
1031            else:
1032                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1033
1034        return properties_locs
1035
1036    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1037        property_cls = expression.__class__
1038        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1039            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1040
1041        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1042        if not property_name:
1043            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1044
1045        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1046
1047    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1048        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1049        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1050        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1051
1052    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1053        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1054        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1055        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1056
1057    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1058        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1059        local = expression.args.get("local")
1060        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1061        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1062        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1063        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1064        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1065
1066    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1067        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1068        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1069        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1070
1071    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1072        if expression.args.get("default"):
1073            property = "DEFAULT"
1074        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1075            property = "ON"
1076        else:
1077            property = "OFF"
1078        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1079
1080    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1081        if expression.args.get("no"):
1082            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1083        if expression.args.get("default"):
1084            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1085
1086        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1087        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1088
1089    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1090        default = expression.args.get("default")
1091        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1092        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1093        if default or minimum or maximum:
1094            if default:
1095                prop = "DEFAULT"
1096            elif minimum:
1097                prop = "MINIMUM"
1098            else:
1099                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1100            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1101        units = expression.args.get("units")
1102        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1103        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1104
1105    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1106        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1107        always = expression.args.get("always")
1108        default = expression.args.get("default")
1109        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1110        never = expression.args.get("never")
1111
1112        if autotemp is not None:
1113            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1114        elif always:
1115            prop = "ALWAYS"
1116        elif default:
1117            prop = "DEFAULT"
1118        elif manual:
1119            prop = "MANUAL"
1120        elif never:
1121            prop = "NEVER"
1122        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1123
1124    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1125        no = expression.args.get("no")
1126        no = " NO" if no else ""
1127        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1128        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1129
1130        for_ = ""
1131        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1132            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1133        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1134            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1135        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1136            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1137        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1138
1139    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1140        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1141        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1142        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1143        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1144        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1145        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1146
1147    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1148        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1149        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1150        statistics_sql = ""
1151        if statistics is not None:
1152            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1153        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1154
1155    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1156        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1157
1158        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1159            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1160        else:
1161            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1162
1163        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1164        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1165        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1166
1167        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1168
1169        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1170        partition_sql = (
1171            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1172        )
1173        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1174        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1175        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1176        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1177        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1178
1179        if self.RETURNING_END:
1180            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1181        else:
1182            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1183
1184        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1185        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1186
1187    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1188        return self.prepend_ctes(
1189            expression,
1190            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1191        )
1192
1193    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1194        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1195
1196    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1197        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1198
1199    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1200        return expression.name.upper()
1201
1202    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1203        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1204        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1205        if constraint:
1206            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1207        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1208        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1209        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1210        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1211        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1212        if expressions:
1213            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1214        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1215
1216    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1217        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1218
1219    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1220        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1221        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1222        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1223        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1224        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1225        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1226        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1227        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1228        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1229        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1230        null = expression.args.get("null")
1231        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1232        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1233
1234    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1235        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1236
1237    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1238        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1239        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1240        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1241        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1242
1243    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1244        table = ".".join(
1245            part
1246            for part in [
1247                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1248                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1249                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1250            ]
1251            if part
1252        )
1253
1254        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1255        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1256        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1257        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1258        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1259        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1260        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1261        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1262        system_time = expression.args.get("system_time")
1263        system_time = f" {self.sql(expression, 'system_time')}" if system_time else ""
1264
1265        return f"{table}{system_time}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
1266
1267    def tablesample_sql(
1268        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1269    ) -> str:
1270        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1271            table = expression.this.copy()
1272            table.set("alias", None)
1273            this = self.sql(table)
1274            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1275        else:
1276            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1277            alias = ""
1278        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1279        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1280        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1281        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1282        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1283        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1284        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1285        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1286        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1287        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1288        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1289        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1290        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1291            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1292        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1293        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1294        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1295        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
1296
1297    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1298        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1299
1300        if expression.this:
1301            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1302            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1303            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1304            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1305            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1306            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1307
1308        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1309        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1310        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1311        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1312        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1313        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1314        if include_nulls is not None:
1315            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1316        else:
1317            nulls = ""
1318        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1319
1320    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1321        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1322
1323    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1324        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1325        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1326        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1327        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1328        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1329        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1330        if self.RETURNING_END:
1331            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}{limit}"
1332        else:
1333            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}{limit}"
1334        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}"
1335        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1336
1337    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1338        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1339        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1340            args = self.expressions(expression)
1341            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1342            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1343            values = (
1344                f"({values})"
1345                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1346                else values
1347            )
1348            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1349
1350        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1351        # Note: If you have a lot of unions then this will result in a large number of recursive statements to
1352        # evaluate the expression. You may need to increase `sys.setrecursionlimit` to run and it can also be
1353        # very slow.
1354        expression = expression.copy()
1355        column_names = expression.alias and expression.args["alias"].columns
1356
1357        selects = []
1358
1359        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1360            row = tup.expressions
1361
1362            if i == 0 and column_names:
1363                row = [
1364                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1365                ]
1366
1367            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1368
1369        subquery_expression: exp.Select | exp.Union = selects[0]
1370        if len(selects) > 1:
1371            for select in selects[1:]:
1372                subquery_expression = exp.union(
1373                    subquery_expression, select, distinct=False, copy=False
1374                )
1375
1376        return self.subquery_sql(subquery_expression.subquery(expression.alias, copy=False))
1377
1378    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1379        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1380
1381    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1382        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1383        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1384        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1385
1386    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1387        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1388
1389    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1390        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1391
1392        if expression.args.get("all"):
1393            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1394
1395        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1396        grouping_sets = (
1397            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1398        )
1399
1400        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1401        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1402            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1403        else:
1404            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1405            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1406
1407        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1408        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1409            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1410        else:
1411            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1412            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1413
1414        groupings = csv(
1415            grouping_sets,
1416            cube_sql,
1417            rollup_sql,
1418            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1419            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1420        )
1421
1422        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1423            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1424
1425        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1426
1427    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1428        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1429        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1430
1431    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1432        op_sql = " ".join(
1433            op
1434            for op in (
1435                expression.method,
1436                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1437                expression.side,
1438                expression.kind,
1439                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1440            )
1441            if op
1442        )
1443        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1444        using = expression.args.get("using")
1445
1446        if not on_sql and using:
1447            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1448
1449        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1450
1451        if on_sql:
1452            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1453            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1454            if using:
1455                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1456            else:
1457                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1458        elif not op_sql:
1459            return f", {this_sql}"
1460
1461        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1462        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1463
1464    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1465        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1466        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1467        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1468
1469    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1470        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1471
1472        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1473            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1474
1475        if expression.args.get("view"):
1476            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1477            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1478            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1479            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1480            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1481            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1482
1483        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1484        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1485        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1486
1487    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1488        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1489        args = ", ".join(
1490            sql
1491            for sql in (
1492                self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1493                self.sql(expression, "expression"),
1494            )
1495            if sql
1496        )
1497        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args}"
1498
1499    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1500        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1501        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1502
1503    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1504        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1505        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1506        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1507        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1508        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1509        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1510        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1511        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1512
1513    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1514        expressions = (
1515            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1516        )
1517        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1518        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1519
1520    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1521        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1522
1523    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1524        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1525            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1526            return ""
1527
1528        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1529        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1530        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1531        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1532
1533        if wait is not None:
1534            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1535                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1536            else:
1537                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1538
1539        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1540
1541    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1542        text = expression.this or ""
1543        if expression.is_string:
1544            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1545        return text
1546
1547    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1548        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1549        if self.ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK:
1550            text = text.replace("\n", "\\n")
1551        elif self.pretty:
1552            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1553        return text
1554
1555    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1556        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1557        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1558        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1559        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1560        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1561        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1562        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1563        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1564        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1565        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1566        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1567
1568    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1569        return "NULL"
1570
1571    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1572        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1573
1574    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1575        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1576        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1577        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1578
1579    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1580        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1581
1582    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1583        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1584
1585    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1586        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1587
1588    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1589        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1590        asc = not desc
1591
1592        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1593        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1594        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1595        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1596        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1597
1598        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1599        nulls_sort_change = ""
1600        if nulls_first and (
1601            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1602        ):
1603            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1604        elif (
1605            nulls_last
1606            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1607            and not nulls_are_last
1608        ):
1609            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1610
1611        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1612            self.unsupported(
1613                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1614            )
1615            nulls_sort_change = ""
1616
1617        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1618
1619    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1620        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1621        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1622        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1623        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1624        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1625        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1626        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1627        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1628        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1629        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1630        definition_sqls = [
1631            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1632            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1633        ]
1634        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1635        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1636        body = "".join(
1637            (
1638                partition,
1639                order,
1640                measures,
1641                rows,
1642                after,
1643                pattern,
1644                define,
1645            )
1646        )
1647        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1648        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1649        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1650
1651    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1652        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1653
1654        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1655        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1656
1657        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1658            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1659        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1660            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1661
1662        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1663
1664        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1665            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1666            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1667            else []
1668        )
1669
1670        return csv(
1671            *sqls,
1672            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1673            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1674            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1675            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1676            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1677            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1678            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1679            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1680            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1681            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1682            sep="",
1683        )
1684
1685    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1686        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1687    ) -> t.List[str]:
1688        return [
1689            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1690            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1691        ]
1692
1693    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1694        return [
1695            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1696            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1697            if expression.args.get("windows")
1698            else "",
1699            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1700            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1701            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1702        ]
1703
1704    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1705        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1706        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1707        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1708
1709    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1710        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1711        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1712        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1713        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1714        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1715        top = (
1716            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1717            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1718            else ""
1719        )
1720
1721        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1722
1723        if kind:
1724            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1725                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1726            else:
1727                if kind == "STRUCT":
1728                    expressions = self.expressions(
1729                        sqls=[
1730                            self.sql(
1731                                exp.Struct(
1732                                    expressions=[
1733                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1734                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1735                                        )
1736                                        for e in expression.expressions
1737                                    ]
1738                                )
1739                            )
1740                        ]
1741                    )
1742                kind = ""
1743
1744        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1745        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1746            expression,
1747            f"SELECT{top}{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1748            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1749            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1750        )
1751        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1752
1753    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1754        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1755        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1756        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1757        return f"{this}{sql}"
1758
1759    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1760        return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1761
1762    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1763        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1764        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1765        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1766        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1767        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
1768
1769    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1770        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1771        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1772        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
1773
1774    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1775        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1776        kind = expression.text("kind")
1777        if kind:
1778            kind = f"{kind}."
1779        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
1780
1781    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1782        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
1783
1784    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1785        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1786        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1787
1788        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1789        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1790
1791        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1792        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1793
1794    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1795        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1796        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1797
1798    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1799        return self.prepend_ctes(
1800            expression,
1801            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1802        )
1803
1804    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1805        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1806        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1807        return f"UNION{kind}"
1808
1809    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1810        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1811        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1812        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1813            columns = alias.columns
1814            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1815        else:
1816            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1817        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1818        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1819        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1820        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1821        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
1822
1823    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1824        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1825        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1826
1827    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1828        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1829        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1830        order = expression.args.get("order")
1831        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1832        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1833        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1834        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1835
1836        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1837
1838        first = expression.args.get("first")
1839        if first is None:
1840            first = ""
1841        else:
1842            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1843
1844        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1845            return f"{this} {alias}"
1846
1847        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1848        return f"{this} ({args})"
1849
1850    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1851        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1852        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
1853
1854    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1855        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1856        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1857        end = (
1858            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1859            or "CURRENT ROW"
1860        )
1861        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
1862
1863    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1864        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1865        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1866        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
1867
1868    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1869        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1870        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1871        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1872        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
1873
1874    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1875        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
1876        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1877
1878        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
1879
1880    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
1881        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
1882
1883    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1884        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
1885
1886    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1887        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1888        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1889            this = self.wrap(this)
1890        return f"ANY {this}"
1891
1892    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1893        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
1894
1895    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1896        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1897        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1898
1899        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1900            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1901            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1902
1903        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1904
1905        if default:
1906            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1907
1908        statements.append("END")
1909
1910        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
1911            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1912
1913        return " ".join(statements)
1914
1915    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1916        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1917        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1918        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
1919
1920    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1921        order = expression.args.get("order")
1922        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1923        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
1924
1925    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1926        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
1927        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1928        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
1929
1930    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1931        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1932
1933        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1934            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1935        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1936            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1937        else:
1938            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
1939
1940    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
1941        expressions = expression.expressions
1942        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
1943            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
1944        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
1945
1946    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1947        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1948        return f"CHECK ({this})"
1949
1950    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1951        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1952        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1953        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1954        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
1955        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
1956        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
1957        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
1958        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
1959
1960    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1961        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1962        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1963        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1964        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
1965
1966    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
1967        expression = expression.copy()
1968        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
1969
1970    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1971        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
1972        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
1973        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
1974
1975    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1976        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1977
1978    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
1979        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
1980        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
1981        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
1982        if unique_keys is not None:
1983            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
1984        else:
1985            unique_keys = ""
1986        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
1987        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
1988        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
1989        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
1990        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
1991        return self.func(
1992            "JSON_OBJECT",
1993            *expression.expressions,
1994            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})",
1995        )
1996
1997    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
1998        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1999        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2000        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2001        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2002        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2003        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2004
2005    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2006        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2007        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2008        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2009        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2010        with_ = (
2011            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2012            if expressions
2013            else ""
2014        )
2015        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2016
2017    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2018        query = expression.args.get("query")
2019        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2020        field = expression.args.get("field")
2021        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2022
2023        if query:
2024            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2025        elif unnest:
2026            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2027        elif field:
2028            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2029        else:
2030            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2031
2032        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2033
2034    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2035        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2036
2037    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2038        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2039        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2040            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
2041        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2042
2043        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2044            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2045            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2046
2047        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2048        if this:
2049            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2050            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2051
2052        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2053
2054    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2055        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2056
2057    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2058        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2059        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2060        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2061        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2062        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2063        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2064
2065    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2066        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
2067
2068    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2069        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2070            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2071        else:
2072            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2073            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2074
2075        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2076
2077    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2078        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2079        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2080        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2081        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2082
2083    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2084        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2085
2086    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2087        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2088        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2089        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2090
2091    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2092        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2093
2094    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2095        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2096        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2097        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2098
2099    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2100        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2101
2102    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2103        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
2104
2105    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2106        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
2107
2108    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2109        if not self.pretty:
2110            return self.binary(expression, op)
2111
2112        sqls = tuple(
2113            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2114            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2115        )
2116
2117        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2118        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
2119
2120    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2121        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2122
2123    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2124        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2125
2126    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2127        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2128
2129    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2130        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2131
2132    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2133        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2134
2135    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2136        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2137
2138    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2139        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2140        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2141        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')}{format_sql})"
2142
2143    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2144        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2145        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2146
2147    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2148        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2149
2150    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2151        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2152
2153    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2154        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2155        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2156        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2157        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2158        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2159
2160    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2161        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2162        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2163        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2164        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2165        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2166        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2167        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2168        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2169        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2170
2171    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2172        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2173        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2174        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2175        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2176
2177        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2178            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2179
2180        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2181
2182    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2183        return "BEGIN"
2184
2185    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2186        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2187        if chain is not None:
2188            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2189
2190        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2191
2192    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2193        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2194        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2195        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2196
2197    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2198        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2199
2200        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2201        if dtype:
2202            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2203            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2204            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2205            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2206            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2207
2208        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2209        if default:
2210            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2211
2212        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2213            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2214
2215        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2216
2217    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2218        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2219            # Remove db from tables
2220            expression = expression.transform(
2221                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2222            )
2223        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2224        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2225
2226    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2227        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2228
2229        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2230            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMN ")
2231        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2232            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2233        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2234            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2235        else:
2236            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2237
2238        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2239        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2240
2241    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2242        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2243        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2244        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2245
2246    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2247        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2248        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2249        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2250
2251        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2252        if enforced is not None:
2253            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2254
2255        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2256
2257    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2258        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2259        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2260
2261        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2262        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2263        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2264
2265    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2266        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2267
2268    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2269        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2270
2271    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2272        return self.sql(
2273            exp.Cast(
2274                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this.copy(), expression=expression.expression.copy()),
2275                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2276            )
2277        )
2278
2279    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2280        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2281
2282    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2283        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2284            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2285        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
2286
2287    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2288        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2289
2290    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2291        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2292
2293    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2294        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2295
2296    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2297        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2298
2299    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2300        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2301
2302    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2303        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2304
2305    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2306        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2307
2308    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2309        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2310
2311    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2312        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2313
2314    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2315        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2316
2317    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2318        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2319
2320    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2321        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2322            return self.sql(
2323                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2324            )
2325        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2326
2327    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2328        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2329
2330    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2331        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2332
2333    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2334        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2335
2336    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2337        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2338
2339    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2340        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2341
2342    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2343        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2344
2345    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2346        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2347
2348    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2349        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2350
2351    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2352        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2353
2354    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2355        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2356
2357    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2358        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2359
2360    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2361        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2362
2363    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2364        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2365
2366    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2367        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
2368
2369    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2370        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2371        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2372        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2373        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2374        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2375
2376    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2377        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2378        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2379
2380    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2381        args = []
2382
2383        for key in expression.arg_types:
2384            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2385
2386            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2387                for value in arg_value:
2388                    args.append(value)
2389            elif arg_value is not None:
2390                args.append(arg_value)
2391
2392        if self.normalize_functions:
2393            name = expression.sql_name()
2394        else:
2395            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2396
2397        return self.func(name, *args)
2398
2399    def func(
2400        self,
2401        name: str,
2402        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2403        prefix: str = "(",
2404        suffix: str = ")",
2405    ) -> str:
2406        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2407
2408    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2409        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2410        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2411            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2412        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2413
2414    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2415        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2416
2417    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2418        return format_time(
2419            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2420        )
2421
2422    def expressions(
2423        self,
2424        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2425        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2426        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2427        flat: bool = False,
2428        indent: bool = True,
2429        skip_first: bool = False,
2430        sep: str = ", ",
2431        prefix: str = "",
2432    ) -> str:
2433        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2434
2435        if not expressions:
2436            return ""
2437
2438        if flat:
2439            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2440
2441        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2442
2443        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2444        pad = " " * self.pad
2445        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2446
2447        result_sqls = []
2448        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2449            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2450            if not sql:
2451                continue
2452
2453            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2454
2455            if self.pretty:
2456                if self.leading_comma:
2457                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2458                else:
2459                    result_sqls.append(
2460                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2461                    )
2462            else:
2463                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2464
2465        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2466        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
2467
2468    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2469        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2470        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2471        if flat:
2472            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2473        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2474
2475    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2476        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2477        if not property_name:
2478            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2479        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2480
2481    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2482        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2483        op = self.seg(op)
2484        return self.query_modifiers(
2485            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2486        )
2487
2488    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2489        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2490
2491    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2492        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2493
2494    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2495        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2496        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2497        expressions = (
2498            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2499        )
2500        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2501
2502    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2503        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2504        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2505        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2506
2507    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2508        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2509
2510    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2511        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2512        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2513        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2514        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2515
2516        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2517        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2518            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2519            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2520                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2521        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2522            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2523                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2524            else:
2525                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2526        else:
2527            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2528        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2529
2530    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2531        table = expression.this
2532        table_alias = ""
2533
2534        hints = table.args.get("hints")
2535        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
2536            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
2537            table = table.copy()
2538            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
2539
2540        this = self.sql(table)
2541        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2542        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2543        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
2544
2545        return f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
2546
2547    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2548        if expression.args.get("format"):
2549            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2550
2551        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2552
2553    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2554        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2555        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2556        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2557        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2558        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2559
2560    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2561        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2562        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2563        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2564        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2565
2566    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2567        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
2568
2569    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2570        return ""
2571
2572    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2573        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2574        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2575        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2576        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2577        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
2578
2579    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2580        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2581        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2582
2583        if having:
2584            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2585
2586        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
2587
2588    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2589        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2590        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2591        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2592        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2593        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2594        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2595        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2596        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2597        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2598        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2599        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2600        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
2601        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
2602
2603    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2604        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
2605        if key_block_size:
2606            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
2607
2608        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2609        if using:
2610            return f"USING {using}"
2611
2612        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
2613        if parser:
2614            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
2615
2616        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2617        if comment:
2618            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
2619
2620        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
2621        if visible is not None:
2622            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
2623
2624        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
2625        if engine_attr:
2626            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
2627
2628        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
2629        if secondary_engine_attr:
2630            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
2631
2632        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
2633        return ""
2634
2635    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2636        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2637        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
2638        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2639        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2640        type_ = self.sql(expression, "type")
2641        type_ = f" USING {type_}" if type_ else ""
2642        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2643        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
2644        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
2645        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2646        return f"{kind}{this}{type_}{schema}{options}"
2647
2648    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
2649        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
2650            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2651
2652        case = exp.Case().when(
2653            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
2654            expression.args["true"].copy(),
2655            copy=False,
2656        )
2657        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
2658        if else_cond:
2659            case.else_(else_cond.copy(), copy=False)
2660
2661        return self.sql(case)
2662
2663
2664def cached_generator(
2665    cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
2666) -> t.Callable[[exp.Expression], str]:
2667    """Returns a cached generator."""
2668    cache = {} if cache is None else cache
2669    generator = Generator(normalize=True, identify="safe")
2670    return lambda e: generator.generate(e, cache)
logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
class Generator:
  17class Generator:
  18    """
  19    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  20
  21    Args:
  22        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  23            Default: False.
  24        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  25            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  26            True or 'always': Always quote.
  27            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  28        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  29            Default: False.
  30        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  31            Default: 2.
  32        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  33            Default: 2.
  34        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  35            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  36            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  37            False: Disables function name normalization.
  38        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  39            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  40        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  41            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  42            Default: 3
  43        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  44            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  45            Default: False
  46        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  47            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  48            line length.
  49            Default: 80
  50        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  51            Default: True
  52    """
  53
  54    TRANSFORMS = {
  55        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  56            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  57        ),
  58        exp.TsOrDsAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  59            "TS_OR_DS_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  60        ),
  61        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  62        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  63        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  64        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  65        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  66        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  67        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  68        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  69        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  70        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  71        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  72        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  73        exp.HeapProperty: lambda self, e: "HEAP",
  74        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  75        exp.IntervalDayToSecondSpan: "DAY TO SECOND",
  76        exp.IntervalYearToMonthSpan: "YEAR TO MONTH",
  77        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  78        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  79        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  80        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  81        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  82        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  83        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  84        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  85        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  86        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  87        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  88        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
  89        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
  90        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
  91        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
  92        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
  93        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
  95        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
  96        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
  97        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  98    }
  99
 100    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
 101    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
 102
 103    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 104    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 105
 106    # Always do union distinct or union all
 107    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 108
 109    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 110    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 111
 112    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 113    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 114
 115    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 116    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 117
 118    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 119    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 120
 121    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 122    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 123
 124    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 125    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 126
 127    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 128    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 129
 130    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 131    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 132
 133    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 134    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 135
 136    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 137    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 138
 139    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 140    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 141
 142    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 143    JOIN_HINTS = True
 144
 145    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 146    TABLE_HINTS = True
 147
 148    # Whether or not query hints should be generated
 149    QUERY_HINTS = True
 150
 151    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 152    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 153
 154    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 155    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 156
 157    # Whether or not to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 158    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 159
 160    # Whether or not to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 161    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 162
 163    # Whether or not to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 164    RETURNING_END = True
 165
 166    # Whether or not to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 167    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 168
 169    # Whether or not to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 170    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 171
 172    # Whether or not TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 173    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 174
 175    # Whether or not the NVL2 function is supported
 176    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 177
 178    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 179    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 180
 181    # Whether or not VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 182    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 183    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 184    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 185
 186    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 187        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 188        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 189        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 190        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 191        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 192        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 193        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 194    }
 195
 196    STAR_MAPPING = {
 197        "except": "EXCEPT",
 198        "replace": "REPLACE",
 199    }
 200
 201    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 202        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 203        "seconds": "second",
 204        "minutes": "minute",
 205        "hours": "hour",
 206        "days": "day",
 207        "weeks": "week",
 208        "months": "month",
 209        "quarters": "quarter",
 210        "years": "year",
 211    }
 212
 213    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 214
 215    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 216
 217    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 218
 219    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 220        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 221        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 222        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 223        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 224        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 225        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 226        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 227        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 228        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 229        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 230        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 231        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 232        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 233        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 234        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 235        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 236        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 237        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 238        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 239        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 240        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 241        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 242        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 243        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 244        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 245        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 246        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 247        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 248        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 249        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 250        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 251        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 252        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 253        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 254        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 255        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 256        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 257        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 258        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 259        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 260        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 261        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 262        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 263        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 264        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 265        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 266        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 267        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 268        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 269        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 270        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 271        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 272        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 273        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 274        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 275        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 276    }
 277
 278    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 279    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 280
 281    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 282    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 283        exp.Create,
 284        exp.Delete,
 285        exp.Drop,
 286        exp.From,
 287        exp.Insert,
 288        exp.Join,
 289        exp.Select,
 290        exp.Update,
 291        exp.Where,
 292        exp.With,
 293    )
 294
 295    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 296    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 297        exp.Column,
 298        exp.Literal,
 299        exp.Neg,
 300        exp.Paren,
 301    )
 302
 303    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 304
 305    # Autofilled
 306    INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 307    INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: t.Dict = {}
 308    INDEX_OFFSET = 0
 309    UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
 310    ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
 311    IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
 312    STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
 313    NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = "upper"
 314    NULL_ORDERING = "nulls_are_small"
 315    ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK = False
 316
 317    can_identify: t.Callable[[str, str | bool], bool]
 318
 319    # Delimiters for quotes, identifiers and the corresponding escape characters
 320    QUOTE_START = "'"
 321    QUOTE_END = "'"
 322    IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
 323    IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
 324    STRING_ESCAPE = "'"
 325    IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE = '"'
 326
 327    # Delimiters for bit, hex, byte and raw literals
 328    BIT_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 329    BIT_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 330    HEX_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 331    HEX_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 332    BYTE_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 333    BYTE_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 334
 335    __slots__ = (
 336        "pretty",
 337        "identify",
 338        "normalize",
 339        "pad",
 340        "_indent",
 341        "normalize_functions",
 342        "unsupported_level",
 343        "max_unsupported",
 344        "leading_comma",
 345        "max_text_width",
 346        "comments",
 347        "unsupported_messages",
 348        "_escaped_quote_end",
 349        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 350        "_cache",
 351    )
 352
 353    def __init__(
 354        self,
 355        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 356        identify: str | bool = False,
 357        normalize: bool = False,
 358        pad: int = 2,
 359        indent: int = 2,
 360        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 361        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 362        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 363        leading_comma: bool = False,
 364        max_text_width: int = 80,
 365        comments: bool = True,
 366    ):
 367        import sqlglot
 368
 369        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 370        self.identify = identify
 371        self.normalize = normalize
 372        self.pad = pad
 373        self._indent = indent
 374        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 375        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 376        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 377        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 378        self.comments = comments
 379
 380        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 381        self.normalize_functions = (
 382            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 383        )
 384
 385        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 386        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.STRING_ESCAPE + self.QUOTE_END
 387        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = self.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE + self.IDENTIFIER_END
 388        self._cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
 389
 390    def generate(
 391        self,
 392        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
 393        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
 394    ) -> str:
 395        """
 396        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 397
 398        Args:
 399            expression: The syntax tree.
 400            cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression
 401                which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
 402
 403        Returns:
 404            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 405        """
 406        if cache is not None:
 407            self._cache = cache
 408
 409        self.unsupported_messages = []
 410        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 411        self._cache = None
 412
 413        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 414            return sql
 415
 416        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 417            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 418                logger.warning(msg)
 419        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 420            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 421
 422        if self.pretty:
 423            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 424        return sql
 425
 426    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 427        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 428            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 429        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 430
 431    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 432        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 433
 434    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 435        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 436
 437    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 438        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 439        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 440        return comment
 441
 442    def maybe_comment(
 443        self,
 444        sql: str,
 445        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 446        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 447    ) -> str:
 448        comments = (
 449            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 450            if self.comments
 451            else None
 452        )
 453
 454        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
 455            return sql
 456
 457        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
 458        comments_sql = sep.join(
 459            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 460        )
 461
 462        if not comments_sql:
 463            return sql
 464
 465        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 466            return (
 467                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 468                if sql[0].isspace()
 469                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 470            )
 471
 472        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 473
 474    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 475        this_sql = self.indent(
 476            self.sql(expression)
 477            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 478            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 479            level=1,
 480            pad=0,
 481        )
 482        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 483
 484    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 485        original = self.identify
 486        self.identify = False
 487        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 488        self.identify = original
 489        return result
 490
 491    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 492        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 493            return name.upper()
 494        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 495            return name.lower()
 496        return name
 497
 498    def indent(
 499        self,
 500        sql: str,
 501        level: int = 0,
 502        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 503        skip_first: bool = False,
 504        skip_last: bool = False,
 505    ) -> str:
 506        if not self.pretty:
 507            return sql
 508
 509        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 510        lines = sql.split("\n")
 511
 512        return "\n".join(
 513            line
 514            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 515            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 516            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 517        )
 518
 519    def sql(
 520        self,
 521        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 522        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 523        comment: bool = True,
 524    ) -> str:
 525        if not expression:
 526            return ""
 527
 528        if isinstance(expression, str):
 529            return expression
 530
 531        if key:
 532            value = expression.args.get(key)
 533            if value:
 534                return self.sql(value)
 535            return ""
 536
 537        if self._cache is not None:
 538            expression_id = hash(expression)
 539
 540            if expression_id in self._cache:
 541                return self._cache[expression_id]
 542
 543        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 544
 545        if callable(transform):
 546            sql = transform(self, expression)
 547        elif transform:
 548            sql = transform
 549        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 550            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 551
 552            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 553                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 554            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 555                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 556            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 557                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 558            else:
 559                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 560        else:
 561            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 562
 563        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 564
 565        if self._cache is not None:
 566            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
 567        return sql
 568
 569    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 570        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 571        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 572        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 573
 574    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 575        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 576        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 577        options = expression.args.get("options")
 578        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 579        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 580        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 581        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 582        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 583
 584    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 585        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 586            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 587        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 588        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 589
 590    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 591        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 592
 593        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 594            join_mark = ""
 595            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 596
 597        column = ".".join(
 598            self.sql(part)
 599            for part in (
 600                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 601                expression.args.get("db"),
 602                expression.args.get("table"),
 603                expression.args.get("this"),
 604            )
 605            if part
 606        )
 607
 608        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 609
 610    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 611        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 612        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 613        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 614        return f"{position}{this}"
 615
 616    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 617        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 618        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 619        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 620        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 621        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 622        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 623        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 624        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 625
 626        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 627
 628    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 629        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 630        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 631        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 632
 633    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 634        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 635
 636    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 637        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 638            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 639        else:
 640            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 641
 642        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 643
 644    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 645        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 646    ) -> str:
 647        this = ""
 648        if expression.this is not None:
 649            on_null = "ON NULL " if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 650            this = " ALWAYS " if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT {on_null}"
 651
 652        start = expression.args.get("start")
 653        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 654        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 655        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 656        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 657        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 658        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 659        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 660        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 661        cycle_sql = ""
 662
 663        if cycle is not None:
 664            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 665            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 666
 667        sequence_opts = ""
 668        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 669            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 670            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 671
 672        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 673        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 674
 675        return f"GENERATED{this}AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 676
 677    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 678        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 679
 680    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 681        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 682        if desc is not None:
 683            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 684        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 685
 686    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 687        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 688        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 689        return f"UNIQUE{this}"
 690
 691    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 692        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 693
 694    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 695        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 696        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 697        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 698
 699        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 700
 701        properties_sql = ""
 702        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 703            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 704        ):
 705            properties_sql = self.sql(
 706                exp.Properties(
 707                    expressions=[
 708                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 709                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 710                    ]
 711                )
 712            )
 713
 714        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 715        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 716        if expression_sql:
 717            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
 718
 719            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 720                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 721                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 722                        exp.Properties(
 723                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 724                        ),
 725                        wrapped=False,
 726                    )
 727                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 728                else:
 729                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 730
 731        postindex_props_sql = ""
 732        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 733            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 734                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 735                wrapped=False,
 736                prefix=" ",
 737            )
 738
 739        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 740        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 741        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 742
 743        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 744        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 745
 746        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 747        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 748            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 749                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 750                sep=" ",
 751                prefix=" ",
 752                wrapped=False,
 753            )
 754
 755        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 756
 757        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 758        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 759            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 760                exp.Properties(
 761                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 762                ),
 763                sep=" ",
 764                prefix=" ",
 765                wrapped=False,
 766            )
 767
 768        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 769        no_schema_binding = (
 770            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 771        )
 772
 773        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 774        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 775
 776        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 777        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 778
 779    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 780        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 781        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 782
 783        if when:
 784            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 785            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 786            return f"CLONE {this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 787
 788        return f"CLONE {this}"
 789
 790    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 791        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 792
 793    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 794        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 795        if with_:
 796            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 797        return sql
 798
 799    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 800        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 801        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
 802
 803        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 804
 805    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 806        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 807        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 808
 809    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 810        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 811        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 812        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 813        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 814
 815    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 816        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 817        if self.BIT_START:
 818            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
 819        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 820
 821    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 822        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 823        if self.HEX_START:
 824            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
 825        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 826
 827    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 828        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 829        if self.BYTE_START:
 830            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
 831        return this
 832
 833    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 834        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
 835        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
 836
 837    def datatypesize_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeSize) -> str:
 838        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 839        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 840        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
 841        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 842
 843    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 844        type_value = expression.this
 845
 846        type_sql = (
 847            self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 848            if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
 849            else type_value
 850        )
 851
 852        nested = ""
 853        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 854        values = ""
 855
 856        if interior:
 857            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 858                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 859                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 860                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 861                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 862                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 863            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
 864                nested = f" {interior}"
 865            else:
 866                nested = f"({interior})"
 867
 868        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 869        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
 870            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
 871            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
 872        ):
 873            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
 874
 875        return type_sql
 876
 877    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 878        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 879        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 880        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 881        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
 882
 883    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 884        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 885        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 886        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 887        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
 888        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
 889        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
 890        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
 891        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
 892        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
 893        if self.RETURNING_END:
 894            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
 895        else:
 896            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
 897        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
 898
 899    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
 900        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 901        kind = expression.args["kind"]
 902        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
 903        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
 904        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
 905        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
 906        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
 907        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
 908        return (
 909            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
 910        )
 911
 912    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 913        return self.prepend_ctes(
 914            expression,
 915            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
 916        )
 917
 918    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 919        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
 920
 921    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
 922        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
 923        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
 924        count = expression.args.get("count")
 925        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
 926        if expression.args.get("percent"):
 927            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
 928        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
 929        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
 930
 931    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
 932        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 933        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
 934        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
 935
 936    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
 937        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
 938            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
 939            return ""
 940
 941        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
 942
 943    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
 944        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 945        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
 946        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
 947        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
 948        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
 949        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
 950        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table} " if table else ""
 951        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 952        using = f"USING {using} " if using else ""
 953        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
 954        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 955        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 956        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
 957        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
 958        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}"
 959
 960    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
 961        text = expression.name
 962        lower = text.lower()
 963        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
 964        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
 965        if (
 966            expression.quoted
 967            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
 968            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
 969            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
 970        ):
 971            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
 972        return text
 973
 974    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
 975        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
 976        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
 977        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
 978        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
 979        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
 980
 981    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
 982        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
 983        return f"{prefix}{string}"
 984
 985    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
 986        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
 987
 988    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
 989        root_properties = []
 990        with_properties = []
 991
 992        for p in expression.expressions:
 993            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
 994            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
 995                with_properties.append(p.copy())
 996            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
 997                root_properties.append(p.copy())
 998
 999        return self.root_properties(
1000            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1001        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1002
1003    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1004        if properties.expressions:
1005            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1006        return ""
1007
1008    def properties(
1009        self,
1010        properties: exp.Properties,
1011        prefix: str = "",
1012        sep: str = ", ",
1013        suffix: str = "",
1014        wrapped: bool = True,
1015    ) -> str:
1016        if properties.expressions:
1017            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1018            if expressions:
1019                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1020                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1021        return ""
1022
1023    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1024        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1025
1026    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1027        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1028        for p in properties.expressions:
1029            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1030            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1031                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p.copy())
1032            else:
1033                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1034
1035        return properties_locs
1036
1037    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1038        property_cls = expression.__class__
1039        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1040            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1041
1042        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1043        if not property_name:
1044            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1045
1046        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1047
1048    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1049        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1050        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1051        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1052
1053    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1054        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1055        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1056        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1057
1058    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1059        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1060        local = expression.args.get("local")
1061        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1062        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1063        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1064        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1065        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1066
1067    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1068        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1069        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1070        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1071
1072    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1073        if expression.args.get("default"):
1074            property = "DEFAULT"
1075        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1076            property = "ON"
1077        else:
1078            property = "OFF"
1079        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1080
1081    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1082        if expression.args.get("no"):
1083            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1084        if expression.args.get("default"):
1085            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1086
1087        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1088        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1089
1090    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1091        default = expression.args.get("default")
1092        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1093        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1094        if default or minimum or maximum:
1095            if default:
1096                prop = "DEFAULT"
1097            elif minimum:
1098                prop = "MINIMUM"
1099            else:
1100                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1101            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1102        units = expression.args.get("units")
1103        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1104        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1105
1106    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1107        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1108        always = expression.args.get("always")
1109        default = expression.args.get("default")
1110        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1111        never = expression.args.get("never")
1112
1113        if autotemp is not None:
1114            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1115        elif always:
1116            prop = "ALWAYS"
1117        elif default:
1118            prop = "DEFAULT"
1119        elif manual:
1120            prop = "MANUAL"
1121        elif never:
1122            prop = "NEVER"
1123        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1124
1125    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1126        no = expression.args.get("no")
1127        no = " NO" if no else ""
1128        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1129        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1130
1131        for_ = ""
1132        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1133            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1134        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1135            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1136        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1137            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1138        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1139
1140    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1141        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1142        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1143        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1144        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1145        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1146        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1147
1148    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1149        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1150        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1151        statistics_sql = ""
1152        if statistics is not None:
1153            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1154        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1155
1156    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1157        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1158
1159        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1160            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1161        else:
1162            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1163
1164        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1165        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1166        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1167
1168        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1169
1170        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1171        partition_sql = (
1172            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1173        )
1174        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1175        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1176        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1177        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1178        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1179
1180        if self.RETURNING_END:
1181            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1182        else:
1183            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1184
1185        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1186        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1187
1188    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1189        return self.prepend_ctes(
1190            expression,
1191            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1192        )
1193
1194    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1195        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1196
1197    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1198        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1199
1200    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1201        return expression.name.upper()
1202
1203    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1204        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1205        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1206        if constraint:
1207            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1208        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1209        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1210        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1211        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1212        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1213        if expressions:
1214            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1215        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1216
1217    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1218        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1219
1220    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1221        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1222        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1223        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1224        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1225        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1226        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1227        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1228        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1229        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1230        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1231        null = expression.args.get("null")
1232        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1233        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1234
1235    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1236        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1237
1238    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1239        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1240        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1241        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1242        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1243
1244    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1245        table = ".".join(
1246            part
1247            for part in [
1248                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1249                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1250                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1251            ]
1252            if part
1253        )
1254
1255        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1256        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1257        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1258        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1259        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1260        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1261        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1262        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1263        system_time = expression.args.get("system_time")
1264        system_time = f" {self.sql(expression, 'system_time')}" if system_time else ""
1265
1266        return f"{table}{system_time}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
1267
1268    def tablesample_sql(
1269        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1270    ) -> str:
1271        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1272            table = expression.this.copy()
1273            table.set("alias", None)
1274            this = self.sql(table)
1275            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1276        else:
1277            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1278            alias = ""
1279        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1280        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1281        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1282        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1283        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1284        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1285        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1286        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1287        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1288        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1289        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1290        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1291        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1292            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1293        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1294        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1295        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1296        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
1297
1298    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1299        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1300
1301        if expression.this:
1302            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1303            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1304            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1305            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1306            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1307            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1308
1309        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1310        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1311        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1312        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1313        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1314        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1315        if include_nulls is not None:
1316            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1317        else:
1318            nulls = ""
1319        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1320
1321    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1322        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1323
1324    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1325        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1326        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1327        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1328        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1329        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1330        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1331        if self.RETURNING_END:
1332            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}{limit}"
1333        else:
1334            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}{limit}"
1335        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}"
1336        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1337
1338    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1339        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1340        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1341            args = self.expressions(expression)
1342            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1343            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1344            values = (
1345                f"({values})"
1346                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1347                else values
1348            )
1349            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1350
1351        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1352        # Note: If you have a lot of unions then this will result in a large number of recursive statements to
1353        # evaluate the expression. You may need to increase `sys.setrecursionlimit` to run and it can also be
1354        # very slow.
1355        expression = expression.copy()
1356        column_names = expression.alias and expression.args["alias"].columns
1357
1358        selects = []
1359
1360        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1361            row = tup.expressions
1362
1363            if i == 0 and column_names:
1364                row = [
1365                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1366                ]
1367
1368            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1369
1370        subquery_expression: exp.Select | exp.Union = selects[0]
1371        if len(selects) > 1:
1372            for select in selects[1:]:
1373                subquery_expression = exp.union(
1374                    subquery_expression, select, distinct=False, copy=False
1375                )
1376
1377        return self.subquery_sql(subquery_expression.subquery(expression.alias, copy=False))
1378
1379    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1380        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1381
1382    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1383        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1384        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1385        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1386
1387    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1388        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1389
1390    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1391        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1392
1393        if expression.args.get("all"):
1394            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1395
1396        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1397        grouping_sets = (
1398            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1399        )
1400
1401        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1402        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1403            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1404        else:
1405            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1406            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1407
1408        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1409        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1410            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1411        else:
1412            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1413            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1414
1415        groupings = csv(
1416            grouping_sets,
1417            cube_sql,
1418            rollup_sql,
1419            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1420            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1421        )
1422
1423        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1424            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1425
1426        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1427
1428    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1429        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1430        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1431
1432    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1433        op_sql = " ".join(
1434            op
1435            for op in (
1436                expression.method,
1437                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1438                expression.side,
1439                expression.kind,
1440                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1441            )
1442            if op
1443        )
1444        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1445        using = expression.args.get("using")
1446
1447        if not on_sql and using:
1448            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1449
1450        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1451
1452        if on_sql:
1453            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1454            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1455            if using:
1456                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1457            else:
1458                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1459        elif not op_sql:
1460            return f", {this_sql}"
1461
1462        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1463        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1464
1465    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1466        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1467        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1468        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1469
1470    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1471        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1472
1473        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1474            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1475
1476        if expression.args.get("view"):
1477            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1478            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1479            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1480            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1481            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1482            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1483
1484        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1485        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1486        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1487
1488    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1489        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1490        args = ", ".join(
1491            sql
1492            for sql in (
1493                self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1494                self.sql(expression, "expression"),
1495            )
1496            if sql
1497        )
1498        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args}"
1499
1500    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1501        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1502        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1503
1504    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1505        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1506        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1507        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1508        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1509        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1510        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1511        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1512        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1513
1514    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1515        expressions = (
1516            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1517        )
1518        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1519        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1520
1521    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1522        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1523
1524    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1525        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1526            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1527            return ""
1528
1529        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1530        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1531        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1532        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1533
1534        if wait is not None:
1535            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1536                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1537            else:
1538                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1539
1540        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1541
1542    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1543        text = expression.this or ""
1544        if expression.is_string:
1545            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1546        return text
1547
1548    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1549        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1550        if self.ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK:
1551            text = text.replace("\n", "\\n")
1552        elif self.pretty:
1553            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1554        return text
1555
1556    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1557        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1558        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1559        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1560        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1561        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1562        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1563        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1564        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1565        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1566        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1567        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1568
1569    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1570        return "NULL"
1571
1572    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1573        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1574
1575    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1576        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1577        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1578        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1579
1580    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1581        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1582
1583    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1584        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1585
1586    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1587        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1588
1589    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1590        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1591        asc = not desc
1592
1593        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1594        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1595        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1596        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1597        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1598
1599        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1600        nulls_sort_change = ""
1601        if nulls_first and (
1602            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1603        ):
1604            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1605        elif (
1606            nulls_last
1607            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1608            and not nulls_are_last
1609        ):
1610            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1611
1612        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1613            self.unsupported(
1614                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1615            )
1616            nulls_sort_change = ""
1617
1618        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1619
1620    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1621        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1622        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1623        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1624        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1625        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1626        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1627        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1628        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1629        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1630        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1631        definition_sqls = [
1632            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1633            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1634        ]
1635        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1636        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1637        body = "".join(
1638            (
1639                partition,
1640                order,
1641                measures,
1642                rows,
1643                after,
1644                pattern,
1645                define,
1646            )
1647        )
1648        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1649        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1650        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1651
1652    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1653        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1654
1655        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1656        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1657
1658        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1659            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1660        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1661            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1662
1663        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1664
1665        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1666            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1667            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1668            else []
1669        )
1670
1671        return csv(
1672            *sqls,
1673            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1674            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1675            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1676            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1677            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1678            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1679            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1680            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1681            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1682            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1683            sep="",
1684        )
1685
1686    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1687        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1688    ) -> t.List[str]:
1689        return [
1690            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1691            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1692        ]
1693
1694    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1695        return [
1696            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1697            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1698            if expression.args.get("windows")
1699            else "",
1700            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1701            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1702            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1703        ]
1704
1705    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1706        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1707        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1708        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1709
1710    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1711        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1712        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1713        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1714        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1715        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1716        top = (
1717            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1718            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1719            else ""
1720        )
1721
1722        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1723
1724        if kind:
1725            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1726                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1727            else:
1728                if kind == "STRUCT":
1729                    expressions = self.expressions(
1730                        sqls=[
1731                            self.sql(
1732                                exp.Struct(
1733                                    expressions=[
1734                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1735                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1736                                        )
1737                                        for e in expression.expressions
1738                                    ]
1739                                )
1740                            )
1741                        ]
1742                    )
1743                kind = ""
1744
1745        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1746        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1747            expression,
1748            f"SELECT{top}{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1749            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1750            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1751        )
1752        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1753
1754    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1755        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1756        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1757        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1758        return f"{this}{sql}"
1759
1760    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1761        return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1762
1763    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1764        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1765        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1766        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1767        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1768        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
1769
1770    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1771        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1772        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1773        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
1774
1775    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1776        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1777        kind = expression.text("kind")
1778        if kind:
1779            kind = f"{kind}."
1780        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
1781
1782    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1783        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
1784
1785    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1786        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1787        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1788
1789        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1790        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1791
1792        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1793        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1794
1795    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1796        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1797        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1798
1799    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1800        return self.prepend_ctes(
1801            expression,
1802            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1803        )
1804
1805    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1806        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1807        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1808        return f"UNION{kind}"
1809
1810    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1811        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1812        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1813        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1814            columns = alias.columns
1815            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1816        else:
1817            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1818        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1819        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1820        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1821        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1822        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
1823
1824    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1825        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1826        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1827
1828    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1829        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1830        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1831        order = expression.args.get("order")
1832        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1833        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1834        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1835        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1836
1837        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1838
1839        first = expression.args.get("first")
1840        if first is None:
1841            first = ""
1842        else:
1843            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1844
1845        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1846            return f"{this} {alias}"
1847
1848        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1849        return f"{this} ({args})"
1850
1851    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1852        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1853        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
1854
1855    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1856        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1857        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1858        end = (
1859            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1860            or "CURRENT ROW"
1861        )
1862        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
1863
1864    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1865        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1866        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1867        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
1868
1869    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1870        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1871        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1872        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1873        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
1874
1875    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1876        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
1877        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1878
1879        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
1880
1881    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
1882        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
1883
1884    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1885        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
1886
1887    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1888        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1889        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1890            this = self.wrap(this)
1891        return f"ANY {this}"
1892
1893    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1894        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
1895
1896    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1897        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1898        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1899
1900        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1901            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1902            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1903
1904        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1905
1906        if default:
1907            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1908
1909        statements.append("END")
1910
1911        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
1912            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1913
1914        return " ".join(statements)
1915
1916    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1917        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1918        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1919        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
1920
1921    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1922        order = expression.args.get("order")
1923        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1924        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
1925
1926    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1927        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
1928        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1929        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
1930
1931    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1932        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1933
1934        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1935            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1936        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1937            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1938        else:
1939            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
1940
1941    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
1942        expressions = expression.expressions
1943        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
1944            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
1945        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
1946
1947    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1948        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1949        return f"CHECK ({this})"
1950
1951    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1952        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1953        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1954        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1955        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
1956        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
1957        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
1958        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
1959        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
1960
1961    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1962        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1963        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1964        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1965        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
1966
1967    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
1968        expression = expression.copy()
1969        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
1970
1971    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1972        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
1973        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
1974        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
1975
1976    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1977        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1978
1979    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
1980        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
1981        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
1982        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
1983        if unique_keys is not None:
1984            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
1985        else:
1986            unique_keys = ""
1987        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
1988        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
1989        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
1990        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
1991        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
1992        return self.func(
1993            "JSON_OBJECT",
1994            *expression.expressions,
1995            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})",
1996        )
1997
1998    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
1999        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2000        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2001        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2002        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2003        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2004        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2005
2006    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2007        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2008        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2009        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2010        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2011        with_ = (
2012            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2013            if expressions
2014            else ""
2015        )
2016        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2017
2018    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2019        query = expression.args.get("query")
2020        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2021        field = expression.args.get("field")
2022        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2023
2024        if query:
2025            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2026        elif unnest:
2027            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2028        elif field:
2029            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2030        else:
2031            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2032
2033        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2034
2035    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2036        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2037
2038    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2039        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2040        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2041            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
2042        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2043
2044        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2045            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2046            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2047
2048        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2049        if this:
2050            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2051            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2052
2053        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2054
2055    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2056        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2057
2058    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2059        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2060        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2061        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2062        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2063        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2064        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2065
2066    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2067        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
2068
2069    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2070        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2071            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2072        else:
2073            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2074            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2075
2076        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2077
2078    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2079        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2080        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2081        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2082        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2083
2084    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2085        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2086
2087    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2088        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2089        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2090        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2091
2092    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2093        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2094
2095    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2096        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2097        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2098        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2099
2100    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2101        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2102
2103    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2104        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
2105
2106    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2107        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
2108
2109    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2110        if not self.pretty:
2111            return self.binary(expression, op)
2112
2113        sqls = tuple(
2114            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2115            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2116        )
2117
2118        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2119        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
2120
2121    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2122        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2123
2124    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2125        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2126
2127    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2128        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2129
2130    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2131        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2132
2133    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2134        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2135
2136    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2137        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2138
2139    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2140        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2141        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2142        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')}{format_sql})"
2143
2144    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2145        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2146        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2147
2148    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2149        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2150
2151    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2152        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2153
2154    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2155        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2156        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2157        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2158        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2159        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2160
2161    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2162        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2163        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2164        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2165        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2166        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2167        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2168        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2169        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2170        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2171
2172    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2173        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2174        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2175        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2176        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2177
2178        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2179            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2180
2181        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2182
2183    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2184        return "BEGIN"
2185
2186    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2187        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2188        if chain is not None:
2189            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2190
2191        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2192
2193    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2194        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2195        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2196        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2197
2198    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2199        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2200
2201        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2202        if dtype:
2203            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2204            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2205            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2206            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2207            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2208
2209        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2210        if default:
2211            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2212
2213        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2214            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2215
2216        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2217
2218    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2219        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2220            # Remove db from tables
2221            expression = expression.transform(
2222                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2223            )
2224        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2225        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2226
2227    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2228        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2229
2230        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2231            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMN ")
2232        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2233            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2234        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2235            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2236        else:
2237            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2238
2239        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2240        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2241
2242    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2243        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2244        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2245        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2246
2247    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2248        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2249        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2250        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2251
2252        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2253        if enforced is not None:
2254            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2255
2256        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2257
2258    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2259        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2260        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2261
2262        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2263        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2264        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2265
2266    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2267        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2268
2269    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2270        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2271
2272    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2273        return self.sql(
2274            exp.Cast(
2275                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this.copy(), expression=expression.expression.copy()),
2276                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2277            )
2278        )
2279
2280    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2281        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2282
2283    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2284        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2285            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2286        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
2287
2288    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2289        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2290
2291    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2292        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2293
2294    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2295        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2296
2297    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2298        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2299
2300    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2301        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2302
2303    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2304        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2305
2306    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2307        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2308
2309    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2310        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2311
2312    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2313        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2314
2315    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2316        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2317
2318    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2319        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2320
2321    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2322        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2323            return self.sql(
2324                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2325            )
2326        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2327
2328    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2329        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2330
2331    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2332        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2333
2334    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2335        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2336
2337    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2338        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2339
2340    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2341        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2342
2343    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2344        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2345
2346    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2347        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2348
2349    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2350        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2351
2352    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2353        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2354
2355    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2356        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2357
2358    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2359        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2360
2361    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2362        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2363
2364    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2365        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2366
2367    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2368        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
2369
2370    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2371        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2372        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2373        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2374        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2375        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2376
2377    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2378        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2379        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2380
2381    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2382        args = []
2383
2384        for key in expression.arg_types:
2385            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2386
2387            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2388                for value in arg_value:
2389                    args.append(value)
2390            elif arg_value is not None:
2391                args.append(arg_value)
2392
2393        if self.normalize_functions:
2394            name = expression.sql_name()
2395        else:
2396            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2397
2398        return self.func(name, *args)
2399
2400    def func(
2401        self,
2402        name: str,
2403        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2404        prefix: str = "(",
2405        suffix: str = ")",
2406    ) -> str:
2407        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2408
2409    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2410        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2411        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2412            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2413        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2414
2415    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2416        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2417
2418    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2419        return format_time(
2420            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2421        )
2422
2423    def expressions(
2424        self,
2425        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2426        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2427        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2428        flat: bool = False,
2429        indent: bool = True,
2430        skip_first: bool = False,
2431        sep: str = ", ",
2432        prefix: str = "",
2433    ) -> str:
2434        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2435
2436        if not expressions:
2437            return ""
2438
2439        if flat:
2440            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2441
2442        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2443
2444        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2445        pad = " " * self.pad
2446        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2447
2448        result_sqls = []
2449        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2450            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2451            if not sql:
2452                continue
2453
2454            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2455
2456            if self.pretty:
2457                if self.leading_comma:
2458                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2459                else:
2460                    result_sqls.append(
2461                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2462                    )
2463            else:
2464                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2465
2466        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2467        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
2468
2469    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2470        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2471        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2472        if flat:
2473            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2474        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2475
2476    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2477        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2478        if not property_name:
2479            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2480        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2481
2482    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2483        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2484        op = self.seg(op)
2485        return self.query_modifiers(
2486            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2487        )
2488
2489    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2490        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2491
2492    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2493        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2494
2495    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2496        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2497        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2498        expressions = (
2499            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2500        )
2501        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2502
2503    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2504        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2505        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2506        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2507
2508    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2509        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2510
2511    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2512        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2513        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2514        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2515        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2516
2517        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2518        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2519            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2520            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2521                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2522        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2523            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2524                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2525            else:
2526                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2527        else:
2528            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2529        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2530
2531    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2532        table = expression.this
2533        table_alias = ""
2534
2535        hints = table.args.get("hints")
2536        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
2537            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
2538            table = table.copy()
2539            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
2540
2541        this = self.sql(table)
2542        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2543        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2544        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
2545
2546        return f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
2547
2548    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2549        if expression.args.get("format"):
2550            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2551
2552        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2553
2554    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2555        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2556        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2557        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2558        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2559        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2560
2561    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2562        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2563        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2564        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2565        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2566
2567    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2568        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
2569
2570    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2571        return ""
2572
2573    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2574        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2575        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2576        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2577        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2578        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
2579
2580    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2581        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2582        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2583
2584        if having:
2585            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2586
2587        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
2588
2589    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2590        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2591        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2592        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2593        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2594        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2595        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2596        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2597        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2598        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2599        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2600        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2601        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
2602        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
2603
2604    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2605        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
2606        if key_block_size:
2607            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
2608
2609        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2610        if using:
2611            return f"USING {using}"
2612
2613        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
2614        if parser:
2615            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
2616
2617        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2618        if comment:
2619            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
2620
2621        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
2622        if visible is not None:
2623            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
2624
2625        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
2626        if engine_attr:
2627            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
2628
2629        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
2630        if secondary_engine_attr:
2631            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
2632
2633        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
2634        return ""
2635
2636    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2637        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2638        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
2639        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2640        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2641        type_ = self.sql(expression, "type")
2642        type_ = f" USING {type_}" if type_ else ""
2643        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2644        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
2645        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
2646        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2647        return f"{kind}{this}{type_}{schema}{options}"
2648
2649    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
2650        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
2651            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2652
2653        case = exp.Case().when(
2654            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
2655            expression.args["true"].copy(),
2656            copy=False,
2657        )
2658        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
2659        if else_cond:
2660            case.else_(else_cond.copy(), copy=False)
2661
2662        return self.sql(case)

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

Arguments:
  • pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
  • identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  • normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
  • pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
  • unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True)
353    def __init__(
354        self,
355        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
356        identify: str | bool = False,
357        normalize: bool = False,
358        pad: int = 2,
359        indent: int = 2,
360        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
361        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
362        max_unsupported: int = 3,
363        leading_comma: bool = False,
364        max_text_width: int = 80,
365        comments: bool = True,
366    ):
367        import sqlglot
368
369        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
370        self.identify = identify
371        self.normalize = normalize
372        self.pad = pad
373        self._indent = indent
374        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
375        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
376        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
377        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
378        self.comments = comments
379
380        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
381        self.normalize_functions = (
382            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
383        )
384
385        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
386        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.STRING_ESCAPE + self.QUOTE_END
387        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = self.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE + self.IDENTIFIER_END
388        self._cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
TRANSFORMS = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsAdd'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalDayToSecondSpan'>: 'DAY TO SECOND', <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalYearToMonthSpan'>: 'YEAR TO MONTH', <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXPLICIT_UNION = False
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINT_SEP = ', '
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
RETURNING_END = True
COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET'}
STAR_MAPPING = {'except': 'EXCEPT', 'replace': 'REPLACE'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'microseconds': 'microsecond', 'seconds': 'second', 'minutes': 'minute', 'hours': 'hour', 'days': 'day', 'weeks': 'week', 'months': 'month', 'quarters': 'quarter', 'years': 'year'}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: Dict[str, str] = {}
INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: Dict = {}
INDEX_OFFSET = 0
UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = 'upper'
NULL_ORDERING = 'nulls_are_small'
ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK = False
@classmethod
def can_identify(text: str, identify: str | bool = 'safe') -> bool:
257    @classmethod
258    def can_identify(cls, text: str, identify: str | bool = "safe") -> bool:
259        """Checks if text can be identified given an identify option.
260
261        Args:
262            text: The text to check.
263            identify:
264                "always" or `True`: Always returns true.
265                "safe": True if the identifier is case-insensitive.
266
267        Returns:
268            Whether or not the given text can be identified.
269        """
270        if identify is True or identify == "always":
271            return True
272
273        if identify == "safe":
274            return not cls.case_sensitive(text)
275
276        return False

Checks if text can be identified given an identify option.

Arguments:
  • text: The text to check.
  • identify: "always" or True: Always returns true. "safe": True if the identifier is case-insensitive.
Returns:

Whether or not the given text can be identified.

QUOTE_START = "'"
QUOTE_END = "'"
IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
STRING_ESCAPE = "'"
IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE = '"'
BIT_START: Optional[str] = None
BIT_END: Optional[str] = None
HEX_START: Optional[str] = None
HEX_END: Optional[str] = None
BYTE_START: Optional[str] = None
BYTE_END: Optional[str] = None
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], cache: Optional[Dict[int, str]] = None) -> str:
390    def generate(
391        self,
392        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
393        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
394    ) -> str:
395        """
396        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
397
398        Args:
399            expression: The syntax tree.
400            cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression
401                which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
402
403        Returns:
404            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
405        """
406        if cache is not None:
407            self._cache = cache
408
409        self.unsupported_messages = []
410        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
411        self._cache = None
412
413        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
414            return sql
415
416        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
417            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
418                logger.warning(msg)
419        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
420            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
421
422        if self.pretty:
423            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
424        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

Arguments:
  • expression: The syntax tree.
  • cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
Returns:

The SQL string corresponding to expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
426    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
427        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
428            raise UnsupportedError(message)
429        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
431    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
432        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
434    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
435        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
437    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
438        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
439        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
440        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None) -> str:
442    def maybe_comment(
443        self,
444        sql: str,
445        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
446        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
447    ) -> str:
448        comments = (
449            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
450            if self.comments
451            else None
452        )
453
454        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
455            return sql
456
457        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
458        comments_sql = sep.join(
459            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
460        )
461
462        if not comments_sql:
463            return sql
464
465        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
466            return (
467                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
468                if sql[0].isspace()
469                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
470            )
471
472        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
474    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
475        this_sql = self.indent(
476            self.sql(expression)
477            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
478            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
479            level=1,
480            pad=0,
481        )
482        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
484    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
485        original = self.identify
486        self.identify = False
487        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
488        self.identify = original
489        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
491    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
492        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
493            return name.upper()
494        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
495            return name.lower()
496        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
498    def indent(
499        self,
500        sql: str,
501        level: int = 0,
502        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
503        skip_first: bool = False,
504        skip_last: bool = False,
505    ) -> str:
506        if not self.pretty:
507            return sql
508
509        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
510        lines = sql.split("\n")
511
512        return "\n".join(
513            line
514            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
515            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
516            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
517        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
519    def sql(
520        self,
521        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
522        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
523        comment: bool = True,
524    ) -> str:
525        if not expression:
526            return ""
527
528        if isinstance(expression, str):
529            return expression
530
531        if key:
532            value = expression.args.get(key)
533            if value:
534                return self.sql(value)
535            return ""
536
537        if self._cache is not None:
538            expression_id = hash(expression)
539
540            if expression_id in self._cache:
541                return self._cache[expression_id]
542
543        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
544
545        if callable(transform):
546            sql = transform(self, expression)
547        elif transform:
548            sql = transform
549        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
550            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
551
552            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
553                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
554            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
555                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
556            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
557                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
558            else:
559                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
560        else:
561            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
562
563        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
564
565        if self._cache is not None:
566            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
567        return sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
569    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
570        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
571        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
572        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
574    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
575        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
576        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
577        options = expression.args.get("options")
578        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
579        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
580        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
581        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
582        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
584    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
585        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
586            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
587        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
588        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
590    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
591        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
592
593        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
594            join_mark = ""
595            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
596
597        column = ".".join(
598            self.sql(part)
599            for part in (
600                expression.args.get("catalog"),
601                expression.args.get("db"),
602                expression.args.get("table"),
603                expression.args.get("this"),
604            )
605            if part
606        )
607
608        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
610    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
611        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
612        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
613        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
614        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
616    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
617        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
618        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
619        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
620        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
621        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
622        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
623        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
624        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
625
626        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
628    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
629        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
630        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
631        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
633    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
634        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
636    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
637        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
638            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
639        else:
640            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
641
642        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
644    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
645        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
646    ) -> str:
647        this = ""
648        if expression.this is not None:
649            on_null = "ON NULL " if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
650            this = " ALWAYS " if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT {on_null}"
651
652        start = expression.args.get("start")
653        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
654        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
655        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
656        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
657        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
658        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
659        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
660        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
661        cycle_sql = ""
662
663        if cycle is not None:
664            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
665            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
666
667        sequence_opts = ""
668        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
669            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
670            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
671
672        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
673        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
674
675        return f"GENERATED{this}AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
677    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
678        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
680    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
681        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
682        if desc is not None:
683            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
684        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
686    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
687        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
688        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
689        return f"UNIQUE{this}"
def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: DefaultDict) -> str:
691    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
692        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
694    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
695        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
696        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
697        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
698
699        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
700
701        properties_sql = ""
702        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
703            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
704        ):
705            properties_sql = self.sql(
706                exp.Properties(
707                    expressions=[
708                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
709                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
710                    ]
711                )
712            )
713
714        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
715        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
716        if expression_sql:
717            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
718
719            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
720                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
721                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
722                        exp.Properties(
723                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
724                        ),
725                        wrapped=False,
726                    )
727                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
728                else:
729                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
730
731        postindex_props_sql = ""
732        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
733            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
734                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
735                wrapped=False,
736                prefix=" ",
737            )
738
739        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
740        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
741        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
742
743        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
744        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
745
746        postcreate_props_sql = ""
747        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
748            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
749                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
750                sep=" ",
751                prefix=" ",
752                wrapped=False,
753            )
754
755        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
756
757        postexpression_props_sql = ""
758        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
759            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
760                exp.Properties(
761                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
762                ),
763                sep=" ",
764                prefix=" ",
765                wrapped=False,
766            )
767
768        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
769        no_schema_binding = (
770            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
771        )
772
773        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
774        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
775
776        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
777        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
779    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
780        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
781        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
782
783        if when:
784            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
785            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
786            return f"CLONE {this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
787
788        return f"CLONE {this}"
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
790    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
791        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
793    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
794        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
795        if with_:
796            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
797        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
799    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
800        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
801        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
802
803        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
805    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
806        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
807        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
809    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
810        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
811        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
812        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
813        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
815    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
816        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
817        if self.BIT_START:
818            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
819        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
821    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
822        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
823        if self.HEX_START:
824            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
825        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
827    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
828        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
829        if self.BYTE_START:
830            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
831        return this
def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str:
833    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
834        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
835        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
def datatypesize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeSize) -> str:
837    def datatypesize_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeSize) -> str:
838        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
839        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
840        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
841        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
843    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
844        type_value = expression.this
845
846        type_sql = (
847            self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
848            if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
849            else type_value
850        )
851
852        nested = ""
853        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
854        values = ""
855
856        if interior:
857            if expression.args.get("nested"):
858                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
859                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
860                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
861                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
862                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
863            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
864                nested = f" {interior}"
865            else:
866                nested = f"({interior})"
867
868        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
869        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
870            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
871            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
872        ):
873            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
874
875        return type_sql
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
877    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
878        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
879        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
880        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
881        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
883    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
884        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
885        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
886        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
887        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
888        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
889        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
890        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
891        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
892        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
893        if self.RETURNING_END:
894            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
895        else:
896            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
897        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
899    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
900        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
901        kind = expression.args["kind"]
902        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
903        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
904        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
905        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
906        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
907        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
908        return (
909            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
910        )
def except_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
912    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
913        return self.prepend_ctes(
914            expression,
915            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
916        )
def except_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
918    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
919        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
921    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
922        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
923        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
924        count = expression.args.get("count")
925        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
926        if expression.args.get("percent"):
927            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
928        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
929        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
931    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
932        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
933        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
934        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
936    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
937        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
938            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
939            return ""
940
941        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
943    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
944        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
945        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
946        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
947        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
948        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
949        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
950        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table} " if table else ""
951        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
952        using = f"USING {using} " if using else ""
953        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
954        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
955        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
956        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
957        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
958        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
960    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
961        text = expression.name
962        lower = text.lower()
963        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
964        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
965        if (
966            expression.quoted
967            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
968            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
969            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
970        ):
971            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
972        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
974    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
975        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
976        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
977        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
978        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
979        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str:
981    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
982        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
983        return f"{prefix}{string}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
985    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
986        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
 988    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
 989        root_properties = []
 990        with_properties = []
 991
 992        for p in expression.expressions:
 993            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
 994            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
 995                with_properties.append(p.copy())
 996            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
 997                root_properties.append(p.copy())
 998
 999        return self.root_properties(
1000            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1001        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1003    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1004        if properties.expressions:
1005            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1006        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
1008    def properties(
1009        self,
1010        properties: exp.Properties,
1011        prefix: str = "",
1012        sep: str = ", ",
1013        suffix: str = "",
1014        wrapped: bool = True,
1015    ) -> str:
1016        if properties.expressions:
1017            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1018            if expressions:
1019                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1020                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1021        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1023    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1024        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
def locate_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> DefaultDict:
1026    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1027        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1028        for p in properties.expressions:
1029            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1030            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1031                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p.copy())
1032            else:
1033                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1034
1035        return properties_locs
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
1037    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1038        property_cls = expression.__class__
1039        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1040            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1041
1042        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1043        if not property_name:
1044            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1045
1046        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
1048    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1049        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1050        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1051        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1053    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1054        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1055        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1056        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
1058    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1059        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1060        local = expression.args.get("local")
1061        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1062        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1063        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1064        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1065        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1067    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1068        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1069        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1070        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1072    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1073        if expression.args.get("default"):
1074            property = "DEFAULT"
1075        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1076            property = "ON"
1077        else:
1078            property = "OFF"
1079        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1081    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1082        if expression.args.get("no"):
1083            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1084        if expression.args.get("default"):
1085            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1086
1087        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1088        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1090    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1091        default = expression.args.get("default")
1092        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1093        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1094        if default or minimum or maximum:
1095            if default:
1096                prop = "DEFAULT"
1097            elif minimum:
1098                prop = "MINIMUM"
1099            else:
1100                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1101            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1102        units = expression.args.get("units")
1103        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1104        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1106    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1107        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1108        always = expression.args.get("always")
1109        default = expression.args.get("default")
1110        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1111        never = expression.args.get("never")
1112
1113        if autotemp is not None:
1114            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1115        elif always:
1116            prop = "ALWAYS"
1117        elif default:
1118            prop = "DEFAULT"
1119        elif manual:
1120            prop = "MANUAL"
1121        elif never:
1122            prop = "NEVER"
1123        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1125    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1126        no = expression.args.get("no")
1127        no = " NO" if no else ""
1128        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1129        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1130
1131        for_ = ""
1132        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1133            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1134        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1135            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1136        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1137            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1138        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1140    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1141        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1142        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1143        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1144        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1145        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1146        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1148    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1149        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1150        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1151        statistics_sql = ""
1152        if statistics is not None:
1153            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1154        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1156    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1157        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1158
1159        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1160            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1161        else:
1162            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1163
1164        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1165        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1166        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1167
1168        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1169
1170        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1171        partition_sql = (
1172            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1173        )
1174        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1175        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1176        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1177        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1178        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1179
1180        if self.RETURNING_END:
1181            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1182        else:
1183            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1184
1185        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1186        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def intersect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1188    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1189        return self.prepend_ctes(
1190            expression,
1191            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1192        )
def intersect_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1194    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1195        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1197    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1198        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1200    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1201        return expression.name.upper()
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1203    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1204        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1205        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1206        if constraint:
1207            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1208        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1209        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1210        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1211        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1212        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1213        if expressions:
1214            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1215        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1217    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1218        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1220    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1221        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1222        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1223        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1224        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1225        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1226        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1227        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1228        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1229        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1230        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1231        null = expression.args.get("null")
1232        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1233        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint) -> str:
1235    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1236        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1238    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1239        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1240        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1241        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1242        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1244    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1245        table = ".".join(
1246            part
1247            for part in [
1248                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1249                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1250                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1251            ]
1252            if part
1253        )
1254
1255        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1256        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1257        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1258        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1259        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1260        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1261        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1262        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1263        system_time = expression.args.get("system_time")
1264        system_time = f" {self.sql(expression, 'system_time')}" if system_time else ""
1265
1266        return f"{table}{system_time}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = 'SEED', sep=' AS ') -> str:
1268    def tablesample_sql(
1269        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1270    ) -> str:
1271        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1272            table = expression.this.copy()
1273            table.set("alias", None)
1274            this = self.sql(table)
1275            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1276        else:
1277            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1278            alias = ""
1279        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1280        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1281        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1282        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1283        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1284        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1285        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1286        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1287        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1288        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1289        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1290        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1291        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1292            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1293        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1294        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1295        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1296        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1298    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1299        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1300
1301        if expression.this:
1302            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1303            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1304            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1305            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1306            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1307            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1308
1309        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1310        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1311        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1312        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1313        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1314        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1315        if include_nulls is not None:
1316            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1317        else:
1318            nulls = ""
1319        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
1321    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1322        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
1324    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1325        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1326        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1327        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1328        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1329        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1330        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1331        if self.RETURNING_END:
1332            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}{limit}"
1333        else:
1334            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}{limit}"
1335        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}"
1336        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values) -> str:
1338    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1339        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1340        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1341            args = self.expressions(expression)
1342            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1343            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1344            values = (
1345                f"({values})"
1346                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1347                else values
1348            )
1349            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1350
1351        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1352        # Note: If you have a lot of unions then this will result in a large number of recursive statements to
1353        # evaluate the expression. You may need to increase `sys.setrecursionlimit` to run and it can also be
1354        # very slow.
1355        expression = expression.copy()
1356        column_names = expression.alias and expression.args["alias"].columns
1357
1358        selects = []
1359
1360        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1361            row = tup.expressions
1362
1363            if i == 0 and column_names:
1364                row = [
1365                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1366                ]
1367
1368            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1369
1370        subquery_expression: exp.Select | exp.Union = selects[0]
1371        if len(selects) > 1:
1372            for select in selects[1:]:
1373                subquery_expression = exp.union(
1374                    subquery_expression, select, distinct=False, copy=False
1375                )
1376
1377        return self.subquery_sql(subquery_expression.subquery(expression.alias, copy=False))
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
1379    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1380        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
1382    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1383        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1384        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1385        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
1387    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1388        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
1390    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1391        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1392
1393        if expression.args.get("all"):
1394            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1395
1396        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1397        grouping_sets = (
1398            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1399        )
1400
1401        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1402        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1403            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1404        else:
1405            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1406            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1407
1408        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1409        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1410            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1411        else:
1412            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1413            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1414
1415        groupings = csv(
1416            grouping_sets,
1417            cube_sql,
1418            rollup_sql,
1419            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1420            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1421        )
1422
1423        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1424            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1425
1426        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
1428    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1429        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1430        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
1432    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1433        op_sql = " ".join(
1434            op
1435            for op in (
1436                expression.method,
1437                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1438                expression.side,
1439                expression.kind,
1440                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1441            )
1442            if op
1443        )
1444        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1445        using = expression.args.get("using")
1446
1447        if not on_sql and using:
1448            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1449
1450        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1451
1452        if on_sql:
1453            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1454            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1455            if using:
1456                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1457            else:
1458                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1459        elif not op_sql:
1460            return f", {this_sql}"
1461
1462        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1463        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
1465    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1466        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1467        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1468        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
1470    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1471        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1472
1473        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1474            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1475
1476        if expression.args.get("view"):
1477            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1478            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1479            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1480            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1481            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1482            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1483
1484        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1485        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1486        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1488    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1489        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1490        args = ", ".join(
1491            sql
1492            for sql in (
1493                self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1494                self.sql(expression, "expression"),
1495            )
1496            if sql
1497        )
1498        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
1500    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1501        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1502        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
1504    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1505        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1506        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1507        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1508        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1509        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1510        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1511        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1512        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
1514    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1515        expressions = (
1516            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1517        )
1518        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1519        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
1521    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1522        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
1524    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1525        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1526            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1527            return ""
1528
1529        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1530        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1531        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1532        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1533
1534        if wait is not None:
1535            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1536                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1537            else:
1538                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1539
1540        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
1542    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1543        text = expression.this or ""
1544        if expression.is_string:
1545            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1546        return text
def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1548    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1549        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1550        if self.ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK:
1551            text = text.replace("\n", "\\n")
1552        elif self.pretty:
1553            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1554        return text
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
1556    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1557        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1558        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1559        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1560        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1561        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1562        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1563        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1564        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1565        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1566        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1567        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1569    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1570        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
1572    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1573        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1575    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1576        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1577        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1578        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
1580    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1581        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
1583    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1584        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
1586    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1587        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
1589    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1590        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1591        asc = not desc
1592
1593        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1594        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1595        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1596        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1597        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1598
1599        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1600        nulls_sort_change = ""
1601        if nulls_first and (
1602            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1603        ):
1604            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1605        elif (
1606            nulls_last
1607            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1608            and not nulls_are_last
1609        ):
1610            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1611
1612        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1613            self.unsupported(
1614                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1615            )
1616            nulls_sort_change = ""
1617
1618        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1620    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1621        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1622        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1623        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1624        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1625        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1626        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1627        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1628        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1629        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1630        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1631        definition_sqls = [
1632            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1633            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1634        ]
1635        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1636        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1637        body = "".join(
1638            (
1639                partition,
1640                order,
1641                measures,
1642                rows,
1643                after,
1644                pattern,
1645                define,
1646            )
1647        )
1648        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1649        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1650        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1652    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1653        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1654
1655        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1656        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1657
1658        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1659            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1660        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1661            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1662
1663        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1664
1665        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1666            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1667            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1668            else []
1669        )
1670
1671        return csv(
1672            *sqls,
1673            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1674            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1675            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1676            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1677            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1678            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1679            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1680            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1681            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1682            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1683            sep="",
1684        )
def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]:
1686    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1687        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1688    ) -> t.List[str]:
1689        return [
1690            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1691            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1692        ]
def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
1694    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1695        return [
1696            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1697            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1698            if expression.args.get("windows")
1699            else "",
1700            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1701            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1702            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1703        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
1705    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1706        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1707        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1708        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
1710    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1711        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1712        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1713        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1714        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1715        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1716        top = (
1717            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1718            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1719            else ""
1720        )
1721
1722        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1723
1724        if kind:
1725            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1726                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1727            else:
1728                if kind == "STRUCT":
1729                    expressions = self.expressions(
1730                        sqls=[
1731                            self.sql(
1732                                exp.Struct(
1733                                    expressions=[
1734                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1735                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1736                                        )
1737                                        for e in expression.expressions
1738                                    ]
1739                                )
1740                            )
1741                        ]
1742                    )
1743                kind = ""
1744
1745        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1746        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1747            expression,
1748            f"SELECT{top}{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1749            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1750            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1751        )
1752        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
1754    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1755        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1756        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1757        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1758        return f"{this}{sql}"
def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
1760    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1761        return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
1763    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1764        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1765        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1766        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1767        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1768        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
1770    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1771        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1772        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1773        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
1775    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1776        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1777        kind = expression.text("kind")
1778        if kind:
1779            kind = f"{kind}."
1780        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
1782    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1783        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1785    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1786        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1787        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1788
1789        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1790        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1791
1792        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1793        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
1795    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1796        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1797        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def union_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
1799    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1800        return self.prepend_ctes(
1801            expression,
1802            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1803        )
def union_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
1805    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1806        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1807        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1808        return f"UNION{kind}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
1810    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1811        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1812        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1813        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1814            columns = alias.columns
1815            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1816        else:
1817            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1818        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1819        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1820        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1821        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1822        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
1824    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1825        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1826        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
1828    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1829        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1830        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1831        order = expression.args.get("order")
1832        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1833        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1834        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1835        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1836
1837        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1838
1839        first = expression.args.get("first")
1840        if first is None:
1841            first = ""
1842        else:
1843            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1844
1845        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1846            return f"{this} {alias}"
1847
1848        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1849        return f"{this} ({args})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1851    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1852        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1853        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
1855    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1856        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1857        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1858        end = (
1859            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1860            or "CURRENT ROW"
1861        )
1862        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
1864    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1865        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1866        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1867        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
1869    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1870        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1871        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1872        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1873        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
1875    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1876        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
1877        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1878
1879        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def safebracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeBracket) -> str:
1881    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
1882        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
1884    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1885        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
1887    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1888        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1889        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1890            this = self.wrap(this)
1891        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
1893    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1894        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
1896    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1897        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1898        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1899
1900        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1901            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1902            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1903
1904        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1905
1906        if default:
1907            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1908
1909        statements.append("END")
1910
1911        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
1912            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1913
1914        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
1916    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1917        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1918        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1919        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
1921    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1922        order = expression.args.get("order")
1923        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1924        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
1926    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1927        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
1928        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1929        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
1931    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1932        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1933
1934        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1935            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1936        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1937            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1938        else:
1939            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeConcat) -> str:
1941    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
1942        expressions = expression.expressions
1943        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
1944            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
1945        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
1947    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1948        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1949        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
1951    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1952        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1953        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1954        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1955        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
1956        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
1957        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
1958        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
1959        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
1961    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1962        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1963        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1964        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1965        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
1967    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
1968        expression = expression.copy()
1969        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1971    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1972        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
1973        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
1974        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1976    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1977        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject) -> str:
1979    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
1980        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
1981        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
1982        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
1983        if unique_keys is not None:
1984            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
1985        else:
1986            unique_keys = ""
1987        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
1988        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
1989        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
1990        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
1991        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
1992        return self.func(
1993            "JSON_OBJECT",
1994            *expression.expressions,
1995            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})",
1996        )
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
1998    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
1999        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2000        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2001        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2002        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2003        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2004        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
2006    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2007        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2008        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2009        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2010        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2011        with_ = (
2012            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2013            if expressions
2014            else ""
2015        )
2016        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
2018    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2019        query = expression.args.get("query")
2020        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2021        field = expression.args.get("field")
2022        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2023
2024        if query:
2025            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2026        elif unnest:
2027            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2028        elif field:
2029            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2030        else:
2031            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2032
2033        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2035    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2036        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
2038    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2039        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2040        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2041            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
2042        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2043
2044        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2045            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2046            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2047
2048        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2049        if this:
2050            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2051            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2052
2053        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
2055    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2056        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
2058    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2059        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2060        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2061        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2062        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2063        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2064        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
2066    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2067        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
2069    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2070        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2071            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2072        else:
2073            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2074            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2075
2076        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
2078    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2079        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2080        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2081        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2082        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
2084    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2085        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
2087    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2088        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2089        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2090        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
2092    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2093        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2095    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2096        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2097        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2098        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
2100    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2101        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And) -> str:
2103    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2104        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
def xor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Xor) -> str:
2106    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2107        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
def connector_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2109    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2110        if not self.pretty:
2111            return self.binary(expression, op)
2112
2113        sqls = tuple(
2114            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2115            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2116        )
2117
2118        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2119        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2121    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2122        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2124    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2125        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2127    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2128        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2130    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2131        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2133    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2134        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2136    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2137        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2139    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2140        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2141        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2142        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')}{format_sql})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
2144    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2145        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2146        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
2148    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2149        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
2151    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2152        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
2154    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2155        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2156        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2157        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2158        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2159        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2161    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2162        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2163        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2164        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2165        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2166        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2167        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2168        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2169        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2170        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2172    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2173        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2174        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2175        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2176        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2177
2178        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2179            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2180
2181        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
2183    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2184        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
2186    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2187        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2188        if chain is not None:
2189            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2190
2191        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
2193    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2194        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2195        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2196        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
2198    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2199        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2200
2201        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2202        if dtype:
2203            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2204            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2205            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2206            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2207            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2208
2209        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2210        if default:
2211            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2212
2213        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2214            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2215
2216        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str:
2218    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2219        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2220            # Remove db from tables
2221            expression = expression.transform(
2222                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2223            )
2224        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2225        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def altertable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
2227    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2228        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2229
2230        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2231            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMN ")
2232        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2233            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2234        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2235            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2236        else:
2237            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2238
2239        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2240        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
2242    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2243        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2244        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2245        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
2247    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2248        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2249        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2250        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2251
2252        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2253        if enforced is not None:
2254            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2255
2256        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
2258    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2259        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2260        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2261
2262        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2263        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2264        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2266    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2267        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
2269    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2270        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
2272    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2273        return self.sql(
2274            exp.Cast(
2275                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this.copy(), expression=expression.expression.copy()),
2276                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2277            )
2278        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
2280    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2281        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2283    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2284        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2285            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2286        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
2288    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2289        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
2291    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2292        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
2294    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2295        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
2297    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2298        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
2300    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2301        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
2303    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2304        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
2306    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2307        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
2309    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2310        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
2312    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2313        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
2315    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2316        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
2318    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2319        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
2321    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2322        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2323            return self.sql(
2324                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2325            )
2326        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
2328    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2329        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
2331    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2332        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
2334    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2335        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
2337    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2338        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
2340    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2341        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
2343    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2344        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
2346    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2347        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
2349    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2350        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2352    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2353        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2355    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2356        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def or_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or) -> str:
2358    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2359        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
2361    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2362        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
2364    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2365        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
2367    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2368        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
2370    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2371        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2372        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2373        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2374        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2375        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2377    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2378        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2379        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
2381    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2382        args = []
2383
2384        for key in expression.arg_types:
2385            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2386
2387            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2388                for value in arg_value:
2389                    args.append(value)
2390            elif arg_value is not None:
2391                args.append(arg_value)
2392
2393        if self.normalize_functions:
2394            name = expression.sql_name()
2395        else:
2396            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2397
2398        return self.func(name, *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')') -> str:
2400    def func(
2401        self,
2402        name: str,
2403        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2404        prefix: str = "(",
2405        suffix: str = ")",
2406    ) -> str:
2407        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
2409    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2410        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2411        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2412            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2413        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
def text_width(self, args: Iterable) -> int:
2415    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2416        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
def format_time(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> Optional[str]:
2418    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2419        return format_time(
2420            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2421        )
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[List[str]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, skip_first: bool = False, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '') -> str:
2423    def expressions(
2424        self,
2425        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2426        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2427        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2428        flat: bool = False,
2429        indent: bool = True,
2430        skip_first: bool = False,
2431        sep: str = ", ",
2432        prefix: str = "",
2433    ) -> str:
2434        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2435
2436        if not expressions:
2437            return ""
2438
2439        if flat:
2440            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2441
2442        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2443
2444        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2445        pad = " " * self.pad
2446        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2447
2448        result_sqls = []
2449        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2450            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2451            if not sql:
2452                continue
2453
2454            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2455
2456            if self.pretty:
2457                if self.leading_comma:
2458                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2459                else:
2460                    result_sqls.append(
2461                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2462                    )
2463            else:
2464                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2465
2466        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2467        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2469    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2470        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2471        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2472        if flat:
2473            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2474        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
2476    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2477        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2478        if not property_name:
2479            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2480        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def set_operation(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2482    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2483        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2484        op = self.seg(op)
2485        return self.query_modifiers(
2486            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2487        )
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
2489    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2490        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
2492    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2493        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2495    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2496        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2497        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2498        expressions = (
2499            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2500        )
2501        return f"{this}{expressions}"
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
2503    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2504        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2505        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2506        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
2508    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2509        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
2511    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2512        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2513        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2514        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2515        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2516
2517        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2518        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2519            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2520            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2521                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2522        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2523            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2524                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2525            else:
2526                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2527        else:
2528            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2529        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
2531    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2532        table = expression.this
2533        table_alias = ""
2534
2535        hints = table.args.get("hints")
2536        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
2537            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
2538            table = table.copy()
2539            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
2540
2541        this = self.sql(table)
2542        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2543        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2544        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
2545
2546        return f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
2548    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2549        if expression.args.get("format"):
2550            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2551
2552        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str:
2554    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2555        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2556        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2557        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2558        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2559        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str:
2561    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2562        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2563        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2564        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2565        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2567    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2568        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str:
2570    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2571        return ""
def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2573    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2574        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2575        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2576        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2577        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2578        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue) -> str:
2580    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2581        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2582        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2583
2584        if having:
2585            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2586
2587        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
def querytransform_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryTransform) -> str:
2589    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2590        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2591        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2592        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2593        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2594        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2595        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2596        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2597        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2598        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2599        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2600        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2601        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
2602        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2604    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2605        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
2606        if key_block_size:
2607            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
2608
2609        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2610        if using:
2611            return f"USING {using}"
2612
2613        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
2614        if parser:
2615            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
2616
2617        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2618        if comment:
2619            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
2620
2621        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
2622        if visible is not None:
2623            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
2624
2625        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
2626        if engine_attr:
2627            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
2628
2629        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
2630        if secondary_engine_attr:
2631            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
2632
2633        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
2634        return ""
def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2636    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2637        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2638        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
2639        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2640        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2641        type_ = self.sql(expression, "type")
2642        type_ = f" USING {type_}" if type_ else ""
2643        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2644        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
2645        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
2646        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2647        return f"{kind}{this}{type_}{schema}{options}"
def nvl2_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Nvl2) -> str:
2649    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
2650        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
2651            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2652
2653        case = exp.Case().when(
2654            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
2655            expression.args["true"].copy(),
2656            copy=False,
2657        )
2658        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
2659        if else_cond:
2660            case.else_(else_cond.copy(), copy=False)
2661
2662        return self.sql(case)
def cached_generator( cache: Optional[Dict[int, str]] = None) -> Callable[[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], str]:
2665def cached_generator(
2666    cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
2667) -> t.Callable[[exp.Expression], str]:
2668    """Returns a cached generator."""
2669    cache = {} if cache is None else cache
2670    generator = Generator(normalize=True, identify="safe")
2671    return lambda e: generator.generate(e, cache)

Returns a cached generator.