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sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import typing as t
   5
   6from sqlglot import exp
   7from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
   8from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, seq_get, should_identify
   9from sqlglot.time import format_time
  10from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  11
  12logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  13
  14
  15class Generator:
  16    """
  17    Generator interprets the given syntax tree and produces a SQL string as an output.
  18
  19    Args:
  20        time_mapping (dict): the dictionary of custom time mappings in which the key
  21            represents a python time format and the output the target time format
  22        time_trie (trie): a trie of the time_mapping keys
  23        pretty (bool): if set to True the returned string will be formatted. Default: False.
  24        quote_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit quotes. Default: '.
  25        quote_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit quotes. Default: '.
  26        identifier_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit identifiers. Default: ".
  27        identifier_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit identifiers. Default: ".
  28        bit_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit bit literals. Default: None.
  29        bit_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit bit literals. Default: None.
  30        hex_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit hex literals. Default: None.
  31        hex_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit hex literals. Default: None.
  32        byte_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit byte literals. Default: None.
  33        byte_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit byte literals. Default: None.
  34        raw_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit raw literals. Default: None.
  35        raw_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit raw literals. Default: None.
  36        identify (bool | str): 'always': always quote, 'safe': quote identifiers if they don't contain an upcase, True defaults to always.
  37        normalize (bool): if set to True all identifiers will lower cased
  38        string_escape (str): specifies a string escape character. Default: '.
  39        identifier_escape (str): specifies an identifier escape character. Default: ".
  40        pad (int): determines padding in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  41        indent (int): determines the size of indentation in a formatted string. Default: 4.
  42        unnest_column_only (bool): if true unnest table aliases are considered only as column aliases
  43        normalize_functions (str): normalize function names, "upper", "lower", or None
  44            Default: "upper"
  45        alias_post_tablesample (bool): if the table alias comes after tablesample
  46            Default: False
  47        unsupported_level (ErrorLevel): determines the generator's behavior when it encounters
  48            unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  49        null_ordering (str): Indicates the default null ordering method to use if not explicitly set.
  50            Options are "nulls_are_small", "nulls_are_large", "nulls_are_last".
  51            Default: "nulls_are_small"
  52        max_unsupported (int): Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  53            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  54            Default: 3
  55        leading_comma (bool): if the the comma is leading or trailing in select statements
  56            Default: False
  57        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  58            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  59            line length.
  60            Default: 80
  61        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  62            Default: True
  63    """
  64
  65    TRANSFORMS = {
  66        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  67            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  68        ),
  69        exp.TsOrDsAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  70            "TS_OR_DS_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  71        ),
  72        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
  73        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  74        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  75        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  76        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  77        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  78        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  79        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  80        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  81        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  82        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  83        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  84        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  85        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
  86        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
  87        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
  88        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
  89        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
  90        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  92        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  95        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
  96        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  97        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  98        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  99        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 100        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 101        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 102        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 103        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 104    }
 105
 106    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
 107    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
 108
 109    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 110    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 111
 112    # Always do union distinct or union all
 113    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 114
 115    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 116    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 117
 118    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 119    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 120
 121    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 122    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 123
 124    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 125    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 126
 127    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 128    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 129
 130    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 131    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 132
 133    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 134    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 135
 136    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 137    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 138
 139    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 140    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 141
 142    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 143    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 144
 145    # The string used for creating index on a table
 146    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 147
 148    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 149        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 150        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 151        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 152        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 153        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 154        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 155        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 156    }
 157
 158    STAR_MAPPING = {
 159        "except": "EXCEPT",
 160        "replace": "REPLACE",
 161    }
 162
 163    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 164        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 165        "seconds": "second",
 166        "minutes": "minute",
 167        "hours": "hour",
 168        "days": "day",
 169        "weeks": "week",
 170        "months": "month",
 171        "quarters": "quarter",
 172        "years": "year",
 173    }
 174
 175    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 176
 177    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 178
 179    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 180
 181    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 182        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 183        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 184        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 185        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 186        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 187        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 188        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 189        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 190        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 191        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 192        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 193        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 194        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 195        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 196        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 197        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 198        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 199        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 200        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 201        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 202        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 203        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 204        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 205        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 206        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 207        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 208        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 209        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 210        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 211        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 212        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 213        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 214        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 215        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 216        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 217        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 218        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 219        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 220        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 221        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 222        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 223        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 224        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 225        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 226        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 227        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 228        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 229        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 230        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 231        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 232    }
 233
 234    JOIN_HINTS = True
 235    TABLE_HINTS = True
 236
 237    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 238    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS = (exp.Select, exp.From, exp.Where, exp.With)
 239    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES = (exp.Column, exp.Literal, exp.Neg, exp.Paren)
 240
 241    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 242
 243    __slots__ = (
 244        "time_mapping",
 245        "time_trie",
 246        "pretty",
 247        "quote_start",
 248        "quote_end",
 249        "identifier_start",
 250        "identifier_end",
 251        "bit_start",
 252        "bit_end",
 253        "hex_start",
 254        "hex_end",
 255        "byte_start",
 256        "byte_end",
 257        "raw_start",
 258        "raw_end",
 259        "identify",
 260        "normalize",
 261        "string_escape",
 262        "identifier_escape",
 263        "pad",
 264        "index_offset",
 265        "unnest_column_only",
 266        "alias_post_tablesample",
 267        "normalize_functions",
 268        "unsupported_level",
 269        "unsupported_messages",
 270        "null_ordering",
 271        "max_unsupported",
 272        "_indent",
 273        "_escaped_quote_end",
 274        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 275        "_leading_comma",
 276        "_max_text_width",
 277        "_comments",
 278        "_cache",
 279    )
 280
 281    def __init__(
 282        self,
 283        time_mapping=None,
 284        time_trie=None,
 285        pretty=None,
 286        quote_start=None,
 287        quote_end=None,
 288        identifier_start=None,
 289        identifier_end=None,
 290        bit_start=None,
 291        bit_end=None,
 292        hex_start=None,
 293        hex_end=None,
 294        byte_start=None,
 295        byte_end=None,
 296        raw_start=None,
 297        raw_end=None,
 298        identify=False,
 299        normalize=False,
 300        string_escape=None,
 301        identifier_escape=None,
 302        pad=2,
 303        indent=2,
 304        index_offset=0,
 305        unnest_column_only=False,
 306        alias_post_tablesample=False,
 307        normalize_functions="upper",
 308        unsupported_level=ErrorLevel.WARN,
 309        null_ordering=None,
 310        max_unsupported=3,
 311        leading_comma=False,
 312        max_text_width=80,
 313        comments=True,
 314    ):
 315        import sqlglot
 316
 317        self.time_mapping = time_mapping or {}
 318        self.time_trie = time_trie
 319        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 320        self.quote_start = quote_start or "'"
 321        self.quote_end = quote_end or "'"
 322        self.identifier_start = identifier_start or '"'
 323        self.identifier_end = identifier_end or '"'
 324        self.bit_start = bit_start
 325        self.bit_end = bit_end
 326        self.hex_start = hex_start
 327        self.hex_end = hex_end
 328        self.byte_start = byte_start
 329        self.byte_end = byte_end
 330        self.raw_start = raw_start
 331        self.raw_end = raw_end
 332        self.identify = identify
 333        self.normalize = normalize
 334        self.string_escape = string_escape or "'"
 335        self.identifier_escape = identifier_escape or '"'
 336        self.pad = pad
 337        self.index_offset = index_offset
 338        self.unnest_column_only = unnest_column_only
 339        self.alias_post_tablesample = alias_post_tablesample
 340        self.normalize_functions = normalize_functions
 341        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 342        self.unsupported_messages = []
 343        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 344        self.null_ordering = null_ordering
 345        self._indent = indent
 346        self._escaped_quote_end = self.string_escape + self.quote_end
 347        self._escaped_identifier_end = self.identifier_escape + self.identifier_end
 348        self._leading_comma = leading_comma
 349        self._max_text_width = max_text_width
 350        self._comments = comments
 351        self._cache = None
 352
 353    def generate(
 354        self,
 355        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
 356        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
 357    ) -> str:
 358        """
 359        Generates a SQL string by interpreting the given syntax tree.
 360
 361        Args
 362            expression: the syntax tree.
 363            cache: an optional sql string cache. this leverages the hash of an expression which is slow, so only use this if you set _hash on each node.
 364
 365        Returns
 366            the SQL string.
 367        """
 368        if cache is not None:
 369            self._cache = cache
 370        self.unsupported_messages = []
 371        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 372        self._cache = None
 373
 374        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 375            return sql
 376
 377        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 378            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 379                logger.warning(msg)
 380        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 381            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 382
 383        if self.pretty:
 384            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 385        return sql
 386
 387    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 388        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 389            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 390        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 391
 392    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 393        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 394
 395    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 396        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 397
 398    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 399        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 400        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 401        return comment
 402
 403    def maybe_comment(
 404        self,
 405        sql: str,
 406        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 407        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 408    ) -> str:
 409        comments = ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments) if self._comments else None  # type: ignore
 410
 411        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
 412            return sql
 413
 414        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
 415        comments_sql = sep.join(
 416            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 417        )
 418
 419        if not comments_sql:
 420            return sql
 421
 422        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 423            return (
 424                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 425                if sql[0].isspace()
 426                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 427            )
 428
 429        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 430
 431    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 432        this_sql = self.indent(
 433            self.sql(expression)
 434            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 435            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 436            level=1,
 437            pad=0,
 438        )
 439        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 440
 441    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 442        original = self.identify
 443        self.identify = False
 444        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 445        self.identify = original
 446        return result
 447
 448    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 449        if self.normalize_functions == "upper":
 450            return name.upper()
 451        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 452            return name.lower()
 453        return name
 454
 455    def indent(
 456        self,
 457        sql: str,
 458        level: int = 0,
 459        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 460        skip_first: bool = False,
 461        skip_last: bool = False,
 462    ) -> str:
 463        if not self.pretty:
 464            return sql
 465
 466        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 467        lines = sql.split("\n")
 468
 469        return "\n".join(
 470            line
 471            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 472            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 473            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 474        )
 475
 476    def sql(
 477        self,
 478        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 479        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 480        comment: bool = True,
 481    ) -> str:
 482        if not expression:
 483            return ""
 484
 485        if isinstance(expression, str):
 486            return expression
 487
 488        if key:
 489            return self.sql(expression.args.get(key))
 490
 491        if self._cache is not None:
 492            expression_id = hash(expression)
 493
 494            if expression_id in self._cache:
 495                return self._cache[expression_id]
 496
 497        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 498
 499        if callable(transform):
 500            sql = transform(self, expression)
 501        elif transform:
 502            sql = transform
 503        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 504            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 505
 506            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 507                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 508            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 509                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 510            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 511                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 512            else:
 513                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 514        else:
 515            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 516
 517        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self._comments and comment else sql
 518
 519        if self._cache is not None:
 520            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
 521        return sql
 522
 523    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 524        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 525        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 526        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 527
 528    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 529        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 530        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 531        options = expression.args.get("options")
 532        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 533        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 534        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 535        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 536        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 537
 538    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 539        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 540            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 541        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 542        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 543
 544    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 545        return ".".join(
 546            self.sql(part)
 547            for part in (
 548                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 549                expression.args.get("db"),
 550                expression.args.get("table"),
 551                expression.args.get("this"),
 552            )
 553            if part
 554        )
 555
 556    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 557        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 558        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 559        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 560        return f"{position}{this}"
 561
 562    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 563        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 564        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 565        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 566        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 567        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 568        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 569        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 570        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 571
 572        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 573
 574    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 575        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 576        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 577        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 578
 579    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 580        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 581
 582    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 583        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 584            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 585        else:
 586            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 587
 588        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 589
 590    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 591        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 592    ) -> str:
 593        this = ""
 594        if expression.this is not None:
 595            on_null = "ON NULL " if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 596            this = " ALWAYS " if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT {on_null}"
 597
 598        start = expression.args.get("start")
 599        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 600        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 601        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 602        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 603        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 604        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 605        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 606        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 607        cycle_sql = ""
 608
 609        if cycle is not None:
 610            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 611            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 612
 613        sequence_opts = ""
 614        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 615            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 616            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 617
 618        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 619        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 620
 621        return f"GENERATED{this}AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 622
 623    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 624        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 625
 626    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 627        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 628        if desc is not None:
 629            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 630        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 631
 632    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 633        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 634        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 635        return f"UNIQUE{this}"
 636
 637    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 638        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 639        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 640        properties_exp = expression.copy()
 641        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else {}
 642        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 643            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 644        ):
 645            properties_exp.set(
 646                "properties",
 647                exp.Properties(
 648                    expressions=[
 649                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 650                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 651                    ]
 652                ),
 653            )
 654        if kind == "TABLE" and properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME):
 655            this_name = self.sql(expression.this, "this")
 656            this_properties = self.properties(
 657                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME]),
 658                wrapped=False,
 659            )
 660            this_schema = f"({self.expressions(expression.this)})"
 661            this = f"{this_name}, {this_properties} {this_schema}"
 662            properties_sql = ""
 663        else:
 664            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 665            properties_sql = self.sql(properties_exp, "properties")
 666        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 667        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 668        if expression_sql:
 669            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
 670
 671            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 672                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 673                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 674                        exp.Properties(
 675                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 676                        ),
 677                        wrapped=False,
 678                    )
 679                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 680                else:
 681                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 682
 683        postindex_props_sql = ""
 684        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 685            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 686                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 687                wrapped=False,
 688                prefix=" ",
 689            )
 690
 691        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 692        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 693        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 694
 695        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 696        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 697
 698        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 699        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 700            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 701                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 702                sep=" ",
 703                prefix=" ",
 704                wrapped=False,
 705            )
 706
 707        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 708
 709        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 710        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 711            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 712                exp.Properties(
 713                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 714                ),
 715                sep=" ",
 716                prefix=" ",
 717                wrapped=False,
 718            )
 719
 720        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 721        no_schema_binding = (
 722            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 723        )
 724
 725        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 726        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 727
 728        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 729        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 730
 731    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 732        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 733        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 734
 735        if when:
 736            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 737            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 738            return f"CLONE {this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 739
 740        return f"CLONE {this}"
 741
 742    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 743        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 744
 745    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 746        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 747        if with_:
 748            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 749        return sql
 750
 751    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 752        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 753        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
 754
 755        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 756
 757    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 758        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 759        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 760
 761    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 762        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 763        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 764        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 765        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 766
 767    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 768        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 769        if self.bit_start:
 770            return f"{self.bit_start}{this}{self.bit_end}"
 771        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 772
 773    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 774        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 775        if self.hex_start:
 776            return f"{self.hex_start}{this}{self.hex_end}"
 777        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 778
 779    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 780        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 781        if self.byte_start:
 782            return f"{self.byte_start}{this}{self.byte_end}"
 783        return this
 784
 785    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 786        if self.raw_start:
 787            return f"{self.raw_start}{expression.name}{self.raw_end}"
 788        return self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name.replace("\\", "\\\\")))
 789
 790    def datatypesize_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeSize) -> str:
 791        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 792        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 793        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
 794        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 795
 796    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 797        type_value = expression.this
 798        type_sql = self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 799        nested = ""
 800        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 801        values = ""
 802        if interior:
 803            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 804                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 805                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 806                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 807                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 808                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 809            else:
 810                nested = f"({interior})"
 811
 812        return f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 813
 814    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 815        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 816        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 817        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 818        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
 819
 820    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 821        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 822        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 823        using_sql = (
 824            f" USING {self.expressions(expression, key='using', sep=', USING ')}"
 825            if expression.args.get("using")
 826            else ""
 827        )
 828        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
 829        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
 830        sql = f"DELETE{this}{using_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
 831        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 832
 833    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
 834        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 835        kind = expression.args["kind"]
 836        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
 837        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
 838        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
 839        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
 840        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
 841        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
 842        return (
 843            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
 844        )
 845
 846    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 847        return self.prepend_ctes(
 848            expression,
 849            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
 850        )
 851
 852    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 853        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
 854
 855    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
 856        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
 857        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
 858        count = expression.args.get("count")
 859        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
 860        if expression.args.get("percent"):
 861            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
 862        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
 863        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
 864
 865    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
 866        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 867        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
 868        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
 869
 870    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
 871        if self.sql(expression, "this"):
 872            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
 873        return ""
 874
 875    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
 876        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 877        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
 878        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
 879        name = f"{expression.name} " if expression.name else ""
 880        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
 881        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table} " if table else ""
 882        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
 883        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 884        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
 885        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
 886        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}({columns}){partition_by}"
 887
 888    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
 889        text = expression.name
 890        lower = text.lower()
 891        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
 892        text = text.replace(self.identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
 893        if (
 894            expression.quoted
 895            or should_identify(text, self.identify)
 896            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
 897        ):
 898            text = f"{self.identifier_start}{text}{self.identifier_end}"
 899        return text
 900
 901    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
 902        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
 903        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
 904        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
 905        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
 906        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
 907
 908    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
 909        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
 910        return f"{prefix}{string}"
 911
 912    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
 913        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression)})"
 914
 915    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
 916        root_properties = []
 917        with_properties = []
 918
 919        for p in expression.expressions:
 920            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
 921            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
 922                with_properties.append(p)
 923            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
 924                root_properties.append(p)
 925
 926        return self.root_properties(
 927            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
 928        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
 929
 930    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
 931        if properties.expressions:
 932            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
 933        return ""
 934
 935    def properties(
 936        self,
 937        properties: exp.Properties,
 938        prefix: str = "",
 939        sep: str = ", ",
 940        suffix: str = "",
 941        wrapped: bool = True,
 942    ) -> str:
 943        if properties.expressions:
 944            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
 945            expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
 946            return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
 947        return ""
 948
 949    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
 950        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
 951
 952    def locate_properties(
 953        self, properties: exp.Properties
 954    ) -> t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]:
 955        properties_locs: t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]] = {
 956            key: [] for key in exp.Properties.Location
 957        }
 958
 959        for p in properties.expressions:
 960            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
 961            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME:
 962                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME].append(p)
 963            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX:
 964                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX].append(p)
 965            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
 966                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA].append(p)
 967            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
 968                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH].append(p)
 969            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE:
 970                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE].append(p)
 971            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS:
 972                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS].append(p)
 973            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION:
 974                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION].append(p)
 975            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
 976                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
 977
 978        return properties_locs
 979
 980    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
 981        property_cls = expression.__class__
 982        if property_cls == exp.Property:
 983            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
 984
 985        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
 986        if not property_name:
 987            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
 988
 989        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 990
 991    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
 992        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
 993        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
 994        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
 995
 996    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
 997        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
 998        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
 999        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1000
1001    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1002        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1003        local = expression.args.get("local")
1004        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1005        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1006        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1007        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1008        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1009
1010    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1011        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1012        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1013        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1014
1015    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1016        if expression.args.get("default"):
1017            property = "DEFAULT"
1018        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1019            property = "ON"
1020        else:
1021            property = "OFF"
1022        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1023
1024    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1025        if expression.args.get("no"):
1026            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1027        if expression.args.get("default"):
1028            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1029
1030        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1031        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1032
1033    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1034        default = expression.args.get("default")
1035        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1036        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1037        if default or minimum or maximum:
1038            if default:
1039                prop = "DEFAULT"
1040            elif minimum:
1041                prop = "MINIMUM"
1042            else:
1043                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1044            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1045        units = expression.args.get("units")
1046        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1047        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1048
1049    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1050        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1051        always = expression.args.get("always")
1052        default = expression.args.get("default")
1053        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1054        never = expression.args.get("never")
1055
1056        if autotemp is not None:
1057            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1058        elif always:
1059            prop = "ALWAYS"
1060        elif default:
1061            prop = "DEFAULT"
1062        elif manual:
1063            prop = "MANUAL"
1064        elif never:
1065            prop = "NEVER"
1066        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1067
1068    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1069        no = expression.args.get("no")
1070        no = " NO" if no else ""
1071        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1072        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1073
1074        for_ = ""
1075        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1076            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1077        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1078            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1079        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1080            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1081        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1082
1083    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1084        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1085        this: str = f" {this}" if expression.this else ""
1086        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1087        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1088        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1089        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1090
1091    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1092        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1093        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1094        statistics_sql = ""
1095        if statistics is not None:
1096            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1097        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1098
1099    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1100        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1101
1102        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1103            this = "OVERWRITE " if overwrite else "INTO "
1104        else:
1105            this = "OVERWRITE TABLE " if overwrite else "INTO "
1106
1107        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1108        alternative = f" OR {alternative} " if alternative else " "
1109        this = f"{this}{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1110
1111        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1112        partition_sql = (
1113            self.sql(expression, "partition") if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1114        )
1115        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1116        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1117        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1118        sep = self.sep() if partition_sql else ""
1119        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{this}{exists}{partition_sql}{sep}{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1120        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1121
1122    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1123        return self.prepend_ctes(
1124            expression,
1125            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1126        )
1127
1128    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1129        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1130
1131    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1132        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1133
1134    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1135        return expression.name.upper()
1136
1137    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1138        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1139        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1140        if constraint:
1141            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1142        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1143        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1144        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1145        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1146        if expressions:
1147            expressions = f"UPDATE SET {expressions}"
1148        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1149
1150    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1151        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1152
1153    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1154        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1155        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1156        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1157        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1158        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1159        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1160        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1161        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1162        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1163        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1164        null = expression.args.get("null")
1165        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1166        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1167
1168    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1169        table = ".".join(
1170            part
1171            for part in [
1172                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1173                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1174                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1175            ]
1176            if part
1177        )
1178
1179        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1180        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1181        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", flat=True)
1182        hints = f" WITH ({hints})" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1183        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1184        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1185        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="")
1186        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1187        system_time = expression.args.get("system_time")
1188        system_time = f" {self.sql(expression, 'system_time')}" if system_time else ""
1189
1190        return f"{table}{system_time}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
1191
1192    def tablesample_sql(
1193        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1194    ) -> str:
1195        if self.alias_post_tablesample and expression.this.alias:
1196            table = expression.this.copy()
1197            table.set("alias", None)
1198            this = self.sql(table)
1199            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1200        else:
1201            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1202            alias = ""
1203        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1204        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1205        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1206        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1207        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1208        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1209        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1210        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1211        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1212        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1213        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1214        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1215        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1216            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1217        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1218        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1219        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1220        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
1221
1222    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1223        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1224
1225        if expression.this:
1226            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1227            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1228            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1229            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1230            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1231            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1232
1233        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1234        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1235        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1236        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1237        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1238        return f"{direction}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1239
1240    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1241        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1242
1243    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1244        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1245        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1246        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1247        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1248        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1249        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1250        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1251
1252    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1253        args = self.expressions(expression)
1254        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1255        values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1256        values = (
1257            f"({values})"
1258            if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1259            else values
1260        )
1261        return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1262
1263    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1264        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1265
1266    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1267        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1268        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1269        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1270
1271    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1272        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1273
1274    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1275        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1276        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1277        grouping_sets = (
1278            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1279        )
1280
1281        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1282        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1283            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1284        else:
1285            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1286            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1287
1288        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1289        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1290            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1291        else:
1292            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1293            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1294
1295        groupings = csv(
1296            grouping_sets,
1297            cube_sql,
1298            rollup_sql,
1299            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1300            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1301        )
1302
1303        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1304            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1305
1306        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1307
1308    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1309        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1310        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1311
1312    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1313        op_sql = " ".join(
1314            op
1315            for op in (
1316                "NATURAL" if expression.args.get("natural") else None,
1317                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1318                expression.side,
1319                expression.kind,
1320                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1321            )
1322            if op
1323        )
1324        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1325        using = expression.args.get("using")
1326
1327        if not on_sql and using:
1328            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1329
1330        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1331
1332        if on_sql:
1333            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1334            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1335            if using:
1336                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1337            else:
1338                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1339        elif not op_sql:
1340            return f", {this_sql}"
1341
1342        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1343        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1344
1345    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1346        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1347        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1348        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1349
1350    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1351        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1352
1353        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1354            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1355
1356        if expression.args.get("view"):
1357            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1358            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1359            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1360            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1361            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1362            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1363
1364        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1365        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1366        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1367
1368    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit) -> str:
1369        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1370        return f"{this}{self.seg('LIMIT')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1371
1372    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1373        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1374        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1375
1376    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1377        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1378        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1379        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1380        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1381        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1382        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1383        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1384        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1385
1386    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1387        expressions = (
1388            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1389        )
1390        return f"SET{expressions}"
1391
1392    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1393        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1394
1395    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1396        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1397            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1398            return ""
1399
1400        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1401        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1402        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1403        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1404
1405        if wait is not None:
1406            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1407                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1408            else:
1409                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1410
1411        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1412
1413    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1414        text = expression.this or ""
1415        if expression.is_string:
1416            text = text.replace(self.quote_end, self._escaped_quote_end)
1417            if self.pretty:
1418                text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1419            text = f"{self.quote_start}{text}{self.quote_end}"
1420        return text
1421
1422    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1423        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1424        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1425        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1426        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1427        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1428        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1429        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1430        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1431        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1432        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1433        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1434
1435    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1436        return "NULL"
1437
1438    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1439        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1440
1441    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1442        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1443        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1444        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1445
1446    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1447        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1448
1449    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1450        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1451
1452    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1453        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1454
1455    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1456        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1457        asc = not desc
1458
1459        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1460        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1461        nulls_are_large = self.null_ordering == "nulls_are_large"
1462        nulls_are_small = self.null_ordering == "nulls_are_small"
1463        nulls_are_last = self.null_ordering == "nulls_are_last"
1464
1465        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1466        nulls_sort_change = ""
1467        if nulls_first and (
1468            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1469        ):
1470            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1471        elif (
1472            nulls_last
1473            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1474            and not nulls_are_last
1475        ):
1476            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1477
1478        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1479            self.unsupported(
1480                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1481            )
1482            nulls_sort_change = ""
1483
1484        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1485
1486    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1487        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1488        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1489        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1490        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1491        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1492        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1493        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1494        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1495        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1496        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1497        definition_sqls = [
1498            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1499            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1500        ]
1501        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1502        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1503        body = "".join(
1504            (
1505                partition,
1506                order,
1507                measures,
1508                rows,
1509                after,
1510                pattern,
1511                define,
1512            )
1513        )
1514        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1515        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1516        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1517
1518    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1519        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1520
1521        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1522            limit = exp.Limit(expression=limit.args.get("count"))
1523        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1524            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=limit.expression)
1525
1526        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1527
1528        return csv(
1529            *sqls,
1530            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1531            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1532            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1533            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1534            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1535            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1536            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1537            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1538            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1539            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1540            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1541            sep="",
1542        )
1543
1544    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1545        return [
1546            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1547            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1548            if expression.args.get("windows")
1549            else "",
1550        ]
1551
1552    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1553        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1554        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1555        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1556
1557    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1558        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1559        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1560        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1561        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1562        kind = f" AS {kind}" if kind else ""
1563        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1564        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1565        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1566            expression,
1567            f"SELECT{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1568            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1569            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1570        )
1571        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1572
1573    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1574        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1575        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1576        sql = f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1577        return f"{this}{sql}"
1578
1579    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1580        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1581        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1582        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1583        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1584        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
1585
1586    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1587        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1588        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1589        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
1590
1591    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1592        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1593        kind = expression.text("kind")
1594        if kind:
1595            kind = f"{kind}."
1596        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
1597
1598    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1599        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
1600
1601    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1602        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1603        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1604
1605        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1606        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1607
1608        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1609        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1610
1611    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1612        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1613        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1614
1615    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1616        return self.prepend_ctes(
1617            expression,
1618            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1619        )
1620
1621    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1622        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1623        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1624        return f"UNION{kind}"
1625
1626    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1627        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1628        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1629        if alias and self.unnest_column_only:
1630            columns = alias.columns
1631            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1632        else:
1633            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1634        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1635        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1636        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1637        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1638        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
1639
1640    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1641        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1642        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1643
1644    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1645        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1646
1647        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1648
1649        order = expression.args.get("order")
1650        order_sql = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1651
1652        partition_sql = partition + " " if partition and order else partition
1653
1654        spec = expression.args.get("spec")
1655        spec_sql = " " + self.windowspec_sql(spec) if spec else ""
1656
1657        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1658        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1659        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1660
1661        first = expression.args.get("first")
1662        if first is not None:
1663            first = " FIRST " if first else " LAST "
1664        first = first or ""
1665
1666        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1667            return f"{this} {alias}"
1668
1669        window_args = alias + first + partition_sql + order_sql + spec_sql
1670
1671        return f"{this} ({window_args.strip()})"
1672
1673    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1674        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1675        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
1676
1677    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1678        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1679        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1680        end = (
1681            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1682            or "CURRENT ROW"
1683        )
1684        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
1685
1686    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1687        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1688        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1689        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
1690
1691    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1692        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1693        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1694        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1695        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
1696
1697    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1698        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.index_offset)
1699        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1700
1701        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
1702
1703    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1704        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
1705
1706    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1707        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1708        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1709            this = self.wrap(this)
1710        return f"ANY {this}"
1711
1712    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1713        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
1714
1715    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1716        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1717        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1718
1719        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1720            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1721            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1722
1723        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1724
1725        if default:
1726            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1727
1728        statements.append("END")
1729
1730        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self._max_text_width:
1731            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1732
1733        return " ".join(statements)
1734
1735    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1736        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1737        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1738        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
1739
1740    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1741        order = expression.args.get("order")
1742        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1743        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
1744
1745    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1746        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1747        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1748        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
1749
1750    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1751        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1752
1753        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1754            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1755        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1756            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1757        else:
1758            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
1759
1760    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
1761        if len(expression.expressions) == 1:
1762            return self.sql(expression.expressions[0])
1763        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
1764
1765    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1766        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1767        return f"CHECK ({this})"
1768
1769    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1770        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1771        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1772        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1773        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
1774        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
1775        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
1776        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
1777        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
1778
1779    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1780        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1781        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1782        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1783        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
1784
1785    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
1786        return self.case_sql(
1787            exp.Case(ifs=[expression.copy()], default=expression.args.get("false"))
1788        )
1789
1790    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1791        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
1792        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
1793        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
1794
1795    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1796        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1797
1798    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
1799        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1800        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
1801        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
1802        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
1803        if unique_keys is not None:
1804            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
1805        else:
1806            unique_keys = ""
1807        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
1808        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
1809        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
1810        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
1811        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
1812        return f"JSON_OBJECT({expressions}{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})"
1813
1814    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
1815        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1816        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1817        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1818        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
1819        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
1820        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
1821
1822    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
1823        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1824        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1825        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
1826        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1827        with_ = (
1828            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1829            if expressions
1830            else ""
1831        )
1832        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
1833
1834    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
1835        query = expression.args.get("query")
1836        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
1837        field = expression.args.get("field")
1838        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
1839
1840        if query:
1841            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
1842        elif unnest:
1843            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
1844        elif field:
1845            in_sql = self.sql(field)
1846        else:
1847            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1848
1849        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
1850
1851    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1852        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
1853
1854    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
1855        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
1856        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
1857            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
1858        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
1859
1860        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
1861            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
1862            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
1863
1864        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1865        if this:
1866            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
1867            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
1868
1869        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
1870
1871    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
1872        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1873
1874    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
1875        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1876        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1877        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1878        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1879        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1880        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
1881
1882    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
1883        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
1884
1885    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
1886        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
1887            sql = self.wrap(expression)
1888        else:
1889            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
1890            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1891
1892        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1893
1894    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
1895        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
1896        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1897        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
1898        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
1899
1900    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
1901        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1902
1903    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
1904        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1905        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1906        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
1907
1908    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
1909        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1910
1911    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
1912        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1913        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
1914        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
1915
1916    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
1917        return self.binary(expression, "+")
1918
1919    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
1920        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
1921
1922    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
1923        if not self.pretty:
1924            return self.binary(expression, op)
1925
1926        sqls = tuple(
1927            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
1928            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
1929        )
1930
1931        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self._max_text_width else " "
1932        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
1933
1934    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
1935        return self.binary(expression, "&")
1936
1937    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
1938        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
1939
1940    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
1941        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1942
1943    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
1944        return self.binary(expression, "|")
1945
1946    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
1947        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
1948
1949    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
1950        return self.binary(expression, "^")
1951
1952    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast) -> str:
1953        return f"CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')})"
1954
1955    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
1956        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
1957        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
1958
1959    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
1960        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
1961
1962    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
1963        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
1964
1965    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
1966        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1967        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1968        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1969        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1970        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
1971
1972    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
1973        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1974        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
1975        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
1976        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
1977        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
1978        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
1979        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
1980        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
1981        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
1982
1983    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
1984        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1985        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1986        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
1987        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
1988
1989        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
1990            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1991
1992        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
1993
1994    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
1995        return "BEGIN"
1996
1997    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
1998        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
1999        if chain is not None:
2000            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2001
2002        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2003
2004    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2005        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2006        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2007        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2008
2009    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2010        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2011
2012        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2013        if dtype:
2014            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2015            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2016            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2017            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2018            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2019
2020        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2021        if default:
2022            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2023
2024        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2025            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2026
2027        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2028
2029    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2030        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2031            # Remove db from tables
2032            expression = expression.transform(
2033                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2034            )
2035        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2036        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2037
2038    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2039        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2040
2041        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2042            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMN ")
2043        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2044            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2045        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2046            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2047        else:
2048            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2049
2050        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2051        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2052
2053    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2054        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2055        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2056        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2057
2058    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2059        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2060        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2061        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2062
2063        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2064        if enforced is not None:
2065            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2066
2067        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2068
2069    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2070        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2071        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2072
2073        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2074        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2075        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2076
2077    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2078        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2079
2080    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2081        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2082
2083    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2084        return self.sql(
2085            exp.Cast(
2086                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2087                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2088            )
2089        )
2090
2091    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2092        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2093
2094    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2095        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2096
2097    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2098        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2099
2100    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2101        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2102
2103    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2104        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2105
2106    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2107        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2108
2109    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2110        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2111
2112    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2113        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2114
2115    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2116        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2117
2118    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2119        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2120
2121    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2122        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2123
2124    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2125        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2126
2127    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2128        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2129
2130    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2131        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2132
2133    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2134        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2135
2136    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2137        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2138
2139    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2140        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2141
2142    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2143        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2144
2145    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2146        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2147
2148    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2149        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2150
2151    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2152        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2153
2154    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2155        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2156
2157    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2158        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2159
2160    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2161        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2162
2163    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2164        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2165
2166    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2167        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2168
2169    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2170        return f"TRY_CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')})"
2171
2172    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2173        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2174        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2175        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2176        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2177        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2178
2179    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2180        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2181        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2182
2183    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2184        args = []
2185        for arg_value in expression.args.values():
2186            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2187                for value in arg_value:
2188                    args.append(value)
2189            else:
2190                args.append(arg_value)
2191
2192        return self.func(expression.sql_name(), *args)
2193
2194    def func(self, name: str, *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str]) -> str:
2195        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}({self.format_args(*args)})"
2196
2197    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2198        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2199        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self._max_text_width:
2200            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2201        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2202
2203    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2204        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2205
2206    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2207        return format_time(self.sql(expression, "format"), self.time_mapping, self.time_trie)
2208
2209    def expressions(
2210        self,
2211        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2212        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2213        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2214        flat: bool = False,
2215        indent: bool = True,
2216        sep: str = ", ",
2217        prefix: str = "",
2218    ) -> str:
2219        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2220
2221        if not expressions:
2222            return ""
2223
2224        if flat:
2225            return sep.join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2226
2227        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2228
2229        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2230        pad = " " * self.pad
2231        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2232
2233        result_sqls = []
2234        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2235            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2236            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2237
2238            if self.pretty:
2239                if self._leading_comma:
2240                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2241                else:
2242                    result_sqls.append(
2243                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2244                    )
2245            else:
2246                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2247
2248        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2249        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=False) if indent else result_sql
2250
2251    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2252        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2253        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2254        if flat:
2255            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2256        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2257
2258    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2259        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2260        if not property_name:
2261            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2262        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2263
2264    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2265        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2266        op = self.seg(op)
2267        return self.query_modifiers(
2268            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2269        )
2270
2271    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2272        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2273
2274    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2275        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2276
2277    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2278        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2279        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2280        expressions = (
2281            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2282        )
2283        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2284
2285    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2286        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2287        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2288        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2289
2290    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2291        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2292
2293    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2294        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2295        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2296        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2297        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2298
2299        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2300        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2301            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2302            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2303                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2304        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2305            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2306                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2307            else:
2308                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2309        else:
2310            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2311        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2312
2313    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2314        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2315        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2316        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2317        return f"MERGE INTO {this} {using} {on} {self.expressions(expression, sep=' ')}"
2318
2319    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2320        if expression.args.get("format"):
2321            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2322
2323        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2324
2325
2326def cached_generator(
2327    cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
2328) -> t.Callable[[exp.Expression], str]:
2329    """Returns a cached generator."""
2330    cache = {} if cache is None else cache
2331    generator = Generator(normalize=True, identify="safe")
2332    return lambda e: generator.generate(e, cache)
class Generator:
  16class Generator:
  17    """
  18    Generator interprets the given syntax tree and produces a SQL string as an output.
  19
  20    Args:
  21        time_mapping (dict): the dictionary of custom time mappings in which the key
  22            represents a python time format and the output the target time format
  23        time_trie (trie): a trie of the time_mapping keys
  24        pretty (bool): if set to True the returned string will be formatted. Default: False.
  25        quote_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit quotes. Default: '.
  26        quote_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit quotes. Default: '.
  27        identifier_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit identifiers. Default: ".
  28        identifier_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit identifiers. Default: ".
  29        bit_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit bit literals. Default: None.
  30        bit_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit bit literals. Default: None.
  31        hex_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit hex literals. Default: None.
  32        hex_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit hex literals. Default: None.
  33        byte_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit byte literals. Default: None.
  34        byte_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit byte literals. Default: None.
  35        raw_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit raw literals. Default: None.
  36        raw_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit raw literals. Default: None.
  37        identify (bool | str): 'always': always quote, 'safe': quote identifiers if they don't contain an upcase, True defaults to always.
  38        normalize (bool): if set to True all identifiers will lower cased
  39        string_escape (str): specifies a string escape character. Default: '.
  40        identifier_escape (str): specifies an identifier escape character. Default: ".
  41        pad (int): determines padding in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  42        indent (int): determines the size of indentation in a formatted string. Default: 4.
  43        unnest_column_only (bool): if true unnest table aliases are considered only as column aliases
  44        normalize_functions (str): normalize function names, "upper", "lower", or None
  45            Default: "upper"
  46        alias_post_tablesample (bool): if the table alias comes after tablesample
  47            Default: False
  48        unsupported_level (ErrorLevel): determines the generator's behavior when it encounters
  49            unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  50        null_ordering (str): Indicates the default null ordering method to use if not explicitly set.
  51            Options are "nulls_are_small", "nulls_are_large", "nulls_are_last".
  52            Default: "nulls_are_small"
  53        max_unsupported (int): Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  54            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  55            Default: 3
  56        leading_comma (bool): if the the comma is leading or trailing in select statements
  57            Default: False
  58        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  59            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  60            line length.
  61            Default: 80
  62        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  63            Default: True
  64    """
  65
  66    TRANSFORMS = {
  67        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  68            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  69        ),
  70        exp.TsOrDsAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  71            "TS_OR_DS_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  72        ),
  73        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
  74        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  75        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  76        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  77        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  78        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  79        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  80        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  81        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  82        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  83        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  84        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  85        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  86        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
  87        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
  88        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
  89        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
  90        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
  91        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  92        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  93        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  95        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  96        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
  97        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  98        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  99        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
 100        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 101        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 102        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 103        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 104        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 105    }
 106
 107    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
 108    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
 109
 110    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 111    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 112
 113    # Always do union distinct or union all
 114    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 115
 116    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 117    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 118
 119    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 120    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 121
 122    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 123    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 124
 125    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 126    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 127
 128    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 129    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 130
 131    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 132    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 133
 134    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 135    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 136
 137    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 138    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 139
 140    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 141    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 142
 143    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 144    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 145
 146    # The string used for creating index on a table
 147    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 148
 149    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 150        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 151        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 152        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 153        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 154        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 155        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 156        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 157    }
 158
 159    STAR_MAPPING = {
 160        "except": "EXCEPT",
 161        "replace": "REPLACE",
 162    }
 163
 164    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 165        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 166        "seconds": "second",
 167        "minutes": "minute",
 168        "hours": "hour",
 169        "days": "day",
 170        "weeks": "week",
 171        "months": "month",
 172        "quarters": "quarter",
 173        "years": "year",
 174    }
 175
 176    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 177
 178    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 179
 180    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 181
 182    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 183        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 184        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 185        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 186        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 187        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 188        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 189        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 190        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 191        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 192        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 193        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 194        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 195        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 196        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 197        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 198        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 199        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 200        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 201        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 202        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 203        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 204        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 205        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 206        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 207        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 208        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 209        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 210        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 211        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 212        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 213        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 214        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 215        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 216        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 217        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 218        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 219        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 220        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 221        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 222        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 223        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 224        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 225        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 226        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 227        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 228        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 229        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 230        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 231        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 232        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 233    }
 234
 235    JOIN_HINTS = True
 236    TABLE_HINTS = True
 237
 238    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 239    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS = (exp.Select, exp.From, exp.Where, exp.With)
 240    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES = (exp.Column, exp.Literal, exp.Neg, exp.Paren)
 241
 242    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 243
 244    __slots__ = (
 245        "time_mapping",
 246        "time_trie",
 247        "pretty",
 248        "quote_start",
 249        "quote_end",
 250        "identifier_start",
 251        "identifier_end",
 252        "bit_start",
 253        "bit_end",
 254        "hex_start",
 255        "hex_end",
 256        "byte_start",
 257        "byte_end",
 258        "raw_start",
 259        "raw_end",
 260        "identify",
 261        "normalize",
 262        "string_escape",
 263        "identifier_escape",
 264        "pad",
 265        "index_offset",
 266        "unnest_column_only",
 267        "alias_post_tablesample",
 268        "normalize_functions",
 269        "unsupported_level",
 270        "unsupported_messages",
 271        "null_ordering",
 272        "max_unsupported",
 273        "_indent",
 274        "_escaped_quote_end",
 275        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 276        "_leading_comma",
 277        "_max_text_width",
 278        "_comments",
 279        "_cache",
 280    )
 281
 282    def __init__(
 283        self,
 284        time_mapping=None,
 285        time_trie=None,
 286        pretty=None,
 287        quote_start=None,
 288        quote_end=None,
 289        identifier_start=None,
 290        identifier_end=None,
 291        bit_start=None,
 292        bit_end=None,
 293        hex_start=None,
 294        hex_end=None,
 295        byte_start=None,
 296        byte_end=None,
 297        raw_start=None,
 298        raw_end=None,
 299        identify=False,
 300        normalize=False,
 301        string_escape=None,
 302        identifier_escape=None,
 303        pad=2,
 304        indent=2,
 305        index_offset=0,
 306        unnest_column_only=False,
 307        alias_post_tablesample=False,
 308        normalize_functions="upper",
 309        unsupported_level=ErrorLevel.WARN,
 310        null_ordering=None,
 311        max_unsupported=3,
 312        leading_comma=False,
 313        max_text_width=80,
 314        comments=True,
 315    ):
 316        import sqlglot
 317
 318        self.time_mapping = time_mapping or {}
 319        self.time_trie = time_trie
 320        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 321        self.quote_start = quote_start or "'"
 322        self.quote_end = quote_end or "'"
 323        self.identifier_start = identifier_start or '"'
 324        self.identifier_end = identifier_end or '"'
 325        self.bit_start = bit_start
 326        self.bit_end = bit_end
 327        self.hex_start = hex_start
 328        self.hex_end = hex_end
 329        self.byte_start = byte_start
 330        self.byte_end = byte_end
 331        self.raw_start = raw_start
 332        self.raw_end = raw_end
 333        self.identify = identify
 334        self.normalize = normalize
 335        self.string_escape = string_escape or "'"
 336        self.identifier_escape = identifier_escape or '"'
 337        self.pad = pad
 338        self.index_offset = index_offset
 339        self.unnest_column_only = unnest_column_only
 340        self.alias_post_tablesample = alias_post_tablesample
 341        self.normalize_functions = normalize_functions
 342        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 343        self.unsupported_messages = []
 344        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 345        self.null_ordering = null_ordering
 346        self._indent = indent
 347        self._escaped_quote_end = self.string_escape + self.quote_end
 348        self._escaped_identifier_end = self.identifier_escape + self.identifier_end
 349        self._leading_comma = leading_comma
 350        self._max_text_width = max_text_width
 351        self._comments = comments
 352        self._cache = None
 353
 354    def generate(
 355        self,
 356        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
 357        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
 358    ) -> str:
 359        """
 360        Generates a SQL string by interpreting the given syntax tree.
 361
 362        Args
 363            expression: the syntax tree.
 364            cache: an optional sql string cache. this leverages the hash of an expression which is slow, so only use this if you set _hash on each node.
 365
 366        Returns
 367            the SQL string.
 368        """
 369        if cache is not None:
 370            self._cache = cache
 371        self.unsupported_messages = []
 372        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 373        self._cache = None
 374
 375        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 376            return sql
 377
 378        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 379            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 380                logger.warning(msg)
 381        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 382            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 383
 384        if self.pretty:
 385            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 386        return sql
 387
 388    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 389        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 390            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 391        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 392
 393    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 394        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 395
 396    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 397        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 398
 399    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 400        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 401        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 402        return comment
 403
 404    def maybe_comment(
 405        self,
 406        sql: str,
 407        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 408        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 409    ) -> str:
 410        comments = ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments) if self._comments else None  # type: ignore
 411
 412        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
 413            return sql
 414
 415        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
 416        comments_sql = sep.join(
 417            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 418        )
 419
 420        if not comments_sql:
 421            return sql
 422
 423        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 424            return (
 425                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 426                if sql[0].isspace()
 427                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 428            )
 429
 430        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 431
 432    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 433        this_sql = self.indent(
 434            self.sql(expression)
 435            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 436            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 437            level=1,
 438            pad=0,
 439        )
 440        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 441
 442    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 443        original = self.identify
 444        self.identify = False
 445        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 446        self.identify = original
 447        return result
 448
 449    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 450        if self.normalize_functions == "upper":
 451            return name.upper()
 452        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 453            return name.lower()
 454        return name
 455
 456    def indent(
 457        self,
 458        sql: str,
 459        level: int = 0,
 460        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 461        skip_first: bool = False,
 462        skip_last: bool = False,
 463    ) -> str:
 464        if not self.pretty:
 465            return sql
 466
 467        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 468        lines = sql.split("\n")
 469
 470        return "\n".join(
 471            line
 472            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 473            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 474            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 475        )
 476
 477    def sql(
 478        self,
 479        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 480        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 481        comment: bool = True,
 482    ) -> str:
 483        if not expression:
 484            return ""
 485
 486        if isinstance(expression, str):
 487            return expression
 488
 489        if key:
 490            return self.sql(expression.args.get(key))
 491
 492        if self._cache is not None:
 493            expression_id = hash(expression)
 494
 495            if expression_id in self._cache:
 496                return self._cache[expression_id]
 497
 498        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 499
 500        if callable(transform):
 501            sql = transform(self, expression)
 502        elif transform:
 503            sql = transform
 504        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 505            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 506
 507            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 508                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 509            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 510                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 511            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 512                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 513            else:
 514                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 515        else:
 516            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 517
 518        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self._comments and comment else sql
 519
 520        if self._cache is not None:
 521            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
 522        return sql
 523
 524    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 525        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 526        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 527        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 528
 529    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 530        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 531        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 532        options = expression.args.get("options")
 533        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 534        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 535        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 536        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 537        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 538
 539    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 540        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 541            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 542        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 543        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 544
 545    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 546        return ".".join(
 547            self.sql(part)
 548            for part in (
 549                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 550                expression.args.get("db"),
 551                expression.args.get("table"),
 552                expression.args.get("this"),
 553            )
 554            if part
 555        )
 556
 557    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 558        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 559        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 560        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 561        return f"{position}{this}"
 562
 563    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 564        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 565        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 566        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 567        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 568        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 569        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 570        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 571        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 572
 573        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 574
 575    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 576        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 577        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 578        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 579
 580    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 581        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 582
 583    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 584        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 585            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 586        else:
 587            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 588
 589        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 590
 591    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 592        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 593    ) -> str:
 594        this = ""
 595        if expression.this is not None:
 596            on_null = "ON NULL " if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 597            this = " ALWAYS " if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT {on_null}"
 598
 599        start = expression.args.get("start")
 600        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 601        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 602        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 603        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 604        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 605        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 606        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 607        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 608        cycle_sql = ""
 609
 610        if cycle is not None:
 611            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 612            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 613
 614        sequence_opts = ""
 615        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 616            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 617            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 618
 619        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 620        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 621
 622        return f"GENERATED{this}AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 623
 624    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 625        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 626
 627    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 628        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 629        if desc is not None:
 630            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 631        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 632
 633    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 634        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 635        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 636        return f"UNIQUE{this}"
 637
 638    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 639        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 640        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 641        properties_exp = expression.copy()
 642        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else {}
 643        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 644            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 645        ):
 646            properties_exp.set(
 647                "properties",
 648                exp.Properties(
 649                    expressions=[
 650                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 651                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 652                    ]
 653                ),
 654            )
 655        if kind == "TABLE" and properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME):
 656            this_name = self.sql(expression.this, "this")
 657            this_properties = self.properties(
 658                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME]),
 659                wrapped=False,
 660            )
 661            this_schema = f"({self.expressions(expression.this)})"
 662            this = f"{this_name}, {this_properties} {this_schema}"
 663            properties_sql = ""
 664        else:
 665            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 666            properties_sql = self.sql(properties_exp, "properties")
 667        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 668        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 669        if expression_sql:
 670            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
 671
 672            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 673                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 674                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 675                        exp.Properties(
 676                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 677                        ),
 678                        wrapped=False,
 679                    )
 680                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 681                else:
 682                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 683
 684        postindex_props_sql = ""
 685        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 686            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 687                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 688                wrapped=False,
 689                prefix=" ",
 690            )
 691
 692        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 693        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 694        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 695
 696        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 697        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 698
 699        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 700        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 701            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 702                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 703                sep=" ",
 704                prefix=" ",
 705                wrapped=False,
 706            )
 707
 708        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 709
 710        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 711        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 712            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 713                exp.Properties(
 714                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 715                ),
 716                sep=" ",
 717                prefix=" ",
 718                wrapped=False,
 719            )
 720
 721        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 722        no_schema_binding = (
 723            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 724        )
 725
 726        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 727        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 728
 729        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 730        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 731
 732    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 733        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 734        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 735
 736        if when:
 737            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 738            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 739            return f"CLONE {this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 740
 741        return f"CLONE {this}"
 742
 743    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 744        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 745
 746    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 747        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 748        if with_:
 749            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 750        return sql
 751
 752    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 753        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 754        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
 755
 756        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 757
 758    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 759        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 760        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 761
 762    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 763        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 764        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 765        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 766        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 767
 768    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 769        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 770        if self.bit_start:
 771            return f"{self.bit_start}{this}{self.bit_end}"
 772        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 773
 774    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 775        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 776        if self.hex_start:
 777            return f"{self.hex_start}{this}{self.hex_end}"
 778        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 779
 780    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 781        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 782        if self.byte_start:
 783            return f"{self.byte_start}{this}{self.byte_end}"
 784        return this
 785
 786    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 787        if self.raw_start:
 788            return f"{self.raw_start}{expression.name}{self.raw_end}"
 789        return self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name.replace("\\", "\\\\")))
 790
 791    def datatypesize_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeSize) -> str:
 792        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 793        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 794        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
 795        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 796
 797    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 798        type_value = expression.this
 799        type_sql = self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 800        nested = ""
 801        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 802        values = ""
 803        if interior:
 804            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 805                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 806                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 807                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 808                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 809                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 810            else:
 811                nested = f"({interior})"
 812
 813        return f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 814
 815    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 816        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 817        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 818        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 819        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
 820
 821    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 822        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 823        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 824        using_sql = (
 825            f" USING {self.expressions(expression, key='using', sep=', USING ')}"
 826            if expression.args.get("using")
 827            else ""
 828        )
 829        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
 830        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
 831        sql = f"DELETE{this}{using_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
 832        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 833
 834    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
 835        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 836        kind = expression.args["kind"]
 837        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
 838        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
 839        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
 840        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
 841        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
 842        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
 843        return (
 844            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
 845        )
 846
 847    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 848        return self.prepend_ctes(
 849            expression,
 850            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
 851        )
 852
 853    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 854        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
 855
 856    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
 857        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
 858        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
 859        count = expression.args.get("count")
 860        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
 861        if expression.args.get("percent"):
 862            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
 863        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
 864        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
 865
 866    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
 867        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 868        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
 869        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
 870
 871    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
 872        if self.sql(expression, "this"):
 873            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
 874        return ""
 875
 876    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
 877        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 878        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
 879        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
 880        name = f"{expression.name} " if expression.name else ""
 881        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
 882        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table} " if table else ""
 883        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
 884        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 885        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
 886        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
 887        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}({columns}){partition_by}"
 888
 889    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
 890        text = expression.name
 891        lower = text.lower()
 892        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
 893        text = text.replace(self.identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
 894        if (
 895            expression.quoted
 896            or should_identify(text, self.identify)
 897            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
 898        ):
 899            text = f"{self.identifier_start}{text}{self.identifier_end}"
 900        return text
 901
 902    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
 903        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
 904        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
 905        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
 906        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
 907        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
 908
 909    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
 910        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
 911        return f"{prefix}{string}"
 912
 913    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
 914        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression)})"
 915
 916    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
 917        root_properties = []
 918        with_properties = []
 919
 920        for p in expression.expressions:
 921            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
 922            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
 923                with_properties.append(p)
 924            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
 925                root_properties.append(p)
 926
 927        return self.root_properties(
 928            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
 929        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
 930
 931    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
 932        if properties.expressions:
 933            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
 934        return ""
 935
 936    def properties(
 937        self,
 938        properties: exp.Properties,
 939        prefix: str = "",
 940        sep: str = ", ",
 941        suffix: str = "",
 942        wrapped: bool = True,
 943    ) -> str:
 944        if properties.expressions:
 945            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
 946            expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
 947            return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
 948        return ""
 949
 950    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
 951        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
 952
 953    def locate_properties(
 954        self, properties: exp.Properties
 955    ) -> t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]:
 956        properties_locs: t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]] = {
 957            key: [] for key in exp.Properties.Location
 958        }
 959
 960        for p in properties.expressions:
 961            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
 962            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME:
 963                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME].append(p)
 964            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX:
 965                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX].append(p)
 966            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
 967                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA].append(p)
 968            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
 969                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH].append(p)
 970            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE:
 971                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE].append(p)
 972            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS:
 973                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS].append(p)
 974            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION:
 975                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION].append(p)
 976            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
 977                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
 978
 979        return properties_locs
 980
 981    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
 982        property_cls = expression.__class__
 983        if property_cls == exp.Property:
 984            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
 985
 986        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
 987        if not property_name:
 988            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
 989
 990        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 991
 992    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
 993        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
 994        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
 995        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
 996
 997    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
 998        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
 999        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1000        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1001
1002    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1003        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1004        local = expression.args.get("local")
1005        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1006        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1007        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1008        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1009        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1010
1011    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1012        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1013        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1014        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1015
1016    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1017        if expression.args.get("default"):
1018            property = "DEFAULT"
1019        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1020            property = "ON"
1021        else:
1022            property = "OFF"
1023        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1024
1025    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1026        if expression.args.get("no"):
1027            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1028        if expression.args.get("default"):
1029            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1030
1031        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1032        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1033
1034    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1035        default = expression.args.get("default")
1036        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1037        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1038        if default or minimum or maximum:
1039            if default:
1040                prop = "DEFAULT"
1041            elif minimum:
1042                prop = "MINIMUM"
1043            else:
1044                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1045            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1046        units = expression.args.get("units")
1047        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1048        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1049
1050    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1051        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1052        always = expression.args.get("always")
1053        default = expression.args.get("default")
1054        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1055        never = expression.args.get("never")
1056
1057        if autotemp is not None:
1058            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1059        elif always:
1060            prop = "ALWAYS"
1061        elif default:
1062            prop = "DEFAULT"
1063        elif manual:
1064            prop = "MANUAL"
1065        elif never:
1066            prop = "NEVER"
1067        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1068
1069    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1070        no = expression.args.get("no")
1071        no = " NO" if no else ""
1072        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1073        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1074
1075        for_ = ""
1076        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1077            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1078        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1079            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1080        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1081            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1082        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1083
1084    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1085        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1086        this: str = f" {this}" if expression.this else ""
1087        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1088        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1089        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1090        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1091
1092    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1093        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1094        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1095        statistics_sql = ""
1096        if statistics is not None:
1097            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1098        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1099
1100    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1101        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1102
1103        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1104            this = "OVERWRITE " if overwrite else "INTO "
1105        else:
1106            this = "OVERWRITE TABLE " if overwrite else "INTO "
1107
1108        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1109        alternative = f" OR {alternative} " if alternative else " "
1110        this = f"{this}{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1111
1112        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1113        partition_sql = (
1114            self.sql(expression, "partition") if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1115        )
1116        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1117        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1118        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1119        sep = self.sep() if partition_sql else ""
1120        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{this}{exists}{partition_sql}{sep}{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1121        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1122
1123    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1124        return self.prepend_ctes(
1125            expression,
1126            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1127        )
1128
1129    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1130        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1131
1132    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1133        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1134
1135    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1136        return expression.name.upper()
1137
1138    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1139        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1140        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1141        if constraint:
1142            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1143        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1144        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1145        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1146        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1147        if expressions:
1148            expressions = f"UPDATE SET {expressions}"
1149        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1150
1151    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1152        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1153
1154    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1155        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1156        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1157        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1158        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1159        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1160        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1161        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1162        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1163        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1164        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1165        null = expression.args.get("null")
1166        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1167        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1168
1169    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1170        table = ".".join(
1171            part
1172            for part in [
1173                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1174                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1175                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1176            ]
1177            if part
1178        )
1179
1180        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1181        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1182        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", flat=True)
1183        hints = f" WITH ({hints})" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1184        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1185        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1186        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="")
1187        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1188        system_time = expression.args.get("system_time")
1189        system_time = f" {self.sql(expression, 'system_time')}" if system_time else ""
1190
1191        return f"{table}{system_time}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
1192
1193    def tablesample_sql(
1194        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1195    ) -> str:
1196        if self.alias_post_tablesample and expression.this.alias:
1197            table = expression.this.copy()
1198            table.set("alias", None)
1199            this = self.sql(table)
1200            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1201        else:
1202            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1203            alias = ""
1204        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1205        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1206        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1207        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1208        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1209        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1210        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1211        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1212        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1213        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1214        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1215        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1216        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1217            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1218        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1219        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1220        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1221        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
1222
1223    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1224        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1225
1226        if expression.this:
1227            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1228            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1229            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1230            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1231            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1232            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1233
1234        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1235        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1236        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1237        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1238        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1239        return f"{direction}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1240
1241    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1242        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1243
1244    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1245        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1246        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1247        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1248        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1249        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1250        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1251        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1252
1253    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1254        args = self.expressions(expression)
1255        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1256        values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1257        values = (
1258            f"({values})"
1259            if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1260            else values
1261        )
1262        return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1263
1264    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1265        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1266
1267    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1268        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1269        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1270        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1271
1272    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1273        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1274
1275    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1276        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1277        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1278        grouping_sets = (
1279            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1280        )
1281
1282        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1283        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1284            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1285        else:
1286            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1287            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1288
1289        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1290        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1291            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1292        else:
1293            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1294            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1295
1296        groupings = csv(
1297            grouping_sets,
1298            cube_sql,
1299            rollup_sql,
1300            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1301            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1302        )
1303
1304        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1305            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1306
1307        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1308
1309    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1310        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1311        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1312
1313    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1314        op_sql = " ".join(
1315            op
1316            for op in (
1317                "NATURAL" if expression.args.get("natural") else None,
1318                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1319                expression.side,
1320                expression.kind,
1321                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1322            )
1323            if op
1324        )
1325        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1326        using = expression.args.get("using")
1327
1328        if not on_sql and using:
1329            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1330
1331        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1332
1333        if on_sql:
1334            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1335            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1336            if using:
1337                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1338            else:
1339                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1340        elif not op_sql:
1341            return f", {this_sql}"
1342
1343        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1344        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1345
1346    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1347        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1348        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1349        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1350
1351    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1352        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1353
1354        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1355            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1356
1357        if expression.args.get("view"):
1358            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1359            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1360            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1361            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1362            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1363            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1364
1365        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1366        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1367        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1368
1369    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit) -> str:
1370        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1371        return f"{this}{self.seg('LIMIT')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1372
1373    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1374        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1375        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1376
1377    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1378        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1379        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1380        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1381        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1382        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1383        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1384        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1385        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1386
1387    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1388        expressions = (
1389            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1390        )
1391        return f"SET{expressions}"
1392
1393    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1394        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1395
1396    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1397        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1398            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1399            return ""
1400
1401        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1402        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1403        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1404        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1405
1406        if wait is not None:
1407            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1408                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1409            else:
1410                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1411
1412        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1413
1414    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1415        text = expression.this or ""
1416        if expression.is_string:
1417            text = text.replace(self.quote_end, self._escaped_quote_end)
1418            if self.pretty:
1419                text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1420            text = f"{self.quote_start}{text}{self.quote_end}"
1421        return text
1422
1423    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1424        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1425        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1426        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1427        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1428        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1429        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1430        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1431        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1432        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1433        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1434        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1435
1436    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1437        return "NULL"
1438
1439    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1440        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1441
1442    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1443        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1444        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1445        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1446
1447    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1448        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1449
1450    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1451        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1452
1453    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1454        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1455
1456    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1457        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1458        asc = not desc
1459
1460        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1461        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1462        nulls_are_large = self.null_ordering == "nulls_are_large"
1463        nulls_are_small = self.null_ordering == "nulls_are_small"
1464        nulls_are_last = self.null_ordering == "nulls_are_last"
1465
1466        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1467        nulls_sort_change = ""
1468        if nulls_first and (
1469            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1470        ):
1471            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1472        elif (
1473            nulls_last
1474            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1475            and not nulls_are_last
1476        ):
1477            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1478
1479        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1480            self.unsupported(
1481                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1482            )
1483            nulls_sort_change = ""
1484
1485        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1486
1487    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1488        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1489        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1490        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1491        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1492        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1493        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1494        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1495        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1496        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1497        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1498        definition_sqls = [
1499            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1500            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1501        ]
1502        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1503        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1504        body = "".join(
1505            (
1506                partition,
1507                order,
1508                measures,
1509                rows,
1510                after,
1511                pattern,
1512                define,
1513            )
1514        )
1515        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1516        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1517        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1518
1519    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1520        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1521
1522        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1523            limit = exp.Limit(expression=limit.args.get("count"))
1524        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1525            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=limit.expression)
1526
1527        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1528
1529        return csv(
1530            *sqls,
1531            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1532            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1533            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1534            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1535            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1536            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1537            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1538            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1539            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1540            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1541            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1542            sep="",
1543        )
1544
1545    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1546        return [
1547            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1548            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1549            if expression.args.get("windows")
1550            else "",
1551        ]
1552
1553    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1554        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1555        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1556        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1557
1558    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1559        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1560        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1561        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1562        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1563        kind = f" AS {kind}" if kind else ""
1564        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1565        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1566        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1567            expression,
1568            f"SELECT{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1569            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1570            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1571        )
1572        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1573
1574    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1575        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1576        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1577        sql = f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1578        return f"{this}{sql}"
1579
1580    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1581        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1582        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1583        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1584        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1585        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
1586
1587    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1588        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1589        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1590        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
1591
1592    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1593        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1594        kind = expression.text("kind")
1595        if kind:
1596            kind = f"{kind}."
1597        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
1598
1599    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1600        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
1601
1602    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1603        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1604        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1605
1606        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1607        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1608
1609        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1610        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1611
1612    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1613        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1614        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1615
1616    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1617        return self.prepend_ctes(
1618            expression,
1619            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1620        )
1621
1622    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1623        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1624        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1625        return f"UNION{kind}"
1626
1627    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1628        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1629        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1630        if alias and self.unnest_column_only:
1631            columns = alias.columns
1632            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1633        else:
1634            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1635        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1636        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1637        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1638        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1639        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
1640
1641    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1642        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1643        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1644
1645    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1646        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1647
1648        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1649
1650        order = expression.args.get("order")
1651        order_sql = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1652
1653        partition_sql = partition + " " if partition and order else partition
1654
1655        spec = expression.args.get("spec")
1656        spec_sql = " " + self.windowspec_sql(spec) if spec else ""
1657
1658        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1659        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1660        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1661
1662        first = expression.args.get("first")
1663        if first is not None:
1664            first = " FIRST " if first else " LAST "
1665        first = first or ""
1666
1667        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1668            return f"{this} {alias}"
1669
1670        window_args = alias + first + partition_sql + order_sql + spec_sql
1671
1672        return f"{this} ({window_args.strip()})"
1673
1674    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1675        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1676        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
1677
1678    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1679        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1680        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1681        end = (
1682            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1683            or "CURRENT ROW"
1684        )
1685        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
1686
1687    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1688        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1689        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1690        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
1691
1692    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1693        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1694        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1695        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1696        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
1697
1698    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1699        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.index_offset)
1700        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1701
1702        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
1703
1704    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1705        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
1706
1707    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1708        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1709        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1710            this = self.wrap(this)
1711        return f"ANY {this}"
1712
1713    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1714        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
1715
1716    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1717        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1718        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1719
1720        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1721            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1722            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1723
1724        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1725
1726        if default:
1727            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1728
1729        statements.append("END")
1730
1731        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self._max_text_width:
1732            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1733
1734        return " ".join(statements)
1735
1736    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1737        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1738        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1739        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
1740
1741    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1742        order = expression.args.get("order")
1743        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1744        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
1745
1746    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1747        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1748        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1749        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
1750
1751    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1752        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1753
1754        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1755            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1756        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1757            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1758        else:
1759            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
1760
1761    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
1762        if len(expression.expressions) == 1:
1763            return self.sql(expression.expressions[0])
1764        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
1765
1766    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1767        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1768        return f"CHECK ({this})"
1769
1770    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1771        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1772        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1773        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1774        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
1775        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
1776        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
1777        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
1778        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
1779
1780    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1781        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1782        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1783        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1784        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
1785
1786    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
1787        return self.case_sql(
1788            exp.Case(ifs=[expression.copy()], default=expression.args.get("false"))
1789        )
1790
1791    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1792        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
1793        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
1794        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
1795
1796    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1797        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1798
1799    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
1800        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1801        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
1802        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
1803        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
1804        if unique_keys is not None:
1805            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
1806        else:
1807            unique_keys = ""
1808        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
1809        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
1810        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
1811        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
1812        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
1813        return f"JSON_OBJECT({expressions}{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})"
1814
1815    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
1816        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1817        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1818        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1819        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
1820        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
1821        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
1822
1823    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
1824        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1825        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1826        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
1827        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1828        with_ = (
1829            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1830            if expressions
1831            else ""
1832        )
1833        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
1834
1835    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
1836        query = expression.args.get("query")
1837        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
1838        field = expression.args.get("field")
1839        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
1840
1841        if query:
1842            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
1843        elif unnest:
1844            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
1845        elif field:
1846            in_sql = self.sql(field)
1847        else:
1848            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1849
1850        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
1851
1852    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1853        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
1854
1855    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
1856        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
1857        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
1858            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
1859        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
1860
1861        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
1862            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
1863            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
1864
1865        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1866        if this:
1867            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
1868            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
1869
1870        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
1871
1872    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
1873        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1874
1875    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
1876        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1877        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1878        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1879        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1880        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1881        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
1882
1883    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
1884        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
1885
1886    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
1887        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
1888            sql = self.wrap(expression)
1889        else:
1890            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
1891            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1892
1893        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1894
1895    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
1896        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
1897        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1898        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
1899        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
1900
1901    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
1902        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1903
1904    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
1905        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1906        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1907        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
1908
1909    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
1910        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1911
1912    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
1913        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1914        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
1915        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
1916
1917    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
1918        return self.binary(expression, "+")
1919
1920    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
1921        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
1922
1923    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
1924        if not self.pretty:
1925            return self.binary(expression, op)
1926
1927        sqls = tuple(
1928            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
1929            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
1930        )
1931
1932        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self._max_text_width else " "
1933        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
1934
1935    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
1936        return self.binary(expression, "&")
1937
1938    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
1939        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
1940
1941    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
1942        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1943
1944    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
1945        return self.binary(expression, "|")
1946
1947    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
1948        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
1949
1950    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
1951        return self.binary(expression, "^")
1952
1953    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast) -> str:
1954        return f"CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')})"
1955
1956    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
1957        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
1958        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
1959
1960    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
1961        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
1962
1963    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
1964        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
1965
1966    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
1967        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1968        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1969        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1970        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1971        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
1972
1973    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
1974        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1975        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
1976        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
1977        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
1978        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
1979        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
1980        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
1981        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
1982        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
1983
1984    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
1985        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1986        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1987        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
1988        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
1989
1990        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
1991            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1992
1993        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
1994
1995    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
1996        return "BEGIN"
1997
1998    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
1999        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2000        if chain is not None:
2001            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2002
2003        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2004
2005    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2006        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2007        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2008        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2009
2010    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2011        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2012
2013        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2014        if dtype:
2015            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2016            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2017            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2018            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2019            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2020
2021        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2022        if default:
2023            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2024
2025        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2026            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2027
2028        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2029
2030    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2031        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2032            # Remove db from tables
2033            expression = expression.transform(
2034                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2035            )
2036        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2037        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2038
2039    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2040        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2041
2042        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2043            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMN ")
2044        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2045            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2046        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2047            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2048        else:
2049            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2050
2051        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2052        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2053
2054    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2055        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2056        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2057        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2058
2059    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2060        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2061        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2062        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2063
2064        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2065        if enforced is not None:
2066            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2067
2068        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2069
2070    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2071        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2072        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2073
2074        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2075        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2076        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2077
2078    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2079        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2080
2081    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2082        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2083
2084    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2085        return self.sql(
2086            exp.Cast(
2087                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2088                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2089            )
2090        )
2091
2092    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2093        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2094
2095    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2096        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2097
2098    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2099        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2100
2101    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2102        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2103
2104    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2105        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2106
2107    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2108        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2109
2110    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2111        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2112
2113    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2114        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2115
2116    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2117        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2118
2119    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2120        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2121
2122    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2123        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2124
2125    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2126        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2127
2128    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2129        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2130
2131    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2132        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2133
2134    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2135        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2136
2137    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2138        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2139
2140    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2141        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2142
2143    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2144        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2145
2146    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2147        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2148
2149    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2150        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2151
2152    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2153        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2154
2155    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2156        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2157
2158    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2159        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2160
2161    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2162        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2163
2164    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2165        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2166
2167    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2168        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2169
2170    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2171        return f"TRY_CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')})"
2172
2173    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2174        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2175        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2176        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2177        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2178        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2179
2180    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2181        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2182        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2183
2184    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2185        args = []
2186        for arg_value in expression.args.values():
2187            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2188                for value in arg_value:
2189                    args.append(value)
2190            else:
2191                args.append(arg_value)
2192
2193        return self.func(expression.sql_name(), *args)
2194
2195    def func(self, name: str, *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str]) -> str:
2196        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}({self.format_args(*args)})"
2197
2198    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2199        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2200        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self._max_text_width:
2201            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2202        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2203
2204    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2205        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2206
2207    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2208        return format_time(self.sql(expression, "format"), self.time_mapping, self.time_trie)
2209
2210    def expressions(
2211        self,
2212        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2213        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2214        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2215        flat: bool = False,
2216        indent: bool = True,
2217        sep: str = ", ",
2218        prefix: str = "",
2219    ) -> str:
2220        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2221
2222        if not expressions:
2223            return ""
2224
2225        if flat:
2226            return sep.join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2227
2228        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2229
2230        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2231        pad = " " * self.pad
2232        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2233
2234        result_sqls = []
2235        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2236            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2237            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2238
2239            if self.pretty:
2240                if self._leading_comma:
2241                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2242                else:
2243                    result_sqls.append(
2244                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2245                    )
2246            else:
2247                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2248
2249        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2250        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=False) if indent else result_sql
2251
2252    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2253        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2254        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2255        if flat:
2256            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2257        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2258
2259    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2260        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2261        if not property_name:
2262            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2263        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2264
2265    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2266        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2267        op = self.seg(op)
2268        return self.query_modifiers(
2269            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2270        )
2271
2272    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2273        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2274
2275    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2276        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2277
2278    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2279        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2280        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2281        expressions = (
2282            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2283        )
2284        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2285
2286    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2287        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2288        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2289        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2290
2291    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2292        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2293
2294    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2295        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2296        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2297        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2298        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2299
2300        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2301        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2302            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2303            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2304                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2305        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2306            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2307                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2308            else:
2309                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2310        else:
2311            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2312        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2313
2314    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2315        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2316        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2317        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2318        return f"MERGE INTO {this} {using} {on} {self.expressions(expression, sep=' ')}"
2319
2320    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2321        if expression.args.get("format"):
2322            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2323
2324        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))

Generator interprets the given syntax tree and produces a SQL string as an output.

Arguments:
  • time_mapping (dict): the dictionary of custom time mappings in which the key represents a python time format and the output the target time format
  • time_trie (trie): a trie of the time_mapping keys
  • pretty (bool): if set to True the returned string will be formatted. Default: False.
  • quote_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit quotes. Default: '.
  • quote_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit quotes. Default: '.
  • identifier_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit identifiers. Default: ".
  • identifier_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit identifiers. Default: ".
  • bit_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit bit literals. Default: None.
  • bit_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit bit literals. Default: None.
  • hex_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit hex literals. Default: None.
  • hex_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit hex literals. Default: None.
  • byte_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit byte literals. Default: None.
  • byte_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit byte literals. Default: None.
  • raw_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit raw literals. Default: None.
  • raw_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit raw literals. Default: None.
  • identify (bool | str): 'always': always quote, 'safe': quote identifiers if they don't contain an upcase, True defaults to always.
  • normalize (bool): if set to True all identifiers will lower cased
  • string_escape (str): specifies a string escape character. Default: '.
  • identifier_escape (str): specifies an identifier escape character. Default: ".
  • pad (int): determines padding in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • indent (int): determines the size of indentation in a formatted string. Default: 4.
  • unnest_column_only (bool): if true unnest table aliases are considered only as column aliases
  • normalize_functions (str): normalize function names, "upper", "lower", or None Default: "upper"
  • alias_post_tablesample (bool): if the table alias comes after tablesample Default: False
  • unsupported_level (ErrorLevel): determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • null_ordering (str): Indicates the default null ordering method to use if not explicitly set. Options are "nulls_are_small", "nulls_are_large", "nulls_are_last". Default: "nulls_are_small"
  • max_unsupported (int): Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma (bool): if the the comma is leading or trailing in select statements Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( time_mapping=None, time_trie=None, pretty=None, quote_start=None, quote_end=None, identifier_start=None, identifier_end=None, bit_start=None, bit_end=None, hex_start=None, hex_end=None, byte_start=None, byte_end=None, raw_start=None, raw_end=None, identify=False, normalize=False, string_escape=None, identifier_escape=None, pad=2, indent=2, index_offset=0, unnest_column_only=False, alias_post_tablesample=False, normalize_functions='upper', unsupported_level=<ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, null_ordering=None, max_unsupported=3, leading_comma=False, max_text_width=80, comments=True)
282    def __init__(
283        self,
284        time_mapping=None,
285        time_trie=None,
286        pretty=None,
287        quote_start=None,
288        quote_end=None,
289        identifier_start=None,
290        identifier_end=None,
291        bit_start=None,
292        bit_end=None,
293        hex_start=None,
294        hex_end=None,
295        byte_start=None,
296        byte_end=None,
297        raw_start=None,
298        raw_end=None,
299        identify=False,
300        normalize=False,
301        string_escape=None,
302        identifier_escape=None,
303        pad=2,
304        indent=2,
305        index_offset=0,
306        unnest_column_only=False,
307        alias_post_tablesample=False,
308        normalize_functions="upper",
309        unsupported_level=ErrorLevel.WARN,
310        null_ordering=None,
311        max_unsupported=3,
312        leading_comma=False,
313        max_text_width=80,
314        comments=True,
315    ):
316        import sqlglot
317
318        self.time_mapping = time_mapping or {}
319        self.time_trie = time_trie
320        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
321        self.quote_start = quote_start or "'"
322        self.quote_end = quote_end or "'"
323        self.identifier_start = identifier_start or '"'
324        self.identifier_end = identifier_end or '"'
325        self.bit_start = bit_start
326        self.bit_end = bit_end
327        self.hex_start = hex_start
328        self.hex_end = hex_end
329        self.byte_start = byte_start
330        self.byte_end = byte_end
331        self.raw_start = raw_start
332        self.raw_end = raw_end
333        self.identify = identify
334        self.normalize = normalize
335        self.string_escape = string_escape or "'"
336        self.identifier_escape = identifier_escape or '"'
337        self.pad = pad
338        self.index_offset = index_offset
339        self.unnest_column_only = unnest_column_only
340        self.alias_post_tablesample = alias_post_tablesample
341        self.normalize_functions = normalize_functions
342        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
343        self.unsupported_messages = []
344        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
345        self.null_ordering = null_ordering
346        self._indent = indent
347        self._escaped_quote_end = self.string_escape + self.quote_end
348        self._escaped_identifier_end = self.identifier_escape + self.identifier_end
349        self._leading_comma = leading_comma
350        self._max_text_width = max_text_width
351        self._comments = comments
352        self._cache = None
def generate( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], cache: Optional[Dict[int, str]] = None) -> str:
354    def generate(
355        self,
356        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
357        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
358    ) -> str:
359        """
360        Generates a SQL string by interpreting the given syntax tree.
361
362        Args
363            expression: the syntax tree.
364            cache: an optional sql string cache. this leverages the hash of an expression which is slow, so only use this if you set _hash on each node.
365
366        Returns
367            the SQL string.
368        """
369        if cache is not None:
370            self._cache = cache
371        self.unsupported_messages = []
372        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
373        self._cache = None
374
375        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
376            return sql
377
378        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
379            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
380                logger.warning(msg)
381        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
382            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
383
384        if self.pretty:
385            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
386        return sql

Generates a SQL string by interpreting the given syntax tree.

Args expression: the syntax tree. cache: an optional sql string cache. this leverages the hash of an expression which is slow, so only use this if you set _hash on each node.

Returns the SQL string.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
388    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
389        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
390            raise UnsupportedError(message)
391        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
393    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
394        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
396    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
397        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
399    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
400        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
401        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
402        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None) -> str:
404    def maybe_comment(
405        self,
406        sql: str,
407        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
408        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
409    ) -> str:
410        comments = ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments) if self._comments else None  # type: ignore
411
412        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
413            return sql
414
415        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
416        comments_sql = sep.join(
417            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
418        )
419
420        if not comments_sql:
421            return sql
422
423        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
424            return (
425                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
426                if sql[0].isspace()
427                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
428            )
429
430        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
432    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
433        this_sql = self.indent(
434            self.sql(expression)
435            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
436            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
437            level=1,
438            pad=0,
439        )
440        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
442    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
443        original = self.identify
444        self.identify = False
445        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
446        self.identify = original
447        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
449    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
450        if self.normalize_functions == "upper":
451            return name.upper()
452        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
453            return name.lower()
454        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
456    def indent(
457        self,
458        sql: str,
459        level: int = 0,
460        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
461        skip_first: bool = False,
462        skip_last: bool = False,
463    ) -> str:
464        if not self.pretty:
465            return sql
466
467        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
468        lines = sql.split("\n")
469
470        return "\n".join(
471            line
472            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
473            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
474            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
475        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
477    def sql(
478        self,
479        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
480        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
481        comment: bool = True,
482    ) -> str:
483        if not expression:
484            return ""
485
486        if isinstance(expression, str):
487            return expression
488
489        if key:
490            return self.sql(expression.args.get(key))
491
492        if self._cache is not None:
493            expression_id = hash(expression)
494
495            if expression_id in self._cache:
496                return self._cache[expression_id]
497
498        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
499
500        if callable(transform):
501            sql = transform(self, expression)
502        elif transform:
503            sql = transform
504        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
505            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
506
507            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
508                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
509            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
510                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
511            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
512                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
513            else:
514                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
515        else:
516            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
517
518        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self._comments and comment else sql
519
520        if self._cache is not None:
521            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
522        return sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
524    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
525        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
526        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
527        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
529    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
530        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
531        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
532        options = expression.args.get("options")
533        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
534        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
535        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
536        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
537        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
539    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
540        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
541            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
542        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
543        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
545    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
546        return ".".join(
547            self.sql(part)
548            for part in (
549                expression.args.get("catalog"),
550                expression.args.get("db"),
551                expression.args.get("table"),
552                expression.args.get("this"),
553            )
554            if part
555        )
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
557    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
558        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
559        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
560        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
561        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
563    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
564        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
565        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
566        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
567        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
568        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
569        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
570        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
571        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
572
573        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
575    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
576        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
577        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
578        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
580    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
581        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
583    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
584        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
585            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
586        else:
587            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
588
589        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
591    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
592        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
593    ) -> str:
594        this = ""
595        if expression.this is not None:
596            on_null = "ON NULL " if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
597            this = " ALWAYS " if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT {on_null}"
598
599        start = expression.args.get("start")
600        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
601        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
602        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
603        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
604        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
605        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
606        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
607        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
608        cycle_sql = ""
609
610        if cycle is not None:
611            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
612            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
613
614        sequence_opts = ""
615        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
616            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
617            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
618
619        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
620        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
621
622        return f"GENERATED{this}AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
624    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
625        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
627    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
628        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
629        if desc is not None:
630            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
631        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
633    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
634        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
635        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
636        return f"UNIQUE{this}"
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
638    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
639        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
640        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
641        properties_exp = expression.copy()
642        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else {}
643        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
644            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
645        ):
646            properties_exp.set(
647                "properties",
648                exp.Properties(
649                    expressions=[
650                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
651                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
652                    ]
653                ),
654            )
655        if kind == "TABLE" and properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME):
656            this_name = self.sql(expression.this, "this")
657            this_properties = self.properties(
658                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME]),
659                wrapped=False,
660            )
661            this_schema = f"({self.expressions(expression.this)})"
662            this = f"{this_name}, {this_properties} {this_schema}"
663            properties_sql = ""
664        else:
665            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
666            properties_sql = self.sql(properties_exp, "properties")
667        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
668        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
669        if expression_sql:
670            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
671
672            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
673                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
674                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
675                        exp.Properties(
676                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
677                        ),
678                        wrapped=False,
679                    )
680                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
681                else:
682                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
683
684        postindex_props_sql = ""
685        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
686            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
687                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
688                wrapped=False,
689                prefix=" ",
690            )
691
692        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
693        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
694        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
695
696        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
697        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
698
699        postcreate_props_sql = ""
700        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
701            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
702                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
703                sep=" ",
704                prefix=" ",
705                wrapped=False,
706            )
707
708        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
709
710        postexpression_props_sql = ""
711        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
712            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
713                exp.Properties(
714                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
715                ),
716                sep=" ",
717                prefix=" ",
718                wrapped=False,
719            )
720
721        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
722        no_schema_binding = (
723            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
724        )
725
726        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
727        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
728
729        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
730        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
732    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
733        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
734        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
735
736        if when:
737            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
738            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
739            return f"CLONE {this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
740
741        return f"CLONE {this}"
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
743    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
744        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
746    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
747        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
748        if with_:
749            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
750        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
752    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
753        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
754        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
755
756        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
758    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
759        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
760        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
762    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
763        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
764        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
765        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
766        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
768    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
769        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
770        if self.bit_start:
771            return f"{self.bit_start}{this}{self.bit_end}"
772        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
774    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
775        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
776        if self.hex_start:
777            return f"{self.hex_start}{this}{self.hex_end}"
778        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
780    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
781        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
782        if self.byte_start:
783            return f"{self.byte_start}{this}{self.byte_end}"
784        return this
def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str:
786    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
787        if self.raw_start:
788            return f"{self.raw_start}{expression.name}{self.raw_end}"
789        return self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name.replace("\\", "\\\\")))
def datatypesize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeSize) -> str:
791    def datatypesize_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeSize) -> str:
792        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
793        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
794        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
795        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
797    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
798        type_value = expression.this
799        type_sql = self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
800        nested = ""
801        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
802        values = ""
803        if interior:
804            if expression.args.get("nested"):
805                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
806                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
807                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
808                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
809                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
810            else:
811                nested = f"({interior})"
812
813        return f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
815    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
816        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
817        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
818        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
819        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
821    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
822        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
823        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
824        using_sql = (
825            f" USING {self.expressions(expression, key='using', sep=', USING ')}"
826            if expression.args.get("using")
827            else ""
828        )
829        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
830        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
831        sql = f"DELETE{this}{using_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
832        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
834    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
835        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
836        kind = expression.args["kind"]
837        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
838        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
839        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
840        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
841        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
842        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
843        return (
844            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
845        )
def except_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
847    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
848        return self.prepend_ctes(
849            expression,
850            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
851        )
def except_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
853    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
854        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
856    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
857        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
858        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
859        count = expression.args.get("count")
860        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
861        if expression.args.get("percent"):
862            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
863        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
864        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
866    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
867        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
868        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
869        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
871    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
872        if self.sql(expression, "this"):
873            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
874        return ""
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
876    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
877        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
878        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
879        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
880        name = f"{expression.name} " if expression.name else ""
881        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
882        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table} " if table else ""
883        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
884        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
885        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
886        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
887        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}({columns}){partition_by}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
889    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
890        text = expression.name
891        lower = text.lower()
892        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
893        text = text.replace(self.identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
894        if (
895            expression.quoted
896            or should_identify(text, self.identify)
897            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
898        ):
899            text = f"{self.identifier_start}{text}{self.identifier_end}"
900        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
902    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
903        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
904        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
905        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
906        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
907        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str:
909    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
910        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
911        return f"{prefix}{string}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
913    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
914        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
916    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
917        root_properties = []
918        with_properties = []
919
920        for p in expression.expressions:
921            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
922            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
923                with_properties.append(p)
924            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
925                root_properties.append(p)
926
927        return self.root_properties(
928            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
929        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
931    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
932        if properties.expressions:
933            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
934        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
936    def properties(
937        self,
938        properties: exp.Properties,
939        prefix: str = "",
940        sep: str = ", ",
941        suffix: str = "",
942        wrapped: bool = True,
943    ) -> str:
944        if properties.expressions:
945            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
946            expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
947            return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
948        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
950    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
951        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
def locate_properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> Dict[sqlglot.expressions.Properties.Location, list[sqlglot.expressions.Property]]:
953    def locate_properties(
954        self, properties: exp.Properties
955    ) -> t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]:
956        properties_locs: t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]] = {
957            key: [] for key in exp.Properties.Location
958        }
959
960        for p in properties.expressions:
961            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
962            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME:
963                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME].append(p)
964            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX:
965                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX].append(p)
966            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
967                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA].append(p)
968            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
969                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH].append(p)
970            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE:
971                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE].append(p)
972            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS:
973                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS].append(p)
974            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION:
975                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION].append(p)
976            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
977                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
978
979        return properties_locs
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
981    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
982        property_cls = expression.__class__
983        if property_cls == exp.Property:
984            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
985
986        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
987        if not property_name:
988            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
989
990        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
992    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
993        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
994        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
995        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
 997    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
 998        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
 999        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1000        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
1002    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1003        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1004        local = expression.args.get("local")
1005        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1006        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1007        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1008        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1009        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1011    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1012        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1013        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1014        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1016    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1017        if expression.args.get("default"):
1018            property = "DEFAULT"
1019        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1020            property = "ON"
1021        else:
1022            property = "OFF"
1023        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1025    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1026        if expression.args.get("no"):
1027            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1028        if expression.args.get("default"):
1029            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1030
1031        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1032        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1034    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1035        default = expression.args.get("default")
1036        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1037        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1038        if default or minimum or maximum:
1039            if default:
1040                prop = "DEFAULT"
1041            elif minimum:
1042                prop = "MINIMUM"
1043            else:
1044                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1045            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1046        units = expression.args.get("units")
1047        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1048        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1050    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1051        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1052        always = expression.args.get("always")
1053        default = expression.args.get("default")
1054        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1055        never = expression.args.get("never")
1056
1057        if autotemp is not None:
1058            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1059        elif always:
1060            prop = "ALWAYS"
1061        elif default:
1062            prop = "DEFAULT"
1063        elif manual:
1064            prop = "MANUAL"
1065        elif never:
1066            prop = "NEVER"
1067        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1069    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1070        no = expression.args.get("no")
1071        no = " NO" if no else ""
1072        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1073        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1074
1075        for_ = ""
1076        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1077            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1078        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1079            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1080        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1081            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1082        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1084    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1085        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1086        this: str = f" {this}" if expression.this else ""
1087        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1088        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1089        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1090        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1092    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1093        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1094        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1095        statistics_sql = ""
1096        if statistics is not None:
1097            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1098        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1100    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1101        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1102
1103        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1104            this = "OVERWRITE " if overwrite else "INTO "
1105        else:
1106            this = "OVERWRITE TABLE " if overwrite else "INTO "
1107
1108        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1109        alternative = f" OR {alternative} " if alternative else " "
1110        this = f"{this}{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1111
1112        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1113        partition_sql = (
1114            self.sql(expression, "partition") if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1115        )
1116        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1117        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1118        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1119        sep = self.sep() if partition_sql else ""
1120        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{this}{exists}{partition_sql}{sep}{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1121        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def intersect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1123    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1124        return self.prepend_ctes(
1125            expression,
1126            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1127        )
def intersect_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1129    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1130        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1132    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1133        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1135    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1136        return expression.name.upper()
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1138    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1139        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1140        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1141        if constraint:
1142            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1143        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1144        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1145        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1146        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1147        if expressions:
1148            expressions = f"UPDATE SET {expressions}"
1149        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1151    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1152        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1154    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1155        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1156        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1157        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1158        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1159        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1160        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1161        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1162        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1163        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1164        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1165        null = expression.args.get("null")
1166        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1167        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1169    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1170        table = ".".join(
1171            part
1172            for part in [
1173                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1174                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1175                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1176            ]
1177            if part
1178        )
1179
1180        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1181        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1182        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", flat=True)
1183        hints = f" WITH ({hints})" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1184        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1185        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1186        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="")
1187        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1188        system_time = expression.args.get("system_time")
1189        system_time = f" {self.sql(expression, 'system_time')}" if system_time else ""
1190
1191        return f"{table}{system_time}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = 'SEED', sep=' AS ') -> str:
1193    def tablesample_sql(
1194        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1195    ) -> str:
1196        if self.alias_post_tablesample and expression.this.alias:
1197            table = expression.this.copy()
1198            table.set("alias", None)
1199            this = self.sql(table)
1200            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1201        else:
1202            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1203            alias = ""
1204        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1205        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1206        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1207        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1208        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1209        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1210        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1211        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1212        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1213        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1214        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1215        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1216        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1217            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1218        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1219        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1220        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1221        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1223    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1224        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1225
1226        if expression.this:
1227            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1228            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1229            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1230            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1231            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1232            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1233
1234        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1235        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1236        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1237        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1238        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1239        return f"{direction}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
1241    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1242        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
1244    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1245        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1246        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1247        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1248        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1249        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1250        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1251        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values) -> str:
1253    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1254        args = self.expressions(expression)
1255        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1256        values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1257        values = (
1258            f"({values})"
1259            if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1260            else values
1261        )
1262        return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
1264    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1265        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
1267    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1268        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1269        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1270        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
1272    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1273        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
1275    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1276        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1277        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1278        grouping_sets = (
1279            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1280        )
1281
1282        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1283        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1284            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1285        else:
1286            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1287            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1288
1289        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1290        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1291            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1292        else:
1293            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1294            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1295
1296        groupings = csv(
1297            grouping_sets,
1298            cube_sql,
1299            rollup_sql,
1300            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1301            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1302        )
1303
1304        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1305            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1306
1307        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
1309    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1310        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1311        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
1313    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1314        op_sql = " ".join(
1315            op
1316            for op in (
1317                "NATURAL" if expression.args.get("natural") else None,
1318                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1319                expression.side,
1320                expression.kind,
1321                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1322            )
1323            if op
1324        )
1325        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1326        using = expression.args.get("using")
1327
1328        if not on_sql and using:
1329            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1330
1331        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1332
1333        if on_sql:
1334            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1335            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1336            if using:
1337                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1338            else:
1339                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1340        elif not op_sql:
1341            return f", {this_sql}"
1342
1343        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1344        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
1346    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1347        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1348        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1349        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
1351    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1352        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1353
1354        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1355            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1356
1357        if expression.args.get("view"):
1358            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1359            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1360            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1361            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1362            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1363            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1364
1365        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1366        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1367        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit) -> str:
1369    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit) -> str:
1370        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1371        return f"{this}{self.seg('LIMIT')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
1373    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1374        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1375        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
1377    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1378        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1379        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1380        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1381        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1382        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1383        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1384        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1385        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
1387    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1388        expressions = (
1389            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1390        )
1391        return f"SET{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
1393    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1394        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
1396    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1397        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1398            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1399            return ""
1400
1401        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1402        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1403        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1404        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1405
1406        if wait is not None:
1407            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1408                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1409            else:
1410                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1411
1412        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
1414    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1415        text = expression.this or ""
1416        if expression.is_string:
1417            text = text.replace(self.quote_end, self._escaped_quote_end)
1418            if self.pretty:
1419                text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1420            text = f"{self.quote_start}{text}{self.quote_end}"
1421        return text
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
1423    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1424        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1425        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1426        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1427        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1428        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1429        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1430        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1431        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1432        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1433        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1434        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1436    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1437        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
1439    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1440        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1442    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1443        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1444        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1445        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
1447    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1448        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
1450    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1451        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
1453    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1454        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
1456    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1457        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1458        asc = not desc
1459
1460        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1461        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1462        nulls_are_large = self.null_ordering == "nulls_are_large"
1463        nulls_are_small = self.null_ordering == "nulls_are_small"
1464        nulls_are_last = self.null_ordering == "nulls_are_last"
1465
1466        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1467        nulls_sort_change = ""
1468        if nulls_first and (
1469            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1470        ):
1471            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1472        elif (
1473            nulls_last
1474            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1475            and not nulls_are_last
1476        ):
1477            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1478
1479        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1480            self.unsupported(
1481                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1482            )
1483            nulls_sort_change = ""
1484
1485        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1487    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1488        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1489        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1490        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1491        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1492        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1493        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1494        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1495        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1496        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1497        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1498        definition_sqls = [
1499            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1500            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1501        ]
1502        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1503        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1504        body = "".join(
1505            (
1506                partition,
1507                order,
1508                measures,
1509                rows,
1510                after,
1511                pattern,
1512                define,
1513            )
1514        )
1515        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1516        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1517        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1519    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1520        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1521
1522        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1523            limit = exp.Limit(expression=limit.args.get("count"))
1524        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1525            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=limit.expression)
1526
1527        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1528
1529        return csv(
1530            *sqls,
1531            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1532            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1533            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1534            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1535            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1536            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1537            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1538            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1539            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1540            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1541            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1542            sep="",
1543        )
def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
1545    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1546        return [
1547            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1548            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1549            if expression.args.get("windows")
1550            else "",
1551        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
1553    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1554        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1555        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1556        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
1558    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1559        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1560        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1561        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1562        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1563        kind = f" AS {kind}" if kind else ""
1564        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1565        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1566        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1567            expression,
1568            f"SELECT{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1569            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1570            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1571        )
1572        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
1574    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1575        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1576        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1577        sql = f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1578        return f"{this}{sql}"
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
1580    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1581        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1582        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1583        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1584        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1585        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
1587    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1588        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1589        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1590        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
1592    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1593        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1594        kind = expression.text("kind")
1595        if kind:
1596            kind = f"{kind}."
1597        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
1599    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1600        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1602    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1603        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1604        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1605
1606        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1607        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1608
1609        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1610        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
1612    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1613        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1614        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def union_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
1616    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1617        return self.prepend_ctes(
1618            expression,
1619            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1620        )
def union_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
1622    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1623        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1624        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1625        return f"UNION{kind}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
1627    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1628        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1629        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1630        if alias and self.unnest_column_only:
1631            columns = alias.columns
1632            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1633        else:
1634            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1635        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1636        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1637        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1638        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1639        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
1641    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1642        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1643        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
1645    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1646        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1647
1648        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1649
1650        order = expression.args.get("order")
1651        order_sql = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1652
1653        partition_sql = partition + " " if partition and order else partition
1654
1655        spec = expression.args.get("spec")
1656        spec_sql = " " + self.windowspec_sql(spec) if spec else ""
1657
1658        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1659        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1660        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1661
1662        first = expression.args.get("first")
1663        if first is not None:
1664            first = " FIRST " if first else " LAST "
1665        first = first or ""
1666
1667        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1668            return f"{this} {alias}"
1669
1670        window_args = alias + first + partition_sql + order_sql + spec_sql
1671
1672        return f"{this} ({window_args.strip()})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1674    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1675        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1676        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
1678    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1679        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1680        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1681        end = (
1682            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1683            or "CURRENT ROW"
1684        )
1685        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
1687    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1688        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1689        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1690        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
1692    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1693        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1694        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1695        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1696        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
1698    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1699        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.index_offset)
1700        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1701
1702        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
1704    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1705        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
1707    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1708        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1709        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1710            this = self.wrap(this)
1711        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
1713    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1714        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
1716    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1717        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1718        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1719
1720        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1721            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1722            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1723
1724        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1725
1726        if default:
1727            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1728
1729        statements.append("END")
1730
1731        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self._max_text_width:
1732            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1733
1734        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
1736    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1737        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1738        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1739        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
1741    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1742        order = expression.args.get("order")
1743        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1744        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
1746    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1747        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1748        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1749        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
1751    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1752        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1753
1754        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1755            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1756        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1757            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1758        else:
1759            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
def concat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat) -> str:
1761    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
1762        if len(expression.expressions) == 1:
1763            return self.sql(expression.expressions[0])
1764        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
1766    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1767        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1768        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
1770    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1771        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1772        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1773        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1774        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
1775        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
1776        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
1777        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
1778        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
1780    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1781        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1782        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1783        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1784        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
1786    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
1787        return self.case_sql(
1788            exp.Case(ifs=[expression.copy()], default=expression.args.get("false"))
1789        )
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1791    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1792        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
1793        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
1794        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1796    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1797        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject) -> str:
1799    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
1800        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1801        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
1802        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
1803        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
1804        if unique_keys is not None:
1805            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
1806        else:
1807            unique_keys = ""
1808        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
1809        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
1810        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
1811        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
1812        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
1813        return f"JSON_OBJECT({expressions}{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})"
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
1815    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
1816        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1817        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1818        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1819        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
1820        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
1821        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
1823    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
1824        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1825        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1826        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
1827        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1828        with_ = (
1829            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1830            if expressions
1831            else ""
1832        )
1833        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
1835    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
1836        query = expression.args.get("query")
1837        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
1838        field = expression.args.get("field")
1839        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
1840
1841        if query:
1842            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
1843        elif unnest:
1844            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
1845        elif field:
1846            in_sql = self.sql(field)
1847        else:
1848            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1849
1850        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
1852    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1853        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
1855    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
1856        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
1857        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
1858            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
1859        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
1860
1861        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
1862            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
1863            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
1864
1865        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1866        if this:
1867            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
1868            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
1869
1870        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
1872    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
1873        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
1875    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
1876        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1877        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1878        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1879        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1880        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1881        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
1883    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
1884        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
1886    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
1887        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
1888            sql = self.wrap(expression)
1889        else:
1890            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
1891            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1892
1893        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
1895    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
1896        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
1897        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1898        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
1899        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
1901    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
1902        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
1904    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
1905        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1906        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1907        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
1909    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
1910        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
1912    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
1913        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1914        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
1915        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
1917    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
1918        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And) -> str:
1920    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
1921        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
def connector_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str) -> str:
1923    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
1924        if not self.pretty:
1925            return self.binary(expression, op)
1926
1927        sqls = tuple(
1928            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
1929            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
1930        )
1931
1932        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self._max_text_width else " "
1933        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
1935    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
1936        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
1938    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
1939        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
1941    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
1942        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
1944    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
1945        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
1947    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
1948        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
1950    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
1951        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast) -> str:
1953    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast) -> str:
1954        return f"CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
1956    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
1957        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
1958        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
1960    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
1961        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
1963    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
1964        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
1966    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
1967        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1968        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1969        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1970        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1971        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
1973    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
1974        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1975        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
1976        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
1977        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
1978        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
1979        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
1980        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
1981        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
1982        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
1984    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
1985        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1986        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1987        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
1988        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
1989
1990        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
1991            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1992
1993        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
1995    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
1996        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
1998    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
1999        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2000        if chain is not None:
2001            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2002
2003        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
2005    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2006        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2007        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2008        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
2010    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2011        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2012
2013        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2014        if dtype:
2015            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2016            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2017            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2018            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2019            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2020
2021        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2022        if default:
2023            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2024
2025        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2026            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2027
2028        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str:
2030    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2031        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2032            # Remove db from tables
2033            expression = expression.transform(
2034                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2035            )
2036        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2037        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def altertable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
2039    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2040        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2041
2042        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2043            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMN ")
2044        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2045            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2046        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2047            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2048        else:
2049            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2050
2051        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2052        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
2054    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2055        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2056        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2057        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
2059    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2060        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2061        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2062        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2063
2064        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2065        if enforced is not None:
2066            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2067
2068        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
2070    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2071        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2072        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2073
2074        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2075        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2076        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2078    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2079        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
2081    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2082        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
2084    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2085        return self.sql(
2086            exp.Cast(
2087                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2088                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2089            )
2090        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
2092    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2093        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
2095    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2096        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
2098    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2099        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
2101    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2102        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
2104    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2105        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
2107    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2108        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
2110    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2111        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
2113    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2114        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
2116    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2117        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
2119    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2120        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
2122    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2123        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
2125    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2126        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
2128    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2129        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
2131    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2132        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
2134    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2135        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
2137    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2138        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
2140    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2141        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
2143    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2144        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
2146    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2147        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
2149    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2150        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
2152    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2153        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2155    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2156        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2158    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2159        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def or_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or) -> str:
2161    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2162        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
2164    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2165        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
2167    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2168        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
2170    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2171        return f"TRY_CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')})"
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
2173    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2174        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2175        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2176        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2177        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2178        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2180    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2181        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2182        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
2184    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2185        args = []
2186        for arg_value in expression.args.values():
2187            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2188                for value in arg_value:
2189                    args.append(value)
2190            else:
2191                args.append(arg_value)
2192
2193        return self.func(expression.sql_name(), *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
2195    def func(self, name: str, *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str]) -> str:
2196        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}({self.format_args(*args)})"
def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
2198    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2199        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2200        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self._max_text_width:
2201            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2202        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
def text_width(self, args: Iterable) -> int:
2204    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2205        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
def format_time(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> Optional[str]:
2207    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2208        return format_time(self.sql(expression, "format"), self.time_mapping, self.time_trie)
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[List[str]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '') -> str:
2210    def expressions(
2211        self,
2212        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2213        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2214        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2215        flat: bool = False,
2216        indent: bool = True,
2217        sep: str = ", ",
2218        prefix: str = "",
2219    ) -> str:
2220        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2221
2222        if not expressions:
2223            return ""
2224
2225        if flat:
2226            return sep.join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2227
2228        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2229
2230        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2231        pad = " " * self.pad
2232        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2233
2234        result_sqls = []
2235        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2236            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2237            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2238
2239            if self.pretty:
2240                if self._leading_comma:
2241                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2242                else:
2243                    result_sqls.append(
2244                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2245                    )
2246            else:
2247                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2248
2249        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2250        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=False) if indent else result_sql
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2252    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2253        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2254        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2255        if flat:
2256            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2257        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
2259    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2260        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2261        if not property_name:
2262            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2263        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def set_operation(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2265    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2266        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2267        op = self.seg(op)
2268        return self.query_modifiers(
2269            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2270        )
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
2272    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2273        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
2275    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2276        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2278    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2279        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2280        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2281        expressions = (
2282            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2283        )
2284        return f"{this}{expressions}"
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
2286    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2287        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2288        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2289        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
2291    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2292        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
2294    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2295        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2296        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2297        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2298        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2299
2300        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2301        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2302            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2303            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2304                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2305        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2306            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2307                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2308            else:
2309                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2310        else:
2311            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2312        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
2314    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2315        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2316        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2317        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2318        return f"MERGE INTO {this} {using} {on} {self.expressions(expression, sep=' ')}"
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
2320    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2321        if expression.args.get("format"):
2322            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2323
2324        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
def cached_generator( cache: Optional[Dict[int, str]] = None) -> Callable[[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], str]:
2327def cached_generator(
2328    cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
2329) -> t.Callable[[exp.Expression], str]:
2330    """Returns a cached generator."""
2331    cache = {} if cache is None else cache
2332    generator = Generator(normalize=True, identify="safe")
2333    return lambda e: generator.generate(e, cache)

Returns a cached generator.