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sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import typing as t
   5from collections import defaultdict
   6
   7from sqlglot import exp
   8from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
   9from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, seq_get
  10from sqlglot.time import format_time
  11from sqlglot.tokens import Tokenizer, TokenType
  12
  13logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  14
  15
  16class Generator:
  17    """
  18    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  19
  20    Args:
  21        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  22            Default: False.
  23        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  24            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  25            True or 'always': Always quote.
  26            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  27        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  28            Default: False.
  29        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  30            Default: 2.
  31        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  32            Default: 2.
  33        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  34            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  35            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  36            False: Disables function name normalization.
  37        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  38            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  39        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  40            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  41            Default: 3
  42        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  43            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  44            Default: False
  45        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  46            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  47            line length.
  48            Default: 80
  49        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  50            Default: True
  51    """
  52
  53    TRANSFORMS = {
  54        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  55            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  56        ),
  57        exp.TsOrDsAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  58            "TS_OR_DS_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  59        ),
  60        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  61        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  62        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  63        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  64        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  65        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  66        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  67        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  68        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  69        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  70        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  71        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  72        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  73        exp.HeapProperty: lambda self, e: "HEAP",
  74        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  75        exp.IntervalDayToSecondSpan: "DAY TO SECOND",
  76        exp.IntervalYearToMonthSpan: "YEAR TO MONTH",
  77        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  78        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  79        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  80        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  81        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  82        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  83        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
  84        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  85        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  86        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  87        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  88        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  89        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  90        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  91        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
  92        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
  93        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
  94        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
  95        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
  96        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  97        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
  98        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
  99        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
 100        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 101    }
 102
 103    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
 104    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
 105
 106    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 107    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 108
 109    # Always do union distinct or union all
 110    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 111
 112    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 113    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 114
 115    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 116    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 117
 118    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 119    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 120
 121    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 122    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 123
 124    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 125    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 126
 127    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 128    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 129
 130    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 131    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 132
 133    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 134    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 135
 136    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 137    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 138
 139    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 140    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 141
 142    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 143    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 144
 145    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 146    JOIN_HINTS = True
 147
 148    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 149    TABLE_HINTS = True
 150
 151    # Whether or not query hints should be generated
 152    QUERY_HINTS = True
 153
 154    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 155    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 156
 157    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 158    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 159
 160    # Whether or not to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 161    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 162
 163    # Whether or not to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 164    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 165
 166    # Whether or not to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 167    RETURNING_END = True
 168
 169    # Whether or not to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 170    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 171
 172    # Whether or not to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 173    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 174
 175    # Whether or not TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 176    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 177
 178    # Whether or not the NVL2 function is supported
 179    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 180
 181    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 182    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 183
 184    # Whether or not VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 185    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 186    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 187    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 188
 189    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 190        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 191        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 192        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 193        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 194        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 195        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 196        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 197    }
 198
 199    STAR_MAPPING = {
 200        "except": "EXCEPT",
 201        "replace": "REPLACE",
 202    }
 203
 204    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 205        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 206        "seconds": "second",
 207        "minutes": "minute",
 208        "hours": "hour",
 209        "days": "day",
 210        "weeks": "week",
 211        "months": "month",
 212        "quarters": "quarter",
 213        "years": "year",
 214    }
 215
 216    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 217
 218    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 219
 220    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 221
 222    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 223        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 224        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 225        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 226        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 227        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 228        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 229        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 230        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 231        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 232        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 233        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 234        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 235        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 236        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 237        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 238        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 239        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 240        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 241        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 242        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 243        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 244        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 245        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 246        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 247        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 248        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 249        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 250        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 251        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 252        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 253        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 254        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 255        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 256        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 257        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 258        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 259        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 260        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 261        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 262        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 263        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 264        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 265        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 266        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 267        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 268        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 269        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 270        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 271        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 272        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 273        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 274        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 275        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 276        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 277        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 278        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 279        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 280    }
 281
 282    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 283    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 284
 285    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 286    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 287        exp.Create,
 288        exp.Delete,
 289        exp.Drop,
 290        exp.From,
 291        exp.Insert,
 292        exp.Join,
 293        exp.Select,
 294        exp.Update,
 295        exp.Where,
 296        exp.With,
 297    )
 298
 299    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 300    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 301        exp.Column,
 302        exp.Literal,
 303        exp.Neg,
 304        exp.Paren,
 305    )
 306
 307    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 308
 309    # Autofilled
 310    INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 311    INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: t.Dict = {}
 312    INDEX_OFFSET = 0
 313    UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
 314    ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
 315    IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
 316    STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
 317    NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = "upper"
 318    NULL_ORDERING = "nulls_are_small"
 319    ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK = False
 320
 321    can_identify: t.Callable[[str, str | bool], bool]
 322
 323    # Delimiters for quotes, identifiers and the corresponding escape characters
 324    QUOTE_START = "'"
 325    QUOTE_END = "'"
 326    IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
 327    IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
 328    TOKENIZER_CLASS = Tokenizer
 329
 330    # Delimiters for bit, hex, byte and raw literals
 331    BIT_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 332    BIT_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 333    HEX_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 334    HEX_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 335    BYTE_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 336    BYTE_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 337
 338    __slots__ = (
 339        "pretty",
 340        "identify",
 341        "normalize",
 342        "pad",
 343        "_indent",
 344        "normalize_functions",
 345        "unsupported_level",
 346        "max_unsupported",
 347        "leading_comma",
 348        "max_text_width",
 349        "comments",
 350        "unsupported_messages",
 351        "_escaped_quote_end",
 352        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 353        "_cache",
 354    )
 355
 356    def __init__(
 357        self,
 358        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 359        identify: str | bool = False,
 360        normalize: bool = False,
 361        pad: int = 2,
 362        indent: int = 2,
 363        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 364        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 365        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 366        leading_comma: bool = False,
 367        max_text_width: int = 80,
 368        comments: bool = True,
 369    ):
 370        import sqlglot
 371
 372        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 373        self.identify = identify
 374        self.normalize = normalize
 375        self.pad = pad
 376        self._indent = indent
 377        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 378        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 379        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 380        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 381        self.comments = comments
 382
 383        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 384        self.normalize_functions = (
 385            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 386        )
 387
 388        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 389        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.QUOTE_END
 390        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 391            self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.IDENTIFIER_END
 392        )
 393        self._cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
 394
 395    def generate(
 396        self,
 397        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
 398        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
 399    ) -> str:
 400        """
 401        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 402
 403        Args:
 404            expression: The syntax tree.
 405            cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression
 406                which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
 407
 408        Returns:
 409            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 410        """
 411        if cache is not None:
 412            self._cache = cache
 413
 414        self.unsupported_messages = []
 415        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 416        self._cache = None
 417
 418        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 419            return sql
 420
 421        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 422            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 423                logger.warning(msg)
 424        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 425            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 426
 427        if self.pretty:
 428            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 429        return sql
 430
 431    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 432        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 433            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 434        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 435
 436    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 437        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 438
 439    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 440        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 441
 442    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 443        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 444        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 445        return comment
 446
 447    def maybe_comment(
 448        self,
 449        sql: str,
 450        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 451        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 452    ) -> str:
 453        comments = (
 454            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 455            if self.comments
 456            else None
 457        )
 458
 459        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
 460            return sql
 461
 462        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
 463        comments_sql = sep.join(
 464            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 465        )
 466
 467        if not comments_sql:
 468            return sql
 469
 470        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 471            return (
 472                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 473                if sql[0].isspace()
 474                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 475            )
 476
 477        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 478
 479    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 480        this_sql = self.indent(
 481            self.sql(expression)
 482            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 483            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 484            level=1,
 485            pad=0,
 486        )
 487        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 488
 489    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 490        original = self.identify
 491        self.identify = False
 492        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 493        self.identify = original
 494        return result
 495
 496    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 497        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 498            return name.upper()
 499        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 500            return name.lower()
 501        return name
 502
 503    def indent(
 504        self,
 505        sql: str,
 506        level: int = 0,
 507        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 508        skip_first: bool = False,
 509        skip_last: bool = False,
 510    ) -> str:
 511        if not self.pretty:
 512            return sql
 513
 514        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 515        lines = sql.split("\n")
 516
 517        return "\n".join(
 518            line
 519            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 520            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 521            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 522        )
 523
 524    def sql(
 525        self,
 526        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 527        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 528        comment: bool = True,
 529    ) -> str:
 530        if not expression:
 531            return ""
 532
 533        if isinstance(expression, str):
 534            return expression
 535
 536        if key:
 537            value = expression.args.get(key)
 538            if value:
 539                return self.sql(value)
 540            return ""
 541
 542        if self._cache is not None:
 543            expression_id = hash(expression)
 544
 545            if expression_id in self._cache:
 546                return self._cache[expression_id]
 547
 548        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 549
 550        if callable(transform):
 551            sql = transform(self, expression)
 552        elif transform:
 553            sql = transform
 554        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 555            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 556
 557            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 558                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 559            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 560                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 561            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 562                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 563            else:
 564                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 565        else:
 566            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 567
 568        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 569
 570        if self._cache is not None:
 571            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
 572        return sql
 573
 574    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 575        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 576        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 577        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 578
 579    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 580        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 581        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 582        options = expression.args.get("options")
 583        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 584        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 585        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 586        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 587        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 588
 589    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 590        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 591            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 592        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 593        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 594
 595    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 596        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 597
 598        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 599            join_mark = ""
 600            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 601
 602        column = ".".join(
 603            self.sql(part)
 604            for part in (
 605                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 606                expression.args.get("db"),
 607                expression.args.get("table"),
 608                expression.args.get("this"),
 609            )
 610            if part
 611        )
 612
 613        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 614
 615    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 616        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 617        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 618        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 619        return f"{position}{this}"
 620
 621    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 622        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 623        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 624        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 625        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 626        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 627        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 628        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 629        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 630
 631        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 632
 633    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 634        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 635        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 636        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 637
 638    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 639        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 640        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 641            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 642        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 643            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 644        else:
 645            persisted = ""
 646        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 647
 648    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 649        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 650
 651    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 652        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 653            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 654        else:
 655            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 656
 657        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 658
 659    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 660        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 661    ) -> str:
 662        this = ""
 663        if expression.this is not None:
 664            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 665            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 666
 667        start = expression.args.get("start")
 668        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 669        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 670        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 671        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 672        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 673        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 674        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 675        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 676        cycle_sql = ""
 677
 678        if cycle is not None:
 679            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 680            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 681
 682        sequence_opts = ""
 683        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 684            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 685            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 686
 687        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 688        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 689
 690        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 691
 692    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 693        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 694
 695    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 696        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 697        if desc is not None:
 698            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 699        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 700
 701    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 702        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 703        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 704        return f"UNIQUE{this}"
 705
 706    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 707        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 708
 709    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 710        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 711        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 712        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 713
 714        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 715
 716        properties_sql = ""
 717        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 718            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 719        ):
 720            properties_sql = self.sql(
 721                exp.Properties(
 722                    expressions=[
 723                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 724                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 725                    ]
 726                )
 727            )
 728
 729        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 730        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 731        if expression_sql:
 732            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
 733
 734            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 735                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 736                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 737                        exp.Properties(
 738                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 739                        ),
 740                        wrapped=False,
 741                    )
 742                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 743                else:
 744                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 745
 746        postindex_props_sql = ""
 747        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 748            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 749                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 750                wrapped=False,
 751                prefix=" ",
 752            )
 753
 754        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 755        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 756        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 757
 758        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 759        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 760
 761        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 762        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 763            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 764                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 765                sep=" ",
 766                prefix=" ",
 767                wrapped=False,
 768            )
 769
 770        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 771
 772        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 773        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 774            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 775                exp.Properties(
 776                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 777                ),
 778                sep=" ",
 779                prefix=" ",
 780                wrapped=False,
 781            )
 782
 783        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 784        no_schema_binding = (
 785            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 786        )
 787
 788        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 789        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 790
 791        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 792        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 793
 794    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 795        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 796        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
 797        this = f"{shallow}CLONE {this}"
 798        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 799
 800        if when:
 801            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 802            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 803            return f"{this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 804
 805        return this
 806
 807    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 808        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 809
 810    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 811        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 812        if with_:
 813            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 814        return sql
 815
 816    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 817        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 818        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
 819
 820        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 821
 822    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 823        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 824        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 825
 826    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 827        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 828        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 829        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 830        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 831
 832    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 833        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 834        if self.BIT_START:
 835            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
 836        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 837
 838    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 839        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 840        if self.HEX_START:
 841            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
 842        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 843
 844    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 845        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 846        if self.BYTE_START:
 847            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
 848        return this
 849
 850    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 851        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
 852        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
 853
 854    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
 855        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 856        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 857        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
 858        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 859
 860    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 861        type_value = expression.this
 862
 863        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
 864            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 865        else:
 866            type_sql = (
 867                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 868                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
 869                else type_value
 870            )
 871
 872        nested = ""
 873        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 874        values = ""
 875
 876        if interior:
 877            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 878                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 879                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 880                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 881                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 882                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 883            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
 884                nested = f" {interior}"
 885            else:
 886                nested = f"({interior})"
 887
 888        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 889        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
 890            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
 891            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
 892        ):
 893            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
 894
 895        return type_sql
 896
 897    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 898        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 899        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 900        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 901        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
 902
 903    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 904        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 905        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 906        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 907        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
 908        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
 909        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
 910        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
 911        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
 912        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
 913        if self.RETURNING_END:
 914            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
 915        else:
 916            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
 917        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
 918
 919    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
 920        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 921        kind = expression.args["kind"]
 922        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
 923        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
 924        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
 925        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
 926        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
 927        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
 928        return (
 929            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
 930        )
 931
 932    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 933        return self.prepend_ctes(
 934            expression,
 935            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
 936        )
 937
 938    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 939        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
 940
 941    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
 942        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
 943        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
 944        count = expression.args.get("count")
 945        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
 946        if expression.args.get("percent"):
 947            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
 948        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
 949        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
 950
 951    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
 952        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 953        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
 954        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
 955
 956    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
 957        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
 958            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
 959            return ""
 960
 961        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
 962
 963    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
 964        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 965        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
 966        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
 967        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
 968        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
 969        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
 970        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
 971        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 972        using = f" USING {using} " if using else ""
 973        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
 974        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 975        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 976        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
 977        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
 978        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}"
 979
 980    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
 981        text = expression.name
 982        lower = text.lower()
 983        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
 984        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
 985        if (
 986            expression.quoted
 987            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
 988            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
 989            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
 990        ):
 991            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
 992        return text
 993
 994    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
 995        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
 996        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
 997        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
 998        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
 999        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1000
1001    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1002        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1003        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1004
1005    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1006        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1007
1008    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1009        root_properties = []
1010        with_properties = []
1011
1012        for p in expression.expressions:
1013            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1014            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1015                with_properties.append(p.copy())
1016            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1017                root_properties.append(p.copy())
1018
1019        return self.root_properties(
1020            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1021        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1022
1023    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1024        if properties.expressions:
1025            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1026        return ""
1027
1028    def properties(
1029        self,
1030        properties: exp.Properties,
1031        prefix: str = "",
1032        sep: str = ", ",
1033        suffix: str = "",
1034        wrapped: bool = True,
1035    ) -> str:
1036        if properties.expressions:
1037            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1038            if expressions:
1039                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1040                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1041        return ""
1042
1043    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1044        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1045
1046    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1047        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1048        for p in properties.expressions:
1049            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1050            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1051                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p.copy())
1052            else:
1053                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1054
1055        return properties_locs
1056
1057    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1058        property_cls = expression.__class__
1059        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1060            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1061
1062        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1063        if not property_name:
1064            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1065
1066        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1067
1068    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1069        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1070        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1071        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1072
1073    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1074        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1075        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1076        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1077
1078    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1079        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1080        local = expression.args.get("local")
1081        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1082        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1083        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1084        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1085        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1086
1087    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1088        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1089        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1090        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1091
1092    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1093        if expression.args.get("default"):
1094            property = "DEFAULT"
1095        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1096            property = "ON"
1097        else:
1098            property = "OFF"
1099        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1100
1101    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1102        if expression.args.get("no"):
1103            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1104        if expression.args.get("default"):
1105            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1106
1107        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1108        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1109
1110    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1111        default = expression.args.get("default")
1112        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1113        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1114        if default or minimum or maximum:
1115            if default:
1116                prop = "DEFAULT"
1117            elif minimum:
1118                prop = "MINIMUM"
1119            else:
1120                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1121            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1122        units = expression.args.get("units")
1123        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1124        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1125
1126    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1127        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1128        always = expression.args.get("always")
1129        default = expression.args.get("default")
1130        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1131        never = expression.args.get("never")
1132
1133        if autotemp is not None:
1134            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1135        elif always:
1136            prop = "ALWAYS"
1137        elif default:
1138            prop = "DEFAULT"
1139        elif manual:
1140            prop = "MANUAL"
1141        elif never:
1142            prop = "NEVER"
1143        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1144
1145    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1146        no = expression.args.get("no")
1147        no = " NO" if no else ""
1148        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1149        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1150
1151        for_ = ""
1152        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1153            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1154        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1155            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1156        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1157            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1158        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1159
1160    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1161        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1162        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1163        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1164        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1165        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1166        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1167
1168    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1169        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1170        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1171        statistics_sql = ""
1172        if statistics is not None:
1173            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1174        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1175
1176    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1177        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1178
1179        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1180            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1181        else:
1182            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1183
1184        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1185        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1186        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1187
1188        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1189
1190        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1191        partition_sql = (
1192            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1193        )
1194        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1195        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1196        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1197        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1198        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1199        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1200
1201        if self.RETURNING_END:
1202            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1203        else:
1204            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1205
1206        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1207        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1208
1209    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1210        return self.prepend_ctes(
1211            expression,
1212            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1213        )
1214
1215    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1216        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1217
1218    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1219        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1220
1221    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1222        return expression.name.upper()
1223
1224    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1225        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1226        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1227        if constraint:
1228            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1229        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1230        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1231        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1232        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1233        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1234        if expressions:
1235            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1236        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1237
1238    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1239        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1240
1241    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1242        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1243        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1244        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1245        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1246        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1247        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1248        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1249        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1250        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1251        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1252        null = expression.args.get("null")
1253        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1254        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1255
1256    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1257        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1258
1259    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1260        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1261        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1262        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1263        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1264
1265    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1266        table = ".".join(
1267            part
1268            for part in [
1269                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1270                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1271                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1272            ]
1273            if part
1274        )
1275
1276        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1277        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1278        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1279        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1280        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1281        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1282        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1283        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1284        system_time = expression.args.get("system_time")
1285        system_time = f" {self.sql(expression, 'system_time')}" if system_time else ""
1286
1287        return f"{table}{system_time}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
1288
1289    def tablesample_sql(
1290        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1291    ) -> str:
1292        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1293            table = expression.this.copy()
1294            table.set("alias", None)
1295            this = self.sql(table)
1296            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1297        else:
1298            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1299            alias = ""
1300        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1301        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1302        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1303        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1304        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1305        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1306        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1307        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1308        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1309        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1310        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1311        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1312        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1313            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1314        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1315        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1316        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1317        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
1318
1319    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1320        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1321
1322        if expression.this:
1323            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1324            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1325            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1326            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1327            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1328            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1329
1330        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1331        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1332        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1333        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1334        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1335        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1336        if include_nulls is not None:
1337            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1338        else:
1339            nulls = ""
1340        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1341
1342    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1343        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1344
1345    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1346        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1347        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1348        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1349        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1350        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1351        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1352        if self.RETURNING_END:
1353            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}{limit}"
1354        else:
1355            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}{limit}"
1356        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}"
1357        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1358
1359    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1360        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1361        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1362            args = self.expressions(expression)
1363            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1364            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1365            values = (
1366                f"({values})"
1367                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1368                else values
1369            )
1370            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1371
1372        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1373        # Note: If you have a lot of unions then this will result in a large number of recursive statements to
1374        # evaluate the expression. You may need to increase `sys.setrecursionlimit` to run and it can also be
1375        # very slow.
1376        expression = expression.copy()
1377        column_names = expression.alias and expression.args["alias"].columns
1378
1379        selects = []
1380
1381        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1382            row = tup.expressions
1383
1384            if i == 0 and column_names:
1385                row = [
1386                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1387                ]
1388
1389            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1390
1391        subquery_expression: exp.Select | exp.Union = selects[0]
1392        if len(selects) > 1:
1393            for select in selects[1:]:
1394                subquery_expression = exp.union(
1395                    subquery_expression, select, distinct=False, copy=False
1396                )
1397
1398        return self.subquery_sql(subquery_expression.subquery(expression.alias, copy=False))
1399
1400    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1401        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1402
1403    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1404        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1405        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1406        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1407
1408    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1409        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1410
1411    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1412        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1413
1414        if expression.args.get("all"):
1415            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1416
1417        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1418        grouping_sets = (
1419            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1420        )
1421
1422        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1423        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1424            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1425        else:
1426            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1427            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1428
1429        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1430        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1431            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1432        else:
1433            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1434            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1435
1436        groupings = csv(
1437            grouping_sets,
1438            cube_sql,
1439            rollup_sql,
1440            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1441            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1442        )
1443
1444        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1445            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1446
1447        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1448
1449    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1450        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1451        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1452
1453    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1454        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1455        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1456        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1457        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY {connect}")
1458        return start + connect
1459
1460    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1461        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1462
1463    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1464        op_sql = " ".join(
1465            op
1466            for op in (
1467                expression.method,
1468                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1469                expression.side,
1470                expression.kind,
1471                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1472            )
1473            if op
1474        )
1475        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1476        using = expression.args.get("using")
1477
1478        if not on_sql and using:
1479            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1480
1481        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1482
1483        if on_sql:
1484            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1485            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1486            if using:
1487                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1488            else:
1489                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1490        elif not op_sql:
1491            return f", {this_sql}"
1492
1493        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1494        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1495
1496    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1497        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1498        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1499        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1500
1501    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1502        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1503
1504        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1505            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1506
1507        if expression.args.get("view"):
1508            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1509            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1510            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1511            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1512            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1513            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1514
1515        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1516        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1517        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1518
1519    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1520        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1521        args = ", ".join(
1522            sql
1523            for sql in (
1524                self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1525                self.sql(expression, "expression"),
1526            )
1527            if sql
1528        )
1529        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args}"
1530
1531    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1532        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1533        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1534
1535    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1536        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1537        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1538        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1539        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1540        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1541        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1542        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1543        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1544
1545    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1546        expressions = (
1547            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1548        )
1549        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1550        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1551
1552    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1553        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1554
1555    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1556        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1557            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1558            return ""
1559
1560        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1561        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1562        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1563        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1564
1565        if wait is not None:
1566            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1567                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1568            else:
1569                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1570
1571        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1572
1573    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1574        text = expression.this or ""
1575        if expression.is_string:
1576            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1577        return text
1578
1579    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1580        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1581        if self.ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK:
1582            text = text.replace("\n", "\\n")
1583        elif self.pretty:
1584            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1585        return text
1586
1587    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1588        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1589        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1590        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1591        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1592        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1593        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1594        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1595        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1596        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1597        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1598        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1599
1600    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1601        return "NULL"
1602
1603    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1604        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1605
1606    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1607        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1608        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1609        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1610
1611    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1612        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1613
1614    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1615        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1616
1617    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1618        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1619
1620    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1621        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1622        asc = not desc
1623
1624        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1625        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1626        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1627        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1628        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1629
1630        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1631        nulls_sort_change = ""
1632        if nulls_first and (
1633            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1634        ):
1635            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1636        elif (
1637            nulls_last
1638            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1639            and not nulls_are_last
1640        ):
1641            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1642
1643        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1644            self.unsupported(
1645                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1646            )
1647            nulls_sort_change = ""
1648
1649        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1650
1651    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1652        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1653        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1654        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1655        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1656        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1657        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1658        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1659        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1660        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1661        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1662        definition_sqls = [
1663            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1664            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1665        ]
1666        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1667        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1668        body = "".join(
1669            (
1670                partition,
1671                order,
1672                measures,
1673                rows,
1674                after,
1675                pattern,
1676                define,
1677            )
1678        )
1679        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1680        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1681        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1682
1683    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1684        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1685
1686        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1687        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1688
1689        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1690            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1691        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1692            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1693
1694        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1695
1696        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1697            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1698            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1699            else []
1700        )
1701
1702        return csv(
1703            *sqls,
1704            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1705            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
1706            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1707            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1708            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1709            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1710            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1711            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1712            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1713            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1714            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1715            sep="",
1716        )
1717
1718    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1719        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1720    ) -> t.List[str]:
1721        return [
1722            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1723            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1724        ]
1725
1726    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1727        return [
1728            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1729            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1730            if expression.args.get("windows")
1731            else "",
1732            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1733            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1734            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1735        ]
1736
1737    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1738        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1739        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1740        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1741
1742    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1743        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1744        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1745        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1746        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1747        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1748        top = (
1749            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1750            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1751            else ""
1752        )
1753
1754        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1755
1756        if kind:
1757            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1758                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1759            else:
1760                if kind == "STRUCT":
1761                    expressions = self.expressions(
1762                        sqls=[
1763                            self.sql(
1764                                exp.Struct(
1765                                    expressions=[
1766                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1767                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1768                                        )
1769                                        for e in expression.expressions
1770                                    ]
1771                                )
1772                            )
1773                        ]
1774                    )
1775                kind = ""
1776
1777        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1778        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1779            expression,
1780            f"SELECT{top}{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1781            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1782            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1783        )
1784        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1785
1786    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1787        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1788        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1789        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1790        return f"{this}{sql}"
1791
1792    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1793        return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1794
1795    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1796        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1797        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1798        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1799        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1800        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
1801
1802    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1803        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1804        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1805        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
1806
1807    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1808        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1809        kind = expression.text("kind")
1810        if kind:
1811            kind = f"{kind}."
1812        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
1813
1814    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1815        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
1816
1817    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1818        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1819        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1820
1821        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1822        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1823
1824        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1825        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1826
1827    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1828        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1829        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1830
1831    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1832        return self.prepend_ctes(
1833            expression,
1834            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1835        )
1836
1837    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1838        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1839        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1840        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1841        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
1842
1843    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1844        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1845        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1846        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1847            columns = alias.columns
1848            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1849        else:
1850            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1851        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1852        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1853        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1854        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1855        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
1856
1857    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1858        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1859        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1860
1861    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1862        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1863        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1864        order = expression.args.get("order")
1865        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1866        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1867        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1868        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1869
1870        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1871
1872        first = expression.args.get("first")
1873        if first is None:
1874            first = ""
1875        else:
1876            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1877
1878        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1879            return f"{this} {alias}"
1880
1881        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1882        return f"{this} ({args})"
1883
1884    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1885        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1886        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
1887
1888    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1889        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1890        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1891        end = (
1892            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1893            or "CURRENT ROW"
1894        )
1895        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
1896
1897    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1898        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1899        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1900        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
1901
1902    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1903        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1904        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1905        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1906        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
1907
1908    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1909        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
1910        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1911
1912        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
1913
1914    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
1915        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
1916
1917    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1918        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
1919
1920    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1921        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1922        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1923            this = self.wrap(this)
1924        return f"ANY {this}"
1925
1926    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1927        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
1928
1929    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1930        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1931        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1932
1933        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1934            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1935            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1936
1937        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1938
1939        if default:
1940            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1941
1942        statements.append("END")
1943
1944        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
1945            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1946
1947        return " ".join(statements)
1948
1949    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1950        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1951        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1952        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
1953
1954    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1955        order = expression.args.get("order")
1956        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1957        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
1958
1959    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1960        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
1961        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1962        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
1963
1964    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1965        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1966
1967        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1968            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1969        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1970            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1971        else:
1972            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
1973
1974    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
1975        expressions = expression.expressions
1976        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
1977            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
1978        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
1979
1980    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1981        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1982        return f"CHECK ({this})"
1983
1984    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1985        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1986        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1987        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1988        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
1989        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
1990        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
1991        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
1992        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
1993
1994    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1995        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1996        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1997        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1998        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
1999
2000    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2001        expression = expression.copy()
2002        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2003
2004    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2005        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2006        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2007        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2008
2009    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2010        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2011
2012    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
2013        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2014        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2015        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2016        if unique_keys is not None:
2017            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2018        else:
2019            unique_keys = ""
2020        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2021        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2022        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
2023        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2024        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2025        return self.func(
2026            "JSON_OBJECT",
2027            *expression.expressions,
2028            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})",
2029        )
2030
2031    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2032        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2033        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2034        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2035        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2036        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2037        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2038
2039    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2040        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2041        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2042        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2043        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2044        with_ = (
2045            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2046            if expressions
2047            else ""
2048        )
2049        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2050
2051    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2052        query = expression.args.get("query")
2053        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2054        field = expression.args.get("field")
2055        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2056
2057        if query:
2058            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2059        elif unnest:
2060            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2061        elif field:
2062            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2063        else:
2064            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2065
2066        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2067
2068    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2069        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2070
2071    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2072        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2073        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2074            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
2075        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2076
2077        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2078            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2079            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2080
2081        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2082        if this:
2083            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2084            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2085
2086        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2087
2088    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2089        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2090
2091    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2092        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2093        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2094        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2095        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2096        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2097        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2098
2099    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2100        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
2101
2102    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2103        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2104            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2105        else:
2106            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2107            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2108
2109        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2110
2111    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2112        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2113        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2114        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2115        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2116
2117    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2118        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2119
2120    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2121        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2122        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2123        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2124
2125    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2126        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2127
2128    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2129        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2130        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2131        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2132
2133    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2134        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2135
2136    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2137        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
2138
2139    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2140        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
2141
2142    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2143        if not self.pretty:
2144            return self.binary(expression, op)
2145
2146        sqls = tuple(
2147            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2148            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2149        )
2150
2151        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2152        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
2153
2154    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2155        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2156
2157    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2158        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2159
2160    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2161        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2162
2163    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2164        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2165
2166    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2167        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2168
2169    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2170        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2171
2172    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2173        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2174        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2175        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')}{format_sql})"
2176
2177    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2178        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2179        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2180
2181    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2182        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2183
2184    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2185        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2186
2187    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2188        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2189        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2190        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2191        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2192        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2193
2194    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2195        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2196        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2197        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2198        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2199        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2200        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2201        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2202        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2203        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2204
2205    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2206        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2207        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2208        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2209        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2210
2211        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2212            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2213
2214        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2215
2216    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2217        return "BEGIN"
2218
2219    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2220        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2221        if chain is not None:
2222            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2223
2224        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2225
2226    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2227        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2228        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2229        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2230
2231    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2232        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2233
2234        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2235        if dtype:
2236            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2237            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2238            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2239            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2240            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2241
2242        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2243        if default:
2244            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2245
2246        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2247            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2248
2249        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2250
2251    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2252        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2253            # Remove db from tables
2254            expression = expression.transform(
2255                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2256            )
2257        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2258        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2259
2260    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2261        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2262
2263        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2264            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMN ")
2265        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2266            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2267        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2268            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2269        else:
2270            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2271
2272        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2273        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2274
2275    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2276        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2277        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2278        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2279
2280    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2281        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2282        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2283        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2284
2285        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2286        if enforced is not None:
2287            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2288
2289        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2290
2291    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2292        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2293        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2294
2295        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2296        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2297        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2298
2299    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2300        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2301
2302    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2303        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2304
2305    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2306        return self.sql(
2307            exp.Cast(
2308                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this.copy(), expression=expression.expression.copy()),
2309                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2310            )
2311        )
2312
2313    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2314        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2315
2316    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2317        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2318            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2319        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
2320
2321    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2322        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2323
2324    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2325        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2326
2327    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2328        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2329
2330    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2331        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2332
2333    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2334        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2335
2336    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2337        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2338
2339    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2340        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2341
2342    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2343        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2344
2345    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2346        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2347
2348    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2349        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2350
2351    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2352        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2353
2354    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2355        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2356            return self.sql(
2357                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2358            )
2359        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2360
2361    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2362        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2363
2364    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2365        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2366
2367    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2368        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2369
2370    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2371        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2372
2373    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2374        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2375
2376    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2377        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2378
2379    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2380        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2381
2382    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2383        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2384
2385    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2386        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2387
2388    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2389        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2390
2391    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2392        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2393
2394    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2395        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2396
2397    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2398        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2399
2400    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2401        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
2402
2403    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2404        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2405        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2406        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2407        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2408        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2409
2410    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2411        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2412        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2413
2414    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2415        args = []
2416
2417        for key in expression.arg_types:
2418            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2419
2420            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2421                for value in arg_value:
2422                    args.append(value)
2423            elif arg_value is not None:
2424                args.append(arg_value)
2425
2426        if self.normalize_functions:
2427            name = expression.sql_name()
2428        else:
2429            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2430
2431        return self.func(name, *args)
2432
2433    def func(
2434        self,
2435        name: str,
2436        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2437        prefix: str = "(",
2438        suffix: str = ")",
2439    ) -> str:
2440        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2441
2442    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2443        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2444        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2445            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2446        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2447
2448    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2449        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2450
2451    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2452        return format_time(
2453            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2454        )
2455
2456    def expressions(
2457        self,
2458        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2459        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2460        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2461        flat: bool = False,
2462        indent: bool = True,
2463        skip_first: bool = False,
2464        sep: str = ", ",
2465        prefix: str = "",
2466    ) -> str:
2467        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2468
2469        if not expressions:
2470            return ""
2471
2472        if flat:
2473            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2474
2475        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2476
2477        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2478        pad = " " * self.pad
2479        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2480
2481        result_sqls = []
2482        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2483            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2484            if not sql:
2485                continue
2486
2487            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2488
2489            if self.pretty:
2490                if self.leading_comma:
2491                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2492                else:
2493                    result_sqls.append(
2494                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2495                    )
2496            else:
2497                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2498
2499        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2500        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
2501
2502    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2503        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2504        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2505        if flat:
2506            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2507        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2508
2509    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2510        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2511        if not property_name:
2512            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2513        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2514
2515    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2516        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2517        op = self.seg(op)
2518        return self.query_modifiers(
2519            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2520        )
2521
2522    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2523        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2524
2525    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2526        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2527
2528    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2529        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2530        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2531        expressions = (
2532            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2533        )
2534        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2535
2536    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2537        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2538        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2539        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2540
2541    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2542        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2543
2544    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2545        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2546        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2547        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2548        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2549
2550        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2551        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2552            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2553            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2554                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2555        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2556            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2557                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2558            else:
2559                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2560        else:
2561            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2562        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2563
2564    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2565        table = expression.this
2566        table_alias = ""
2567
2568        hints = table.args.get("hints")
2569        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
2570            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
2571            table = table.copy()
2572            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
2573
2574        this = self.sql(table)
2575        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2576        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2577        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
2578
2579        return f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
2580
2581    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2582        if expression.args.get("format"):
2583            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2584
2585        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2586
2587    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2588        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2589        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2590        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2591        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2592        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2593
2594    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2595        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2596        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2597        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2598        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2599
2600    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2601        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
2602
2603    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2604        return ""
2605
2606    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2607        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2608        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2609        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2610        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2611        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
2612
2613    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2614        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2615        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2616
2617        if having:
2618            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2619
2620        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
2621
2622    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2623        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2624        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2625        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2626        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2627        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2628        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2629        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2630        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2631        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2632        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2633        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2634        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
2635        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
2636
2637    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2638        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
2639        if key_block_size:
2640            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
2641
2642        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2643        if using:
2644            return f"USING {using}"
2645
2646        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
2647        if parser:
2648            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
2649
2650        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2651        if comment:
2652            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
2653
2654        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
2655        if visible is not None:
2656            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
2657
2658        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
2659        if engine_attr:
2660            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
2661
2662        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
2663        if secondary_engine_attr:
2664            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
2665
2666        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
2667        return ""
2668
2669    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2670        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2671        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
2672        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2673        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2674        type_ = self.sql(expression, "type")
2675        type_ = f" USING {type_}" if type_ else ""
2676        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2677        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
2678        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
2679        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2680        return f"{kind}{this}{type_}{schema}{options}"
2681
2682    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
2683        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
2684            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2685
2686        case = exp.Case().when(
2687            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
2688            expression.args["true"].copy(),
2689            copy=False,
2690        )
2691        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
2692        if else_cond:
2693            case.else_(else_cond.copy(), copy=False)
2694
2695        return self.sql(case)
2696
2697    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
2698        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2699        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2700        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
2701        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2702        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
2703        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
2704
2705
2706def cached_generator(
2707    cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
2708) -> t.Callable[[exp.Expression], str]:
2709    """Returns a cached generator."""
2710    cache = {} if cache is None else cache
2711    generator = Generator(normalize=True, identify="safe")
2712    return lambda e: generator.generate(e, cache)
logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
class Generator:
  17class Generator:
  18    """
  19    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  20
  21    Args:
  22        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  23            Default: False.
  24        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  25            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  26            True or 'always': Always quote.
  27            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  28        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  29            Default: False.
  30        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  31            Default: 2.
  32        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  33            Default: 2.
  34        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  35            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  36            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  37            False: Disables function name normalization.
  38        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  39            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  40        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  41            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  42            Default: 3
  43        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  44            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  45            Default: False
  46        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  47            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  48            line length.
  49            Default: 80
  50        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  51            Default: True
  52    """
  53
  54    TRANSFORMS = {
  55        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  56            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  57        ),
  58        exp.TsOrDsAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  59            "TS_OR_DS_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  60        ),
  61        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  62        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  63        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  64        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  65        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  66        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  67        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  68        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  69        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  70        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  71        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  72        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  73        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  74        exp.HeapProperty: lambda self, e: "HEAP",
  75        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  76        exp.IntervalDayToSecondSpan: "DAY TO SECOND",
  77        exp.IntervalYearToMonthSpan: "YEAR TO MONTH",
  78        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  79        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  80        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  81        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  82        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  83        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  84        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
  85        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  86        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  87        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  88        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  89        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  90        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  91        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  92        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
  93        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
  94        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
  95        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
  96        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
  97        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  98        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
  99        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 100        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
 101        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 102    }
 103
 104    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
 105    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
 106
 107    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 108    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 109
 110    # Always do union distinct or union all
 111    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 112
 113    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 114    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 115
 116    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 117    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 118
 119    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 120    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 121
 122    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 123    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 124
 125    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 126    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 127
 128    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 129    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 130
 131    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 132    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 133
 134    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 135    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 136
 137    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 138    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 139
 140    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 141    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 142
 143    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 144    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 145
 146    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 147    JOIN_HINTS = True
 148
 149    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 150    TABLE_HINTS = True
 151
 152    # Whether or not query hints should be generated
 153    QUERY_HINTS = True
 154
 155    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 156    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 157
 158    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 159    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 160
 161    # Whether or not to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 162    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 163
 164    # Whether or not to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 165    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 166
 167    # Whether or not to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 168    RETURNING_END = True
 169
 170    # Whether or not to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 171    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 172
 173    # Whether or not to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 174    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 175
 176    # Whether or not TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 177    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 178
 179    # Whether or not the NVL2 function is supported
 180    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 181
 182    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 183    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 184
 185    # Whether or not VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 186    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 187    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 188    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 189
 190    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 191        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 192        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 193        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 194        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 195        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 196        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 197        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 198    }
 199
 200    STAR_MAPPING = {
 201        "except": "EXCEPT",
 202        "replace": "REPLACE",
 203    }
 204
 205    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 206        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 207        "seconds": "second",
 208        "minutes": "minute",
 209        "hours": "hour",
 210        "days": "day",
 211        "weeks": "week",
 212        "months": "month",
 213        "quarters": "quarter",
 214        "years": "year",
 215    }
 216
 217    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 218
 219    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 220
 221    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 222
 223    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 224        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 225        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 226        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 227        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 228        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 229        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 230        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 231        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 232        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 233        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 234        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 235        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 236        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 237        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 238        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 239        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 240        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 241        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 242        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 243        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 244        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 245        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 246        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 247        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 248        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 249        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 250        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 251        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 252        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 253        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 254        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 255        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 256        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 257        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 258        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 259        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 260        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 261        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 262        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 263        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 264        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 265        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 266        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 267        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 268        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 269        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 270        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 271        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 272        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 273        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 274        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 275        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 276        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 277        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 278        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 279        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 280        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 281    }
 282
 283    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 284    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 285
 286    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 287    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 288        exp.Create,
 289        exp.Delete,
 290        exp.Drop,
 291        exp.From,
 292        exp.Insert,
 293        exp.Join,
 294        exp.Select,
 295        exp.Update,
 296        exp.Where,
 297        exp.With,
 298    )
 299
 300    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 301    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 302        exp.Column,
 303        exp.Literal,
 304        exp.Neg,
 305        exp.Paren,
 306    )
 307
 308    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 309
 310    # Autofilled
 311    INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 312    INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: t.Dict = {}
 313    INDEX_OFFSET = 0
 314    UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
 315    ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
 316    IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
 317    STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
 318    NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = "upper"
 319    NULL_ORDERING = "nulls_are_small"
 320    ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK = False
 321
 322    can_identify: t.Callable[[str, str | bool], bool]
 323
 324    # Delimiters for quotes, identifiers and the corresponding escape characters
 325    QUOTE_START = "'"
 326    QUOTE_END = "'"
 327    IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
 328    IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
 329    TOKENIZER_CLASS = Tokenizer
 330
 331    # Delimiters for bit, hex, byte and raw literals
 332    BIT_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 333    BIT_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 334    HEX_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 335    HEX_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 336    BYTE_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 337    BYTE_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 338
 339    __slots__ = (
 340        "pretty",
 341        "identify",
 342        "normalize",
 343        "pad",
 344        "_indent",
 345        "normalize_functions",
 346        "unsupported_level",
 347        "max_unsupported",
 348        "leading_comma",
 349        "max_text_width",
 350        "comments",
 351        "unsupported_messages",
 352        "_escaped_quote_end",
 353        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 354        "_cache",
 355    )
 356
 357    def __init__(
 358        self,
 359        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 360        identify: str | bool = False,
 361        normalize: bool = False,
 362        pad: int = 2,
 363        indent: int = 2,
 364        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 365        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 366        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 367        leading_comma: bool = False,
 368        max_text_width: int = 80,
 369        comments: bool = True,
 370    ):
 371        import sqlglot
 372
 373        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 374        self.identify = identify
 375        self.normalize = normalize
 376        self.pad = pad
 377        self._indent = indent
 378        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 379        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 380        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 381        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 382        self.comments = comments
 383
 384        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 385        self.normalize_functions = (
 386            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 387        )
 388
 389        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 390        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.QUOTE_END
 391        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 392            self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.IDENTIFIER_END
 393        )
 394        self._cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
 395
 396    def generate(
 397        self,
 398        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
 399        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
 400    ) -> str:
 401        """
 402        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 403
 404        Args:
 405            expression: The syntax tree.
 406            cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression
 407                which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
 408
 409        Returns:
 410            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 411        """
 412        if cache is not None:
 413            self._cache = cache
 414
 415        self.unsupported_messages = []
 416        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 417        self._cache = None
 418
 419        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 420            return sql
 421
 422        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 423            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 424                logger.warning(msg)
 425        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 426            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 427
 428        if self.pretty:
 429            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 430        return sql
 431
 432    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 433        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 434            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 435        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 436
 437    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 438        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 439
 440    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 441        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 442
 443    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 444        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 445        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 446        return comment
 447
 448    def maybe_comment(
 449        self,
 450        sql: str,
 451        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 452        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 453    ) -> str:
 454        comments = (
 455            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 456            if self.comments
 457            else None
 458        )
 459
 460        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
 461            return sql
 462
 463        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
 464        comments_sql = sep.join(
 465            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 466        )
 467
 468        if not comments_sql:
 469            return sql
 470
 471        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 472            return (
 473                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 474                if sql[0].isspace()
 475                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 476            )
 477
 478        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 479
 480    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 481        this_sql = self.indent(
 482            self.sql(expression)
 483            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 484            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 485            level=1,
 486            pad=0,
 487        )
 488        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 489
 490    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 491        original = self.identify
 492        self.identify = False
 493        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 494        self.identify = original
 495        return result
 496
 497    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 498        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 499            return name.upper()
 500        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 501            return name.lower()
 502        return name
 503
 504    def indent(
 505        self,
 506        sql: str,
 507        level: int = 0,
 508        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 509        skip_first: bool = False,
 510        skip_last: bool = False,
 511    ) -> str:
 512        if not self.pretty:
 513            return sql
 514
 515        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 516        lines = sql.split("\n")
 517
 518        return "\n".join(
 519            line
 520            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 521            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 522            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 523        )
 524
 525    def sql(
 526        self,
 527        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 528        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 529        comment: bool = True,
 530    ) -> str:
 531        if not expression:
 532            return ""
 533
 534        if isinstance(expression, str):
 535            return expression
 536
 537        if key:
 538            value = expression.args.get(key)
 539            if value:
 540                return self.sql(value)
 541            return ""
 542
 543        if self._cache is not None:
 544            expression_id = hash(expression)
 545
 546            if expression_id in self._cache:
 547                return self._cache[expression_id]
 548
 549        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 550
 551        if callable(transform):
 552            sql = transform(self, expression)
 553        elif transform:
 554            sql = transform
 555        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 556            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 557
 558            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 559                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 560            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 561                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 562            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 563                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 564            else:
 565                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 566        else:
 567            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 568
 569        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 570
 571        if self._cache is not None:
 572            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
 573        return sql
 574
 575    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 576        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 577        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 578        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 579
 580    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 581        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 582        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 583        options = expression.args.get("options")
 584        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 585        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 586        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 587        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 588        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 589
 590    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 591        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 592            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 593        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 594        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 595
 596    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 597        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 598
 599        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 600            join_mark = ""
 601            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 602
 603        column = ".".join(
 604            self.sql(part)
 605            for part in (
 606                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 607                expression.args.get("db"),
 608                expression.args.get("table"),
 609                expression.args.get("this"),
 610            )
 611            if part
 612        )
 613
 614        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 615
 616    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 617        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 618        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 619        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 620        return f"{position}{this}"
 621
 622    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 623        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 624        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 625        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 626        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 627        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 628        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 629        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 630        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 631
 632        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 633
 634    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 635        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 636        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 637        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 638
 639    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 640        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 641        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 642            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 643        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 644            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 645        else:
 646            persisted = ""
 647        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 648
 649    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 650        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 651
 652    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 653        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 654            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 655        else:
 656            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 657
 658        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 659
 660    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 661        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 662    ) -> str:
 663        this = ""
 664        if expression.this is not None:
 665            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 666            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 667
 668        start = expression.args.get("start")
 669        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 670        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 671        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 672        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 673        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 674        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 675        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 676        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 677        cycle_sql = ""
 678
 679        if cycle is not None:
 680            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 681            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 682
 683        sequence_opts = ""
 684        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 685            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 686            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 687
 688        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 689        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 690
 691        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 692
 693    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 694        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 695
 696    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 697        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 698        if desc is not None:
 699            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 700        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 701
 702    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 703        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 704        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 705        return f"UNIQUE{this}"
 706
 707    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 708        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 709
 710    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 711        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 712        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 713        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 714
 715        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 716
 717        properties_sql = ""
 718        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 719            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 720        ):
 721            properties_sql = self.sql(
 722                exp.Properties(
 723                    expressions=[
 724                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 725                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 726                    ]
 727                )
 728            )
 729
 730        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 731        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 732        if expression_sql:
 733            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
 734
 735            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 736                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 737                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 738                        exp.Properties(
 739                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 740                        ),
 741                        wrapped=False,
 742                    )
 743                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 744                else:
 745                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 746
 747        postindex_props_sql = ""
 748        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 749            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 750                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 751                wrapped=False,
 752                prefix=" ",
 753            )
 754
 755        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 756        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 757        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 758
 759        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 760        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 761
 762        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 763        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 764            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 765                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 766                sep=" ",
 767                prefix=" ",
 768                wrapped=False,
 769            )
 770
 771        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 772
 773        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 774        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 775            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 776                exp.Properties(
 777                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 778                ),
 779                sep=" ",
 780                prefix=" ",
 781                wrapped=False,
 782            )
 783
 784        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 785        no_schema_binding = (
 786            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 787        )
 788
 789        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 790        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 791
 792        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 793        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 794
 795    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 796        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 797        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
 798        this = f"{shallow}CLONE {this}"
 799        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 800
 801        if when:
 802            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 803            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 804            return f"{this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 805
 806        return this
 807
 808    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 809        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 810
 811    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 812        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 813        if with_:
 814            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 815        return sql
 816
 817    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 818        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 819        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
 820
 821        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 822
 823    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 824        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 825        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 826
 827    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 828        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 829        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 830        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 831        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 832
 833    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 834        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 835        if self.BIT_START:
 836            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
 837        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 838
 839    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 840        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 841        if self.HEX_START:
 842            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
 843        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 844
 845    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 846        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 847        if self.BYTE_START:
 848            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
 849        return this
 850
 851    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 852        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
 853        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
 854
 855    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
 856        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 857        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 858        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
 859        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 860
 861    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 862        type_value = expression.this
 863
 864        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
 865            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 866        else:
 867            type_sql = (
 868                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 869                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
 870                else type_value
 871            )
 872
 873        nested = ""
 874        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 875        values = ""
 876
 877        if interior:
 878            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 879                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 880                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 881                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 882                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 883                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 884            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
 885                nested = f" {interior}"
 886            else:
 887                nested = f"({interior})"
 888
 889        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 890        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
 891            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
 892            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
 893        ):
 894            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
 895
 896        return type_sql
 897
 898    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 899        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 900        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 901        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 902        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
 903
 904    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 905        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 906        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 907        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 908        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
 909        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
 910        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
 911        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
 912        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
 913        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
 914        if self.RETURNING_END:
 915            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
 916        else:
 917            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
 918        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
 919
 920    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
 921        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 922        kind = expression.args["kind"]
 923        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
 924        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
 925        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
 926        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
 927        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
 928        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
 929        return (
 930            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
 931        )
 932
 933    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 934        return self.prepend_ctes(
 935            expression,
 936            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
 937        )
 938
 939    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 940        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
 941
 942    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
 943        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
 944        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
 945        count = expression.args.get("count")
 946        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
 947        if expression.args.get("percent"):
 948            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
 949        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
 950        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
 951
 952    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
 953        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 954        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
 955        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
 956
 957    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
 958        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
 959            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
 960            return ""
 961
 962        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
 963
 964    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
 965        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 966        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
 967        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
 968        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
 969        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
 970        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
 971        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
 972        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 973        using = f" USING {using} " if using else ""
 974        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
 975        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 976        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 977        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
 978        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
 979        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}"
 980
 981    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
 982        text = expression.name
 983        lower = text.lower()
 984        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
 985        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
 986        if (
 987            expression.quoted
 988            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
 989            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
 990            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
 991        ):
 992            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
 993        return text
 994
 995    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
 996        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
 997        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
 998        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
 999        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1000        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1001
1002    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1003        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1004        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1005
1006    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1007        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1008
1009    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1010        root_properties = []
1011        with_properties = []
1012
1013        for p in expression.expressions:
1014            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1015            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1016                with_properties.append(p.copy())
1017            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1018                root_properties.append(p.copy())
1019
1020        return self.root_properties(
1021            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1022        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1023
1024    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1025        if properties.expressions:
1026            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1027        return ""
1028
1029    def properties(
1030        self,
1031        properties: exp.Properties,
1032        prefix: str = "",
1033        sep: str = ", ",
1034        suffix: str = "",
1035        wrapped: bool = True,
1036    ) -> str:
1037        if properties.expressions:
1038            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1039            if expressions:
1040                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1041                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1042        return ""
1043
1044    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1045        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1046
1047    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1048        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1049        for p in properties.expressions:
1050            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1051            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1052                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p.copy())
1053            else:
1054                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1055
1056        return properties_locs
1057
1058    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1059        property_cls = expression.__class__
1060        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1061            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1062
1063        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1064        if not property_name:
1065            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1066
1067        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1068
1069    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1070        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1071        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1072        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1073
1074    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1075        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1076        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1077        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1078
1079    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1080        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1081        local = expression.args.get("local")
1082        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1083        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1084        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1085        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1086        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1087
1088    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1089        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1090        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1091        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1092
1093    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1094        if expression.args.get("default"):
1095            property = "DEFAULT"
1096        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1097            property = "ON"
1098        else:
1099            property = "OFF"
1100        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1101
1102    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1103        if expression.args.get("no"):
1104            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1105        if expression.args.get("default"):
1106            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1107
1108        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1109        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1110
1111    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1112        default = expression.args.get("default")
1113        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1114        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1115        if default or minimum or maximum:
1116            if default:
1117                prop = "DEFAULT"
1118            elif minimum:
1119                prop = "MINIMUM"
1120            else:
1121                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1122            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1123        units = expression.args.get("units")
1124        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1125        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1126
1127    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1128        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1129        always = expression.args.get("always")
1130        default = expression.args.get("default")
1131        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1132        never = expression.args.get("never")
1133
1134        if autotemp is not None:
1135            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1136        elif always:
1137            prop = "ALWAYS"
1138        elif default:
1139            prop = "DEFAULT"
1140        elif manual:
1141            prop = "MANUAL"
1142        elif never:
1143            prop = "NEVER"
1144        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1145
1146    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1147        no = expression.args.get("no")
1148        no = " NO" if no else ""
1149        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1150        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1151
1152        for_ = ""
1153        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1154            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1155        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1156            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1157        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1158            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1159        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1160
1161    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1162        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1163        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1164        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1165        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1166        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1167        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1168
1169    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1170        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1171        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1172        statistics_sql = ""
1173        if statistics is not None:
1174            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1175        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1176
1177    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1178        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1179
1180        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1181            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1182        else:
1183            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1184
1185        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1186        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1187        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1188
1189        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1190
1191        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1192        partition_sql = (
1193            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1194        )
1195        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1196        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1197        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1198        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1199        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1200        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1201
1202        if self.RETURNING_END:
1203            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1204        else:
1205            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1206
1207        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1208        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1209
1210    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1211        return self.prepend_ctes(
1212            expression,
1213            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1214        )
1215
1216    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1217        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1218
1219    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1220        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1221
1222    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1223        return expression.name.upper()
1224
1225    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1226        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1227        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1228        if constraint:
1229            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1230        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1231        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1232        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1233        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1234        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1235        if expressions:
1236            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1237        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1238
1239    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1240        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1241
1242    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1243        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1244        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1245        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1246        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1247        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1248        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1249        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1250        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1251        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1252        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1253        null = expression.args.get("null")
1254        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1255        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1256
1257    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1258        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1259
1260    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1261        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1262        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1263        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1264        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1265
1266    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1267        table = ".".join(
1268            part
1269            for part in [
1270                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1271                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1272                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1273            ]
1274            if part
1275        )
1276
1277        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1278        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1279        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1280        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1281        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1282        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1283        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1284        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1285        system_time = expression.args.get("system_time")
1286        system_time = f" {self.sql(expression, 'system_time')}" if system_time else ""
1287
1288        return f"{table}{system_time}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
1289
1290    def tablesample_sql(
1291        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1292    ) -> str:
1293        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1294            table = expression.this.copy()
1295            table.set("alias", None)
1296            this = self.sql(table)
1297            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1298        else:
1299            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1300            alias = ""
1301        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1302        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1303        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1304        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1305        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1306        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1307        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1308        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1309        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1310        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1311        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1312        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1313        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1314            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1315        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1316        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1317        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1318        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
1319
1320    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1321        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1322
1323        if expression.this:
1324            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1325            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1326            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1327            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1328            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1329            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1330
1331        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1332        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1333        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1334        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1335        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1336        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1337        if include_nulls is not None:
1338            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1339        else:
1340            nulls = ""
1341        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1342
1343    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1344        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1345
1346    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1347        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1348        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1349        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1350        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1351        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1352        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1353        if self.RETURNING_END:
1354            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}{limit}"
1355        else:
1356            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}{limit}"
1357        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}"
1358        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1359
1360    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1361        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1362        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1363            args = self.expressions(expression)
1364            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1365            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1366            values = (
1367                f"({values})"
1368                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1369                else values
1370            )
1371            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1372
1373        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1374        # Note: If you have a lot of unions then this will result in a large number of recursive statements to
1375        # evaluate the expression. You may need to increase `sys.setrecursionlimit` to run and it can also be
1376        # very slow.
1377        expression = expression.copy()
1378        column_names = expression.alias and expression.args["alias"].columns
1379
1380        selects = []
1381
1382        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1383            row = tup.expressions
1384
1385            if i == 0 and column_names:
1386                row = [
1387                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1388                ]
1389
1390            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1391
1392        subquery_expression: exp.Select | exp.Union = selects[0]
1393        if len(selects) > 1:
1394            for select in selects[1:]:
1395                subquery_expression = exp.union(
1396                    subquery_expression, select, distinct=False, copy=False
1397                )
1398
1399        return self.subquery_sql(subquery_expression.subquery(expression.alias, copy=False))
1400
1401    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1402        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1403
1404    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1405        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1406        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1407        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1408
1409    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1410        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1411
1412    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1413        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1414
1415        if expression.args.get("all"):
1416            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1417
1418        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1419        grouping_sets = (
1420            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1421        )
1422
1423        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1424        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1425            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1426        else:
1427            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1428            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1429
1430        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1431        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1432            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1433        else:
1434            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1435            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1436
1437        groupings = csv(
1438            grouping_sets,
1439            cube_sql,
1440            rollup_sql,
1441            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1442            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1443        )
1444
1445        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1446            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1447
1448        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1449
1450    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1451        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1452        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1453
1454    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1455        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1456        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1457        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1458        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY {connect}")
1459        return start + connect
1460
1461    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1462        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1463
1464    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1465        op_sql = " ".join(
1466            op
1467            for op in (
1468                expression.method,
1469                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1470                expression.side,
1471                expression.kind,
1472                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1473            )
1474            if op
1475        )
1476        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1477        using = expression.args.get("using")
1478
1479        if not on_sql and using:
1480            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1481
1482        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1483
1484        if on_sql:
1485            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1486            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1487            if using:
1488                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1489            else:
1490                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1491        elif not op_sql:
1492            return f", {this_sql}"
1493
1494        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1495        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1496
1497    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1498        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1499        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1500        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1501
1502    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1503        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1504
1505        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1506            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1507
1508        if expression.args.get("view"):
1509            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1510            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1511            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1512            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1513            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1514            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1515
1516        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1517        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1518        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1519
1520    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1521        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1522        args = ", ".join(
1523            sql
1524            for sql in (
1525                self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1526                self.sql(expression, "expression"),
1527            )
1528            if sql
1529        )
1530        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args}"
1531
1532    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1533        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1534        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1535
1536    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1537        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1538        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1539        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1540        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1541        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1542        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1543        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1544        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1545
1546    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1547        expressions = (
1548            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1549        )
1550        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1551        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1552
1553    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1554        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1555
1556    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1557        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1558            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1559            return ""
1560
1561        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1562        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1563        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1564        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1565
1566        if wait is not None:
1567            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1568                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1569            else:
1570                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1571
1572        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1573
1574    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1575        text = expression.this or ""
1576        if expression.is_string:
1577            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1578        return text
1579
1580    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1581        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1582        if self.ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK:
1583            text = text.replace("\n", "\\n")
1584        elif self.pretty:
1585            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1586        return text
1587
1588    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1589        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1590        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1591        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1592        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1593        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1594        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1595        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1596        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1597        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1598        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1599        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1600
1601    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1602        return "NULL"
1603
1604    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1605        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1606
1607    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1608        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1609        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1610        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1611
1612    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1613        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1614
1615    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1616        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1617
1618    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1619        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1620
1621    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1622        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1623        asc = not desc
1624
1625        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1626        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1627        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1628        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1629        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1630
1631        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1632        nulls_sort_change = ""
1633        if nulls_first and (
1634            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1635        ):
1636            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1637        elif (
1638            nulls_last
1639            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1640            and not nulls_are_last
1641        ):
1642            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1643
1644        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1645            self.unsupported(
1646                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1647            )
1648            nulls_sort_change = ""
1649
1650        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1651
1652    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1653        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1654        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1655        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1656        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1657        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1658        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1659        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1660        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1661        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1662        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1663        definition_sqls = [
1664            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1665            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1666        ]
1667        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1668        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1669        body = "".join(
1670            (
1671                partition,
1672                order,
1673                measures,
1674                rows,
1675                after,
1676                pattern,
1677                define,
1678            )
1679        )
1680        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1681        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1682        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1683
1684    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1685        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1686
1687        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1688        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1689
1690        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1691            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1692        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1693            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1694
1695        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1696
1697        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1698            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1699            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1700            else []
1701        )
1702
1703        return csv(
1704            *sqls,
1705            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1706            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
1707            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1708            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1709            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1710            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1711            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1712            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1713            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1714            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1715            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1716            sep="",
1717        )
1718
1719    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1720        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1721    ) -> t.List[str]:
1722        return [
1723            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1724            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1725        ]
1726
1727    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1728        return [
1729            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1730            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1731            if expression.args.get("windows")
1732            else "",
1733            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1734            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1735            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1736        ]
1737
1738    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1739        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1740        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1741        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1742
1743    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1744        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1745        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1746        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1747        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1748        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1749        top = (
1750            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1751            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1752            else ""
1753        )
1754
1755        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1756
1757        if kind:
1758            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1759                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1760            else:
1761                if kind == "STRUCT":
1762                    expressions = self.expressions(
1763                        sqls=[
1764                            self.sql(
1765                                exp.Struct(
1766                                    expressions=[
1767                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1768                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1769                                        )
1770                                        for e in expression.expressions
1771                                    ]
1772                                )
1773                            )
1774                        ]
1775                    )
1776                kind = ""
1777
1778        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1779        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1780            expression,
1781            f"SELECT{top}{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1782            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1783            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1784        )
1785        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1786
1787    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1788        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1789        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1790        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1791        return f"{this}{sql}"
1792
1793    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1794        return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1795
1796    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1797        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1798        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1799        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1800        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1801        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
1802
1803    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1804        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1805        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1806        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
1807
1808    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1809        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1810        kind = expression.text("kind")
1811        if kind:
1812            kind = f"{kind}."
1813        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
1814
1815    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1816        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
1817
1818    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1819        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1820        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1821
1822        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1823        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1824
1825        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1826        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1827
1828    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1829        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1830        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1831
1832    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1833        return self.prepend_ctes(
1834            expression,
1835            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1836        )
1837
1838    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1839        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1840        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1841        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1842        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
1843
1844    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1845        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1846        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1847        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1848            columns = alias.columns
1849            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1850        else:
1851            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1852        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1853        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1854        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1855        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1856        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
1857
1858    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1859        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1860        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1861
1862    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1863        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1864        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1865        order = expression.args.get("order")
1866        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1867        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1868        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1869        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1870
1871        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1872
1873        first = expression.args.get("first")
1874        if first is None:
1875            first = ""
1876        else:
1877            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1878
1879        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1880            return f"{this} {alias}"
1881
1882        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1883        return f"{this} ({args})"
1884
1885    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1886        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1887        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
1888
1889    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1890        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1891        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1892        end = (
1893            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1894            or "CURRENT ROW"
1895        )
1896        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
1897
1898    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1899        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1900        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1901        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
1902
1903    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1904        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1905        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1906        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1907        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
1908
1909    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1910        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
1911        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1912
1913        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
1914
1915    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
1916        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
1917
1918    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1919        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
1920
1921    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1922        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1923        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1924            this = self.wrap(this)
1925        return f"ANY {this}"
1926
1927    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1928        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
1929
1930    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1931        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1932        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1933
1934        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1935            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1936            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1937
1938        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1939
1940        if default:
1941            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1942
1943        statements.append("END")
1944
1945        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
1946            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1947
1948        return " ".join(statements)
1949
1950    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1951        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1952        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1953        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
1954
1955    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1956        order = expression.args.get("order")
1957        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1958        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
1959
1960    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1961        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
1962        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1963        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
1964
1965    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1966        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1967
1968        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1969            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1970        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1971            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1972        else:
1973            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
1974
1975    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
1976        expressions = expression.expressions
1977        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
1978            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
1979        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
1980
1981    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1982        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1983        return f"CHECK ({this})"
1984
1985    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1986        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1987        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1988        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1989        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
1990        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
1991        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
1992        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
1993        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
1994
1995    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1996        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1997        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1998        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1999        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2000
2001    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2002        expression = expression.copy()
2003        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2004
2005    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2006        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2007        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2008        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2009
2010    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2011        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2012
2013    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
2014        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2015        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2016        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2017        if unique_keys is not None:
2018            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2019        else:
2020            unique_keys = ""
2021        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2022        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2023        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
2024        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2025        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2026        return self.func(
2027            "JSON_OBJECT",
2028            *expression.expressions,
2029            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})",
2030        )
2031
2032    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2033        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2034        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2035        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2036        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2037        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2038        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2039
2040    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2041        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2042        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2043        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2044        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2045        with_ = (
2046            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2047            if expressions
2048            else ""
2049        )
2050        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2051
2052    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2053        query = expression.args.get("query")
2054        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2055        field = expression.args.get("field")
2056        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2057
2058        if query:
2059            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2060        elif unnest:
2061            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2062        elif field:
2063            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2064        else:
2065            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2066
2067        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2068
2069    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2070        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2071
2072    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2073        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2074        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2075            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
2076        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2077
2078        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2079            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2080            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2081
2082        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2083        if this:
2084            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2085            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2086
2087        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2088
2089    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2090        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2091
2092    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2093        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2094        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2095        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2096        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2097        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2098        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2099
2100    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2101        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
2102
2103    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2104        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2105            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2106        else:
2107            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2108            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2109
2110        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2111
2112    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2113        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2114        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2115        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2116        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2117
2118    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2119        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2120
2121    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2122        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2123        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2124        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2125
2126    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2127        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2128
2129    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2130        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2131        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2132        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2133
2134    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2135        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2136
2137    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2138        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
2139
2140    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2141        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
2142
2143    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2144        if not self.pretty:
2145            return self.binary(expression, op)
2146
2147        sqls = tuple(
2148            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2149            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2150        )
2151
2152        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2153        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
2154
2155    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2156        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2157
2158    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2159        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2160
2161    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2162        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2163
2164    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2165        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2166
2167    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2168        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2169
2170    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2171        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2172
2173    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2174        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2175        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2176        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')}{format_sql})"
2177
2178    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2179        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2180        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2181
2182    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2183        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2184
2185    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2186        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2187
2188    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2189        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2190        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2191        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2192        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2193        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2194
2195    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2196        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2197        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2198        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2199        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2200        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2201        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2202        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2203        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2204        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2205
2206    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2207        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2208        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2209        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2210        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2211
2212        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2213            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2214
2215        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2216
2217    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2218        return "BEGIN"
2219
2220    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2221        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2222        if chain is not None:
2223            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2224
2225        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2226
2227    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2228        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2229        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2230        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2231
2232    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2233        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2234
2235        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2236        if dtype:
2237            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2238            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2239            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2240            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2241            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2242
2243        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2244        if default:
2245            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2246
2247        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2248            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2249
2250        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2251
2252    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2253        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2254            # Remove db from tables
2255            expression = expression.transform(
2256                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2257            )
2258        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2259        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2260
2261    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2262        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2263
2264        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2265            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMN ")
2266        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2267            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2268        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2269            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2270        else:
2271            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2272
2273        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2274        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2275
2276    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2277        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2278        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2279        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2280
2281    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2282        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2283        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2284        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2285
2286        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2287        if enforced is not None:
2288            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2289
2290        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2291
2292    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2293        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2294        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2295
2296        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2297        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2298        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2299
2300    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2301        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2302
2303    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2304        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2305
2306    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2307        return self.sql(
2308            exp.Cast(
2309                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this.copy(), expression=expression.expression.copy()),
2310                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2311            )
2312        )
2313
2314    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2315        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2316
2317    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2318        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2319            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2320        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
2321
2322    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2323        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2324
2325    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2326        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2327
2328    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2329        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2330
2331    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2332        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2333
2334    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2335        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2336
2337    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2338        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2339
2340    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2341        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2342
2343    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2344        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2345
2346    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2347        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2348
2349    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2350        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2351
2352    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2353        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2354
2355    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2356        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2357            return self.sql(
2358                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2359            )
2360        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2361
2362    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2363        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2364
2365    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2366        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2367
2368    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2369        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2370
2371    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2372        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2373
2374    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2375        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2376
2377    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2378        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2379
2380    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2381        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2382
2383    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2384        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2385
2386    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2387        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2388
2389    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2390        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2391
2392    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2393        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2394
2395    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2396        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2397
2398    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2399        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2400
2401    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2402        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
2403
2404    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2405        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2406        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2407        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2408        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2409        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2410
2411    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2412        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2413        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2414
2415    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2416        args = []
2417
2418        for key in expression.arg_types:
2419            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2420
2421            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2422                for value in arg_value:
2423                    args.append(value)
2424            elif arg_value is not None:
2425                args.append(arg_value)
2426
2427        if self.normalize_functions:
2428            name = expression.sql_name()
2429        else:
2430            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2431
2432        return self.func(name, *args)
2433
2434    def func(
2435        self,
2436        name: str,
2437        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2438        prefix: str = "(",
2439        suffix: str = ")",
2440    ) -> str:
2441        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2442
2443    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2444        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2445        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2446            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2447        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2448
2449    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2450        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2451
2452    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2453        return format_time(
2454            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2455        )
2456
2457    def expressions(
2458        self,
2459        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2460        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2461        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2462        flat: bool = False,
2463        indent: bool = True,
2464        skip_first: bool = False,
2465        sep: str = ", ",
2466        prefix: str = "",
2467    ) -> str:
2468        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2469
2470        if not expressions:
2471            return ""
2472
2473        if flat:
2474            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2475
2476        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2477
2478        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2479        pad = " " * self.pad
2480        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2481
2482        result_sqls = []
2483        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2484            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2485            if not sql:
2486                continue
2487
2488            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2489
2490            if self.pretty:
2491                if self.leading_comma:
2492                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2493                else:
2494                    result_sqls.append(
2495                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2496                    )
2497            else:
2498                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2499
2500        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2501        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
2502
2503    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2504        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2505        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2506        if flat:
2507            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2508        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2509
2510    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2511        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2512        if not property_name:
2513            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2514        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2515
2516    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2517        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2518        op = self.seg(op)
2519        return self.query_modifiers(
2520            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2521        )
2522
2523    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2524        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2525
2526    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2527        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2528
2529    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2530        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2531        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2532        expressions = (
2533            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2534        )
2535        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2536
2537    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2538        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2539        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2540        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2541
2542    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2543        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2544
2545    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2546        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2547        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2548        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2549        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2550
2551        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2552        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2553            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2554            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2555                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2556        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2557            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2558                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2559            else:
2560                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2561        else:
2562            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2563        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2564
2565    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2566        table = expression.this
2567        table_alias = ""
2568
2569        hints = table.args.get("hints")
2570        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
2571            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
2572            table = table.copy()
2573            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
2574
2575        this = self.sql(table)
2576        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2577        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2578        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
2579
2580        return f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
2581
2582    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2583        if expression.args.get("format"):
2584            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2585
2586        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2587
2588    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2589        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2590        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2591        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2592        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2593        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2594
2595    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2596        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2597        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2598        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2599        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2600
2601    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2602        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
2603
2604    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2605        return ""
2606
2607    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2608        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2609        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2610        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2611        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2612        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
2613
2614    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2615        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2616        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2617
2618        if having:
2619            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2620
2621        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
2622
2623    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2624        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2625        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2626        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2627        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2628        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2629        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2630        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2631        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2632        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2633        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2634        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2635        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
2636        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
2637
2638    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2639        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
2640        if key_block_size:
2641            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
2642
2643        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2644        if using:
2645            return f"USING {using}"
2646
2647        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
2648        if parser:
2649            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
2650
2651        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2652        if comment:
2653            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
2654
2655        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
2656        if visible is not None:
2657            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
2658
2659        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
2660        if engine_attr:
2661            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
2662
2663        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
2664        if secondary_engine_attr:
2665            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
2666
2667        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
2668        return ""
2669
2670    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2671        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2672        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
2673        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2674        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2675        type_ = self.sql(expression, "type")
2676        type_ = f" USING {type_}" if type_ else ""
2677        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2678        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
2679        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
2680        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2681        return f"{kind}{this}{type_}{schema}{options}"
2682
2683    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
2684        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
2685            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2686
2687        case = exp.Case().when(
2688            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
2689            expression.args["true"].copy(),
2690            copy=False,
2691        )
2692        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
2693        if else_cond:
2694            case.else_(else_cond.copy(), copy=False)
2695
2696        return self.sql(case)
2697
2698    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
2699        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2700        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2701        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
2702        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2703        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
2704        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

Arguments:
  • pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
  • identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  • normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
  • pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
  • unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True)
357    def __init__(
358        self,
359        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
360        identify: str | bool = False,
361        normalize: bool = False,
362        pad: int = 2,
363        indent: int = 2,
364        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
365        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
366        max_unsupported: int = 3,
367        leading_comma: bool = False,
368        max_text_width: int = 80,
369        comments: bool = True,
370    ):
371        import sqlglot
372
373        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
374        self.identify = identify
375        self.normalize = normalize
376        self.pad = pad
377        self._indent = indent
378        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
379        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
380        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
381        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
382        self.comments = comments
383
384        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
385        self.normalize_functions = (
386            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
387        )
388
389        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
390        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.QUOTE_END
391        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
392            self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.IDENTIFIER_END
393        )
394        self._cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
TRANSFORMS = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsAdd'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalDayToSecondSpan'>: 'DAY TO SECOND', <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalYearToMonthSpan'>: 'YEAR TO MONTH', <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NonClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXPLICIT_UNION = False
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINT_SEP = ', '
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
RETURNING_END = True
COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET'}
STAR_MAPPING = {'except': 'EXCEPT', 'replace': 'REPLACE'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'microseconds': 'microsecond', 'seconds': 'second', 'minutes': 'minute', 'hours': 'hour', 'days': 'day', 'weeks': 'week', 'months': 'month', 'quarters': 'quarter', 'years': 'year'}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: Dict[str, str] = {}
INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: Dict = {}
INDEX_OFFSET = 0
UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = 'upper'
NULL_ORDERING = 'nulls_are_small'
ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK = False
@classmethod
def can_identify(text: str, identify: str | bool = 'safe') -> bool:
256    @classmethod
257    def can_identify(cls, text: str, identify: str | bool = "safe") -> bool:
258        """Checks if text can be identified given an identify option.
259
260        Args:
261            text: The text to check.
262            identify:
263                "always" or `True`: Always returns true.
264                "safe": True if the identifier is case-insensitive.
265
266        Returns:
267            Whether or not the given text can be identified.
268        """
269        if identify is True or identify == "always":
270            return True
271
272        if identify == "safe":
273            return not cls.case_sensitive(text)
274
275        return False

Checks if text can be identified given an identify option.

Arguments:
  • text: The text to check.
  • identify: "always" or True: Always returns true. "safe": True if the identifier is case-insensitive.
Returns:

Whether or not the given text can be identified.

QUOTE_START = "'"
QUOTE_END = "'"
IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
TOKENIZER_CLASS = <class 'sqlglot.tokens.Tokenizer'>
BIT_START: Optional[str] = None
BIT_END: Optional[str] = None
HEX_START: Optional[str] = None
HEX_END: Optional[str] = None
BYTE_START: Optional[str] = None
BYTE_END: Optional[str] = None
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], cache: Optional[Dict[int, str]] = None) -> str:
396    def generate(
397        self,
398        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
399        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
400    ) -> str:
401        """
402        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
403
404        Args:
405            expression: The syntax tree.
406            cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression
407                which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
408
409        Returns:
410            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
411        """
412        if cache is not None:
413            self._cache = cache
414
415        self.unsupported_messages = []
416        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
417        self._cache = None
418
419        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
420            return sql
421
422        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
423            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
424                logger.warning(msg)
425        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
426            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
427
428        if self.pretty:
429            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
430        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

Arguments:
  • expression: The syntax tree.
  • cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
Returns:

The SQL string corresponding to expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
432    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
433        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
434            raise UnsupportedError(message)
435        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
437    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
438        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
440    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
441        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
443    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
444        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
445        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
446        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None) -> str:
448    def maybe_comment(
449        self,
450        sql: str,
451        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
452        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
453    ) -> str:
454        comments = (
455            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
456            if self.comments
457            else None
458        )
459
460        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
461            return sql
462
463        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
464        comments_sql = sep.join(
465            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
466        )
467
468        if not comments_sql:
469            return sql
470
471        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
472            return (
473                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
474                if sql[0].isspace()
475                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
476            )
477
478        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
480    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
481        this_sql = self.indent(
482            self.sql(expression)
483            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
484            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
485            level=1,
486            pad=0,
487        )
488        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
490    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
491        original = self.identify
492        self.identify = False
493        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
494        self.identify = original
495        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
497    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
498        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
499            return name.upper()
500        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
501            return name.lower()
502        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
504    def indent(
505        self,
506        sql: str,
507        level: int = 0,
508        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
509        skip_first: bool = False,
510        skip_last: bool = False,
511    ) -> str:
512        if not self.pretty:
513            return sql
514
515        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
516        lines = sql.split("\n")
517
518        return "\n".join(
519            line
520            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
521            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
522            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
523        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
525    def sql(
526        self,
527        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
528        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
529        comment: bool = True,
530    ) -> str:
531        if not expression:
532            return ""
533
534        if isinstance(expression, str):
535            return expression
536
537        if key:
538            value = expression.args.get(key)
539            if value:
540                return self.sql(value)
541            return ""
542
543        if self._cache is not None:
544            expression_id = hash(expression)
545
546            if expression_id in self._cache:
547                return self._cache[expression_id]
548
549        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
550
551        if callable(transform):
552            sql = transform(self, expression)
553        elif transform:
554            sql = transform
555        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
556            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
557
558            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
559                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
560            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
561                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
562            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
563                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
564            else:
565                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
566        else:
567            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
568
569        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
570
571        if self._cache is not None:
572            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
573        return sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
575    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
576        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
577        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
578        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
580    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
581        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
582        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
583        options = expression.args.get("options")
584        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
585        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
586        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
587        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
588        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
590    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
591        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
592            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
593        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
594        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
596    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
597        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
598
599        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
600            join_mark = ""
601            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
602
603        column = ".".join(
604            self.sql(part)
605            for part in (
606                expression.args.get("catalog"),
607                expression.args.get("db"),
608                expression.args.get("table"),
609                expression.args.get("this"),
610            )
611            if part
612        )
613
614        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
616    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
617        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
618        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
619        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
620        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
622    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
623        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
624        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
625        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
626        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
627        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
628        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
629        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
630        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
631
632        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
634    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
635        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
636        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
637        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
639    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
640        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
641        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
642            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
643        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
644            persisted = " PERSISTED"
645        else:
646            persisted = ""
647        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
649    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
650        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
652    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
653        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
654            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
655        else:
656            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
657
658        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
660    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
661        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
662    ) -> str:
663        this = ""
664        if expression.this is not None:
665            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
666            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
667
668        start = expression.args.get("start")
669        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
670        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
671        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
672        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
673        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
674        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
675        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
676        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
677        cycle_sql = ""
678
679        if cycle is not None:
680            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
681            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
682
683        sequence_opts = ""
684        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
685            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
686            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
687
688        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
689        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
690
691        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
693    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
694        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
696    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
697        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
698        if desc is not None:
699            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
700        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
702    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
703        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
704        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
705        return f"UNIQUE{this}"
def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: DefaultDict) -> str:
707    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
708        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
710    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
711        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
712        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
713        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
714
715        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
716
717        properties_sql = ""
718        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
719            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
720        ):
721            properties_sql = self.sql(
722                exp.Properties(
723                    expressions=[
724                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
725                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
726                    ]
727                )
728            )
729
730        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
731        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
732        if expression_sql:
733            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
734
735            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
736                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
737                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
738                        exp.Properties(
739                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
740                        ),
741                        wrapped=False,
742                    )
743                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
744                else:
745                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
746
747        postindex_props_sql = ""
748        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
749            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
750                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
751                wrapped=False,
752                prefix=" ",
753            )
754
755        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
756        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
757        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
758
759        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
760        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
761
762        postcreate_props_sql = ""
763        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
764            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
765                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
766                sep=" ",
767                prefix=" ",
768                wrapped=False,
769            )
770
771        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
772
773        postexpression_props_sql = ""
774        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
775            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
776                exp.Properties(
777                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
778                ),
779                sep=" ",
780                prefix=" ",
781                wrapped=False,
782            )
783
784        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
785        no_schema_binding = (
786            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
787        )
788
789        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
790        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
791
792        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
793        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
795    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
796        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
797        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
798        this = f"{shallow}CLONE {this}"
799        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
800
801        if when:
802            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
803            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
804            return f"{this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
805
806        return this
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
808    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
809        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
811    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
812        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
813        if with_:
814            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
815        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
817    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
818        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
819        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
820
821        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
823    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
824        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
825        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
827    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
828        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
829        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
830        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
831        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
833    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
834        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
835        if self.BIT_START:
836            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
837        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
839    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
840        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
841        if self.HEX_START:
842            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
843        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
845    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
846        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
847        if self.BYTE_START:
848            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
849        return this
def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str:
851    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
852        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
853        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeParam) -> str:
855    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
856        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
857        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
858        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
859        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
861    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
862        type_value = expression.this
863
864        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
865            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
866        else:
867            type_sql = (
868                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
869                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
870                else type_value
871            )
872
873        nested = ""
874        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
875        values = ""
876
877        if interior:
878            if expression.args.get("nested"):
879                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
880                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
881                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
882                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
883                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
884            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
885                nested = f" {interior}"
886            else:
887                nested = f"({interior})"
888
889        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
890        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
891            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
892            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
893        ):
894            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
895
896        return type_sql
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
898    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
899        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
900        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
901        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
902        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
904    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
905        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
906        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
907        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
908        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
909        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
910        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
911        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
912        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
913        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
914        if self.RETURNING_END:
915            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
916        else:
917            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
918        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
920    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
921        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
922        kind = expression.args["kind"]
923        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
924        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
925        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
926        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
927        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
928        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
929        return (
930            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
931        )
def except_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
933    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
934        return self.prepend_ctes(
935            expression,
936            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
937        )
def except_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
939    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
940        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
942    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
943        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
944        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
945        count = expression.args.get("count")
946        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
947        if expression.args.get("percent"):
948            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
949        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
950        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
952    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
953        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
954        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
955        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
957    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
958        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
959            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
960            return ""
961
962        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
964    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
965        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
966        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
967        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
968        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
969        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
970        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
971        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
972        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
973        using = f" USING {using} " if using else ""
974        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
975        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
976        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
977        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
978        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
979        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
981    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
982        text = expression.name
983        lower = text.lower()
984        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
985        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
986        if (
987            expression.quoted
988            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
989            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
990            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
991        ):
992            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
993        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
 995    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
 996        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
 997        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
 998        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
 999        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1000        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str:
1002    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1003        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1004        return f"{prefix}{string}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
1006    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1007        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1009    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1010        root_properties = []
1011        with_properties = []
1012
1013        for p in expression.expressions:
1014            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1015            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1016                with_properties.append(p.copy())
1017            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1018                root_properties.append(p.copy())
1019
1020        return self.root_properties(
1021            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1022        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1024    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1025        if properties.expressions:
1026            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1027        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
1029    def properties(
1030        self,
1031        properties: exp.Properties,
1032        prefix: str = "",
1033        sep: str = ", ",
1034        suffix: str = "",
1035        wrapped: bool = True,
1036    ) -> str:
1037        if properties.expressions:
1038            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1039            if expressions:
1040                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1041                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1042        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1044    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1045        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
def locate_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> DefaultDict:
1047    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1048        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1049        for p in properties.expressions:
1050            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1051            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1052                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p.copy())
1053            else:
1054                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1055
1056        return properties_locs
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
1058    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1059        property_cls = expression.__class__
1060        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1061            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1062
1063        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1064        if not property_name:
1065            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1066
1067        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
1069    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1070        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1071        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1072        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1074    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1075        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1076        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1077        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
1079    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1080        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1081        local = expression.args.get("local")
1082        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1083        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1084        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1085        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1086        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1088    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1089        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1090        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1091        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1093    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1094        if expression.args.get("default"):
1095            property = "DEFAULT"
1096        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1097            property = "ON"
1098        else:
1099            property = "OFF"
1100        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1102    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1103        if expression.args.get("no"):
1104            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1105        if expression.args.get("default"):
1106            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1107
1108        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1109        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1111    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1112        default = expression.args.get("default")
1113        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1114        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1115        if default or minimum or maximum:
1116            if default:
1117                prop = "DEFAULT"
1118            elif minimum:
1119                prop = "MINIMUM"
1120            else:
1121                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1122            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1123        units = expression.args.get("units")
1124        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1125        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1127    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1128        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1129        always = expression.args.get("always")
1130        default = expression.args.get("default")
1131        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1132        never = expression.args.get("never")
1133
1134        if autotemp is not None:
1135            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1136        elif always:
1137            prop = "ALWAYS"
1138        elif default:
1139            prop = "DEFAULT"
1140        elif manual:
1141            prop = "MANUAL"
1142        elif never:
1143            prop = "NEVER"
1144        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1146    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1147        no = expression.args.get("no")
1148        no = " NO" if no else ""
1149        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1150        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1151
1152        for_ = ""
1153        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1154            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1155        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1156            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1157        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1158            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1159        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1161    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1162        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1163        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1164        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1165        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1166        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1167        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1169    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1170        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1171        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1172        statistics_sql = ""
1173        if statistics is not None:
1174            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1175        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1177    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1178        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1179
1180        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1181            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1182        else:
1183            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1184
1185        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1186        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1187        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1188
1189        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1190
1191        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1192        partition_sql = (
1193            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1194        )
1195        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1196        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1197        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1198        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1199        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1200        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1201
1202        if self.RETURNING_END:
1203            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1204        else:
1205            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1206
1207        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1208        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def intersect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1210    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1211        return self.prepend_ctes(
1212            expression,
1213            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1214        )
def intersect_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1216    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1217        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1219    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1220        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1222    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1223        return expression.name.upper()
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1225    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1226        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1227        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1228        if constraint:
1229            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1230        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1231        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1232        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1233        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1234        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1235        if expressions:
1236            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1237        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1239    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1240        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1242    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1243        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1244        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1245        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1246        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1247        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1248        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1249        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1250        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1251        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1252        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1253        null = expression.args.get("null")
1254        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1255        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint) -> str:
1257    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1258        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1260    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1261        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1262        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1263        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1264        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1266    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1267        table = ".".join(
1268            part
1269            for part in [
1270                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1271                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1272                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1273            ]
1274            if part
1275        )
1276
1277        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1278        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1279        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1280        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1281        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1282        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1283        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1284        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1285        system_time = expression.args.get("system_time")
1286        system_time = f" {self.sql(expression, 'system_time')}" if system_time else ""
1287
1288        return f"{table}{system_time}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = 'SEED', sep=' AS ') -> str:
1290    def tablesample_sql(
1291        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1292    ) -> str:
1293        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1294            table = expression.this.copy()
1295            table.set("alias", None)
1296            this = self.sql(table)
1297            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1298        else:
1299            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1300            alias = ""
1301        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1302        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1303        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1304        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1305        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1306        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1307        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1308        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1309        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1310        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1311        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1312        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1313        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1314            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1315        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1316        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1317        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1318        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1320    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1321        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1322
1323        if expression.this:
1324            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1325            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1326            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1327            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1328            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1329            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1330
1331        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1332        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1333        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1334        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1335        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1336        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1337        if include_nulls is not None:
1338            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1339        else:
1340            nulls = ""
1341        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
1343    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1344        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
1346    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1347        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1348        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1349        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1350        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1351        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1352        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1353        if self.RETURNING_END:
1354            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}{limit}"
1355        else:
1356            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}{limit}"
1357        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}"
1358        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values) -> str:
1360    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1361        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1362        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1363            args = self.expressions(expression)
1364            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1365            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1366            values = (
1367                f"({values})"
1368                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1369                else values
1370            )
1371            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1372
1373        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1374        # Note: If you have a lot of unions then this will result in a large number of recursive statements to
1375        # evaluate the expression. You may need to increase `sys.setrecursionlimit` to run and it can also be
1376        # very slow.
1377        expression = expression.copy()
1378        column_names = expression.alias and expression.args["alias"].columns
1379
1380        selects = []
1381
1382        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1383            row = tup.expressions
1384
1385            if i == 0 and column_names:
1386                row = [
1387                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1388                ]
1389
1390            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1391
1392        subquery_expression: exp.Select | exp.Union = selects[0]
1393        if len(selects) > 1:
1394            for select in selects[1:]:
1395                subquery_expression = exp.union(
1396                    subquery_expression, select, distinct=False, copy=False
1397                )
1398
1399        return self.subquery_sql(subquery_expression.subquery(expression.alias, copy=False))
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
1401    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1402        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
1404    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1405        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1406        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1407        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
1409    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1410        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
1412    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1413        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1414
1415        if expression.args.get("all"):
1416            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1417
1418        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1419        grouping_sets = (
1420            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1421        )
1422
1423        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1424        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1425            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1426        else:
1427            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1428            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1429
1430        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1431        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1432            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1433        else:
1434            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1435            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1436
1437        groupings = csv(
1438            grouping_sets,
1439            cube_sql,
1440            rollup_sql,
1441            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1442            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1443        )
1444
1445        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1446            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1447
1448        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
1450    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1451        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1452        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def connect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connect) -> str:
1454    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1455        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1456        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1457        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1458        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY {connect}")
1459        return start + connect
def prior_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Prior) -> str:
1461    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1462        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
1464    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1465        op_sql = " ".join(
1466            op
1467            for op in (
1468                expression.method,
1469                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1470                expression.side,
1471                expression.kind,
1472                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1473            )
1474            if op
1475        )
1476        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1477        using = expression.args.get("using")
1478
1479        if not on_sql and using:
1480            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1481
1482        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1483
1484        if on_sql:
1485            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1486            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1487            if using:
1488                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1489            else:
1490                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1491        elif not op_sql:
1492            return f", {this_sql}"
1493
1494        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1495        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
1497    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1498        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1499        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1500        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
1502    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1503        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1504
1505        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1506            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1507
1508        if expression.args.get("view"):
1509            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1510            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1511            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1512            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1513            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1514            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1515
1516        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1517        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1518        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1520    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1521        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1522        args = ", ".join(
1523            sql
1524            for sql in (
1525                self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1526                self.sql(expression, "expression"),
1527            )
1528            if sql
1529        )
1530        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
1532    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1533        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1534        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
1536    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1537        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1538        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1539        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1540        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1541        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1542        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1543        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1544        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
1546    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1547        expressions = (
1548            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1549        )
1550        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1551        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
1553    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1554        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
1556    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1557        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1558            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1559            return ""
1560
1561        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1562        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1563        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1564        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1565
1566        if wait is not None:
1567            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1568                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1569            else:
1570                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1571
1572        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
1574    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1575        text = expression.this or ""
1576        if expression.is_string:
1577            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1578        return text
def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1580    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1581        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1582        if self.ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK:
1583            text = text.replace("\n", "\\n")
1584        elif self.pretty:
1585            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1586        return text
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
1588    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1589        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1590        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1591        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1592        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1593        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1594        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1595        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1596        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1597        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1598        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1599        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1601    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1602        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
1604    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1605        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1607    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1608        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1609        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1610        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
1612    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1613        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
1615    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1616        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
1618    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1619        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
1621    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1622        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1623        asc = not desc
1624
1625        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1626        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1627        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1628        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1629        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1630
1631        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1632        nulls_sort_change = ""
1633        if nulls_first and (
1634            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1635        ):
1636            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1637        elif (
1638            nulls_last
1639            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1640            and not nulls_are_last
1641        ):
1642            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1643
1644        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1645            self.unsupported(
1646                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1647            )
1648            nulls_sort_change = ""
1649
1650        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1652    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1653        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1654        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1655        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1656        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1657        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1658        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1659        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1660        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1661        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1662        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1663        definition_sqls = [
1664            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1665            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1666        ]
1667        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1668        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1669        body = "".join(
1670            (
1671                partition,
1672                order,
1673                measures,
1674                rows,
1675                after,
1676                pattern,
1677                define,
1678            )
1679        )
1680        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1681        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1682        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1684    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1685        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1686
1687        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1688        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1689
1690        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1691            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1692        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1693            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1694
1695        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1696
1697        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1698            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1699            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1700            else []
1701        )
1702
1703        return csv(
1704            *sqls,
1705            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1706            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
1707            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1708            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1709            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1710            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1711            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1712            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1713            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1714            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1715            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1716            sep="",
1717        )
def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]:
1719    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1720        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1721    ) -> t.List[str]:
1722        return [
1723            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1724            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1725        ]
def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
1727    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1728        return [
1729            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1730            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1731            if expression.args.get("windows")
1732            else "",
1733            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1734            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1735            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1736        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
1738    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1739        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1740        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1741        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
1743    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1744        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1745        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1746        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1747        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1748        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1749        top = (
1750            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1751            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1752            else ""
1753        )
1754
1755        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1756
1757        if kind:
1758            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1759                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1760            else:
1761                if kind == "STRUCT":
1762                    expressions = self.expressions(
1763                        sqls=[
1764                            self.sql(
1765                                exp.Struct(
1766                                    expressions=[
1767                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1768                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1769                                        )
1770                                        for e in expression.expressions
1771                                    ]
1772                                )
1773                            )
1774                        ]
1775                    )
1776                kind = ""
1777
1778        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1779        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1780            expression,
1781            f"SELECT{top}{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1782            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1783            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1784        )
1785        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
1787    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1788        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1789        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1790        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1791        return f"{this}{sql}"
def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
1793    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1794        return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
1796    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1797        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1798        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1799        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1800        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1801        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
1803    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1804        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1805        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1806        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
1808    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1809        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1810        kind = expression.text("kind")
1811        if kind:
1812            kind = f"{kind}."
1813        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
1815    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1816        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1818    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1819        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1820        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1821
1822        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1823        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1824
1825        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1826        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
1828    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1829        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1830        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def union_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
1832    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1833        return self.prepend_ctes(
1834            expression,
1835            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1836        )
def union_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
1838    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1839        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1840        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1841        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1842        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
1844    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1845        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1846        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1847        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1848            columns = alias.columns
1849            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1850        else:
1851            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1852        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1853        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1854        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1855        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1856        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
1858    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1859        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1860        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
1862    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1863        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1864        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1865        order = expression.args.get("order")
1866        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1867        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1868        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1869        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1870
1871        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1872
1873        first = expression.args.get("first")
1874        if first is None:
1875            first = ""
1876        else:
1877            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1878
1879        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1880            return f"{this} {alias}"
1881
1882        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1883        return f"{this} ({args})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1885    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1886        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1887        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
1889    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1890        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1891        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1892        end = (
1893            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1894            or "CURRENT ROW"
1895        )
1896        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
1898    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1899        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1900        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1901        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
1903    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1904        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1905        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1906        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1907        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
1909    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1910        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
1911        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1912
1913        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def safebracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeBracket) -> str:
1915    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
1916        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
1918    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1919        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
1921    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1922        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1923        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1924            this = self.wrap(this)
1925        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
1927    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1928        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
1930    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1931        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1932        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1933
1934        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1935            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1936            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1937
1938        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1939
1940        if default:
1941            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1942
1943        statements.append("END")
1944
1945        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
1946            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1947
1948        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
1950    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1951        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1952        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1953        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
1955    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1956        order = expression.args.get("order")
1957        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1958        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
1960    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1961        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
1962        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1963        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
1965    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1966        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1967
1968        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1969            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1970        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1971            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1972        else:
1973            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeConcat) -> str:
1975    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
1976        expressions = expression.expressions
1977        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
1978            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
1979        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
1981    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1982        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1983        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
1985    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1986        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1987        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1988        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1989        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
1990        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
1991        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
1992        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
1993        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
1995    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1996        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1997        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1998        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1999        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
2001    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2002        expression = expression.copy()
2003        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2005    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2006        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2007        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2008        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2010    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2011        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject) -> str:
2013    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
2014        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2015        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2016        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2017        if unique_keys is not None:
2018            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2019        else:
2020            unique_keys = ""
2021        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2022        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2023        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
2024        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2025        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2026        return self.func(
2027            "JSON_OBJECT",
2028            *expression.expressions,
2029            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})",
2030        )
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2032    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2033        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2034        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2035        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2036        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2037        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2038        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
2040    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2041        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2042        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2043        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2044        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2045        with_ = (
2046            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2047            if expressions
2048            else ""
2049        )
2050        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
2052    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2053        query = expression.args.get("query")
2054        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2055        field = expression.args.get("field")
2056        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2057
2058        if query:
2059            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2060        elif unnest:
2061            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2062        elif field:
2063            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2064        else:
2065            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2066
2067        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2069    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2070        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
2072    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2073        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2074        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2075            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
2076        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2077
2078        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2079            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2080            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2081
2082        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2083        if this:
2084            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2085            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2086
2087        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
2089    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2090        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
2092    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2093        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2094        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2095        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2096        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2097        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2098        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
2100    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2101        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
2103    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2104        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2105            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2106        else:
2107            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2108            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2109
2110        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
2112    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2113        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2114        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2115        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2116        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
2118    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2119        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
2121    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2122        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2123        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2124        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
2126    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2127        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2129    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2130        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2131        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2132        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
2134    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2135        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And) -> str:
2137    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2138        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
def xor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Xor) -> str:
2140    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2141        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
def connector_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2143    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2144        if not self.pretty:
2145            return self.binary(expression, op)
2146
2147        sqls = tuple(
2148            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2149            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2150        )
2151
2152        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2153        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2155    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2156        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2158    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2159        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2161    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2162        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2164    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2165        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2167    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2168        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2170    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2171        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2173    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2174        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2175        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2176        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')}{format_sql})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
2178    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2179        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2180        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
2182    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2183        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
2185    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2186        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
2188    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2189        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2190        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2191        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2192        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2193        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2195    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2196        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2197        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2198        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2199        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2200        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2201        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2202        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2203        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2204        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2206    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2207        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2208        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2209        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2210        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2211
2212        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2213            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2214
2215        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
2217    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2218        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
2220    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2221        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2222        if chain is not None:
2223            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2224
2225        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
2227    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2228        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2229        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2230        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
2232    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2233        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2234
2235        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2236        if dtype:
2237            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2238            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2239            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2240            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2241            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2242
2243        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2244        if default:
2245            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2246
2247        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2248            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2249
2250        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str:
2252    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2253        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2254            # Remove db from tables
2255            expression = expression.transform(
2256                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2257            )
2258        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2259        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def altertable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
2261    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2262        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2263
2264        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2265            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMN ")
2266        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2267            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2268        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2269            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2270        else:
2271            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2272
2273        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2274        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
2276    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2277        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2278        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2279        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
2281    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2282        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2283        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2284        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2285
2286        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2287        if enforced is not None:
2288            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2289
2290        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
2292    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2293        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2294        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2295
2296        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2297        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2298        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2300    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2301        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
2303    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2304        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
2306    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2307        return self.sql(
2308            exp.Cast(
2309                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this.copy(), expression=expression.expression.copy()),
2310                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2311            )
2312        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
2314    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2315        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2317    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2318        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2319            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2320        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
2322    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2323        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
2325    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2326        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
2328    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2329        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
2331    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2332        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
2334    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2335        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
2337    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2338        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
2340    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2341        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
2343    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2344        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
2346    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2347        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
2349    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2350        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
2352    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2353        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
2355    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2356        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2357            return self.sql(
2358                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2359            )
2360        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
2362    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2363        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
2365    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2366        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
2368    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2369        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
2371    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2372        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
2374    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2375        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
2377    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2378        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
2380    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2381        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
2383    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2384        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2386    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2387        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2389    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2390        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def or_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or) -> str:
2392    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2393        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
2395    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2396        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
2398    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2399        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
2401    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2402        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
2404    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2405        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2406        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2407        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2408        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2409        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2411    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2412        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2413        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
2415    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2416        args = []
2417
2418        for key in expression.arg_types:
2419            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2420
2421            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2422                for value in arg_value:
2423                    args.append(value)
2424            elif arg_value is not None:
2425                args.append(arg_value)
2426
2427        if self.normalize_functions:
2428            name = expression.sql_name()
2429        else:
2430            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2431
2432        return self.func(name, *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')') -> str:
2434    def func(
2435        self,
2436        name: str,
2437        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2438        prefix: str = "(",
2439        suffix: str = ")",
2440    ) -> str:
2441        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
2443    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2444        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2445        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2446            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2447        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
def text_width(self, args: Iterable) -> int:
2449    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2450        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
def format_time(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> Optional[str]:
2452    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2453        return format_time(
2454            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2455        )
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[List[str]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, skip_first: bool = False, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '') -> str:
2457    def expressions(
2458        self,
2459        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2460        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2461        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2462        flat: bool = False,
2463        indent: bool = True,
2464        skip_first: bool = False,
2465        sep: str = ", ",
2466        prefix: str = "",
2467    ) -> str:
2468        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2469
2470        if not expressions:
2471            return ""
2472
2473        if flat:
2474            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2475
2476        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2477
2478        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2479        pad = " " * self.pad
2480        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2481
2482        result_sqls = []
2483        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2484            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2485            if not sql:
2486                continue
2487
2488            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2489
2490            if self.pretty:
2491                if self.leading_comma:
2492                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2493                else:
2494                    result_sqls.append(
2495                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2496                    )
2497            else:
2498                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2499
2500        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2501        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2503    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2504        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2505        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2506        if flat:
2507            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2508        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
2510    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2511        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2512        if not property_name:
2513            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2514        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def set_operation(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2516    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2517        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2518        op = self.seg(op)
2519        return self.query_modifiers(
2520            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2521        )
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
2523    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2524        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
2526    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2527        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2529    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2530        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2531        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2532        expressions = (
2533            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2534        )
2535        return f"{this}{expressions}"
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
2537    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2538        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2539        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2540        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
2542    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2543        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
2545    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2546        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2547        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2548        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2549        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2550
2551        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2552        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2553            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2554            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2555                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2556        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2557            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2558                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2559            else:
2560                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2561        else:
2562            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2563        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
2565    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2566        table = expression.this
2567        table_alias = ""
2568
2569        hints = table.args.get("hints")
2570        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
2571            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
2572            table = table.copy()
2573            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
2574
2575        this = self.sql(table)
2576        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2577        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2578        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
2579
2580        return f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
2582    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2583        if expression.args.get("format"):
2584            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2585
2586        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str:
2588    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2589        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2590        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2591        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2592        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2593        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str:
2595    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2596        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2597        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2598        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2599        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2601    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2602        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str:
2604    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2605        return ""
def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2607    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2608        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2609        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2610        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2611        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2612        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue) -> str:
2614    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2615        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2616        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2617
2618        if having:
2619            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2620
2621        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
def querytransform_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryTransform) -> str:
2623    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2624        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2625        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2626        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2627        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2628        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2629        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2630        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2631        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2632        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2633        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2634        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2635        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
2636        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2638    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2639        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
2640        if key_block_size:
2641            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
2642
2643        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2644        if using:
2645            return f"USING {using}"
2646
2647        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
2648        if parser:
2649            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
2650
2651        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2652        if comment:
2653            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
2654
2655        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
2656        if visible is not None:
2657            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
2658
2659        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
2660        if engine_attr:
2661            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
2662
2663        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
2664        if secondary_engine_attr:
2665            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
2666
2667        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
2668        return ""
def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2670    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2671        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2672        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
2673        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2674        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2675        type_ = self.sql(expression, "type")
2676        type_ = f" USING {type_}" if type_ else ""
2677        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2678        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
2679        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
2680        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2681        return f"{kind}{this}{type_}{schema}{options}"
def nvl2_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Nvl2) -> str:
2683    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
2684        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
2685            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2686
2687        case = exp.Case().when(
2688            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
2689            expression.args["true"].copy(),
2690            copy=False,
2691        )
2692        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
2693        if else_cond:
2694            case.else_(else_cond.copy(), copy=False)
2695
2696        return self.sql(case)
def comprehension_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comprehension) -> str:
2698    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
2699        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2700        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2701        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
2702        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2703        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
2704        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
def cached_generator( cache: Optional[Dict[int, str]] = None) -> Callable[[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], str]:
2707def cached_generator(
2708    cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
2709) -> t.Callable[[exp.Expression], str]:
2710    """Returns a cached generator."""
2711    cache = {} if cache is None else cache
2712    generator = Generator(normalize=True, identify="safe")
2713    return lambda e: generator.generate(e, cache)

Returns a cached generator.