<s> anarchism . </s>
<s> anarchism is a political philosophy encompassing theories and attitudes which consider the state to be unnecessary , harmful , and/ or undesirable . </s>
<s> specific anarchists may have additional criteria for what constitutes anarchism , and they often disagree with each other on what these criteria are . </s>
<s> according to `` the oxford companion to philosophy `` , `` there is no single defining position that all anarchists hold , and those considered anarchists at best share a certain family resemblance . </s>
<s> `` there are many types and traditions of anarchism , not all of which are mutually exclusive . </s>
<s> anarchism is usually considered to be a radical left-wing ideology , and much of anarchist economics and anarchist legal philosophy reflect anti-authoritarian interpretations of communism , collectivism , syndicalism or participatory economics ; however , anarchism has always included an economic and legal individualist strain , with that strain supporting an anarchist free-market economy and private property ( like classical mutualism or today anarcho-capitalism and agorism ) . </s>
<s> others , such as panarchists and anarchists without adjectives , neither advocate nor object to any particular form of organization as long as it is not compulsory . </s>
<s> some anarchist schools of thought differ fundamentally , supporting anything from extreme individualism to complete collectivism . </s>
<s> the central tendency of anarchism as a social movement is represented by communist anarchism , with anarcho-individualism being primarily a literary phenomenon . </s>
<s> some anarchists fundamentally oppose all forms of coercion , while others have supported the use of some coercive measures , including violent revolution and terrorism , on the path to anarchy . </s>
<s> the term `` anarchism `` derives from the greek ááçâ , `` anarchos `` , meaning `` without rulers `` , from the prefix á- ( `` an- `` , `` without `` ) + ááç ( `` archê `` , `` sovereignty , realm , magistracy `` ) + -ãìâ ( `` -ismos `` , from a stem - , `` -izein `` ) . </s>
<s> there is some ambiguity with the use of the terms `` libertarianism `` and `` libertarian `` in writings about anarchism . </s>
<s> since the nineteenth century , the term `` libertarianism `` has often been used as a synonym for anarchism and was used almost exclusively in this sense until the 1970s in the united states ; its use as a synonym is still common outside the u. s. accordingly , libertarian socialism `` sometimes is used as a synonym for non-individualist anarchism , that is , socialist anarchism , to dilineate it from individualist libertarianism ( individualist anarchism ) . </s>
<s> on the other hand , some of those who do not use `` libertarianism `` as a synonym for anarchism but use it to refer to individualistic free-market philosophy only , sometimes refer to free-market anarchism as `` libertarian anarchism . </s>
<s> `` origins . </s>
<s> some claim anarchist themes can be found in the works of taoist sages laozi and zhuangzi . </s>
<s> the latter has been translated , `` there has been such a thing as letting mankind alone ; there has never been such a thing as governing mankind with success , `` and `` a petty thief is put in jail . </s>
<s> a great brigand becomes a ruler of a state . </s>
<s> `` diogenes of sinope and the cynics , and their contemporary zeno of citium , the founder of stoicism , also introduced similar topics . </s>
<s> modern anarchism , however , sprang from the secular or religious thought of the enlightenment , particularly jean-jacques rousseau 's arguments for the moral centrality of freedom . </s>
<s> although by the turn of the 19th century the term `` anarchist `` had an entirely positive connotation , it first entered the english language in 1642 during the english civil war as a term of abuse used by royalists to damn those who were fomenting disorder . </s>
<s> by the time of the french revolution some , such as the `` enragés `` , began to use the term positively , in opposition to jacobin centralisation of power , seeing `` revolutionary government `` as oxymoronic . </s>
<s> from this climate william godwin developed what many consider the first expression of modern anarchist thought . </s>
<s> godwin was , according to peter kropotkin , `` the first to formulate the political and economical conceptions of anarchism , even though he did not give that name to the ideas developed in his work . </s>
<s> `` the first to describe himself as an anarchist was pierre-joseph proudhon , which led some to call him the founder of modern anarchist theory . </s>
<s> proudhon proposed spontaneous order , whereby organization emerges without central authority , a `` positive anarchy `` where order arises when everybody does âwhat he wishes and only what he wishes `` and where `` business transactions alone produce the social order . </s>
<s> `` like godwin , proudhon opposed violent revolutionary action . </s>
<s> he saw anarchy as `` a form of government or constitution in which public and private consciousness , formed through the development of science and law , is alone sufficient to maintain order and guarantee all liberties . </s>
<s> in it , as a consequence , the institutions of the police , preventive and repressive methods , officialdom , taxation , etc . , are reduced to a minimum . </s>
<s> in it , more especially , the forms of monarchy and intensive centralization disappear , to be replaced by federal institutions and a pattern of life based on the commune . </s>
<s> `` by `` commune `` , proudhon meant local self-government or according to literal translation , `` municipality `` , rather than a communist arrangement . </s>
<s> individualist anarchism . </s>
<s> individualist anarchism comprises several traditions which hold that `` individual conscience and the pursuit of self-interest should not be constrained by any collective body or public authority . </s>
<s> `` individualist anarchism is supportive of property being held privately , unlike the social/ socialist/ collectivist/ communitarian wing which advocates common ownership . </s>
<s> individualist anarchism has been espoused by individuals such as max stirner , william godwin , henry david thoreau , josiah warren and murray rothbard . </s>
<s> william godwin . </s>
<s> in 1793 , godwin who has often been cited as the first anarchist , wrote `` political justice `` , which some consider to be the first expression of anarchism . </s>
<s> godwin , a philosophical anarchist , opposed revolutionary action and saw a minimal state as a present `` necessary evil `` that would become increasingly irrelevant and powerless by the gradual spread of knowledge . </s>
<s> godwin advocated extreme individualism , proposing that all cooperation in labor be eliminated on the premise that this would be most conducive with the general good . </s>
<s> godwin was a utilitarian who believed that all individuals are not of equal value , with some of us `` of more worth and importance ' than others depending on our utility in bringing about social good . </s>
<s> therefore he does not believe in equal rights , but the person 's life that should be favored that is most conducive to the general good . </s>
<s> godwin opposed government because he saw it as infringing on the individual 's right to `` private judgement `` to determine which actions most maximize utility , but also makes a critique of all authority over the individual 's judgement . </s>
<s> this aspect of godwin 's philosophy , stripped of utilitarian motivations , was developed into a more extreme form later by stirner . </s>
<s> egoism . </s>
<s> the most extreme form of individualist anarchism , called `` egoism , `` was expounded by one of the earliest and best-known proponents of individualist anarchism , max stirner , stirner 's `` the ego and its own `` , published in 1844 , is a founding text of the philosophy . </s>
<s> according to stirner 's conception , the only limitation on the rights of the individual is their power to obtain what they desire , without regard for god , state , or moral rules . </s>
<s> to stirner , rights were `` spooks `` in the mind , and he held that society does not exist but `` the individuals are its reality `` he supported a concept of property held by force of might rather than moral right . </s>
<s> by `` property `` he is not referring only to things but to other people as well . </s>
<s> stirner advocated self-assertion and foresaw `` associations of egoists `` where respect for ruthlessness drew people together . </s>
<s> even murder is permissible `` if it is right for me . </s>
<s> `` stirner saw the state as illegitimate but did not see individuals as having a duty to eliminate it nor does he recommend that they try to eliminate it ; rather , he advocates that they disregard the state when it conflicts with their autonomous choices and go along with it when doing so is conducive to their interests . </s>
<s> however , while he thought there was no duty to eliminate state , he does think it will eventually collapse as a result of the spread of egoism . </s>
<s> in russia , individualist anarchism inspired by stirner combined with an appreciation for friedrich nietzsche attracted a small following of bohemian artists and intellectuals such as lev chernyi , as well as a few lone wolves who found self-expression in crime and violence . </s>
<s> they rejected organizing , believing that only unorganized individuals were safe from coercion and domination , believing this kept them true to the ideals of anarchism . </s>
<s> this type of individualist anarchism inspired anarcho-feminist emma goldman . </s>
<s> though stirner 's egoism is individualist , it has also influenced some anarcho-communists . </s>
<s> forms of libertarian communism such that developed by the situationist international are strongly egoist in nature . </s>
<s> the american tradition . </s>
<s> another form of individualist anarchism was advocated by the `` boston anarchists , `` american individualists who supported private property exchangeable in a free market . </s>
<s> they advocated the protection of liberty and property by private contractors , and endorsed exchange of labor for wages . </s>
<s> they did not have a problem that `` one man employ another `` or that `` he direct him , `` in his labor but demanded that `` all natural opportunities requisite to the production of wealth be accessible to all on equal terms and that monopolies arising from special privileges created by law be abolished . </s>
<s> `` they believed state monopoly capitalism ( defined as a state-sponsored monopoly ) prevented labor from being fully rewarded . </s>
<s> even among the nineteenth century american individualists , there was not a monolithic doctrine , as they disagreed amongst each other on various issues including intellectual property rights and possession versus property in land . </s>
<s> a major cleft occurred later in the 19th century when tucker and some others abandoned natural rights and converted to an `` egoism `` modeled upon stirner 's philosophy . </s>
<s> some `` boston anarchists `` , like tucker , identified themselves as `` socialist `` â a term which at the time denoted a broad concept â by which he meant a commitment to solving `` the labor problem `` by radical economic reform . </s>
<s> by the turn of the 20th century , the heyday of individualist anarchism had passed , although it was later revived with modifications by murray rothbard and the anarcho-capitalists in the mid-twentieth century , as a current of the broader libertarian movement , and the anti-capitalist strain by intellectuals such as kevin carson . </s>
<s> proudhon 's mutualism . </s>
<s> mutualism began in 18th century english and french labor movements before taking an anarchist form associated with pierre-joseph proudhon in france and others in the united states . </s>
<s> proudhon 's ideas were introduced by charles a. dana , to individualist anarchists in the united states including benjamin tucker and william batchelder greene . </s>
<s> mutualist anarchism is concerned with reciprocity , free association , voluntary contract , federation , and credit and currency reform . </s>
<s> according to greene , in the mutualist system each worker would receive `` just and exact pay for his work ; services equivalent in cost being exchangeable for services equivalent in cost , without profit or discount . </s>
<s> `` mutualism has been retrospectively characterized as being ideologically situated between individualist and collectivist forms of anarchism . </s>
<s> proudhon first characterized his goal as a `` third form of society , the synthesis of communism and property . </s>
<s> `` social anarchism . </s>
<s> social anarchism is one of two different broad categories of anarchism , the other category being individualist anarchism . </s>
<s> the term social anarchism is often used to identify communitarian forms of anarchism that emphasize cooperation and mutual aid . </s>
<s> social anarchism includes anarcho-collectivism , anarcho-communism , libertarian socialism , anarcho-syndicalism , social ecology and sometimes mutualism . </s>
<s> collectivist anarchism . </s>
<s> `` collectivist anarchism `` , also referred to as `` revolutionary socialism `` or a form of such , is a revolutionary form of anarchism , commonly associated with mikhail bakunin and johann most . </s>
<s> it is a specific tendency , not to be confused with the broad category sometimes called collectivist or communitarian anarchism . </s>
<s> unlike mutualists , collectivist anarchists oppose all private ownership of the means of production , instead advocating that ownership be collectivized . </s>
<s> this was to be achieved through violent revolution , first starting with a small cohesive group through acts of violence , or `` propaganda by the deed , `` which would inspire the workers as a whole to revolt and forcibly collectivize the means of production . </s>
<s> however , collectivization was not to be extended to the distribution of income , as workers would be paid according to time worked , rather than receiving goods being distributed `` according to need `` as in anarcho-communism . </s>
<s> this position was criticised by later anarcho-communists as effectively `` upholding the wages system `` . </s>
<s> anarchist communist and collectivist ideas were not mutually exclusive ; although the collectivist anarchists advocated compensation for labor , some held out the possibility of a post-revolutionary transition to a communist system of distribution according to need . </s>
<s> collectivist anarchism arose contemporaneously with marxism but opposed the marxist dictatorship of the proletariat , despite the stated marxist goal of a collectivist stateless society . </s>
<s> anarchist communism . </s>
<s> anarchist communists propose that the freest form of social organisation would be a society composed of self-governing communes with collective use of the means of production , organized by direct democracy , and related to other communes through federation . </s>
<s> however , some anarchist communists oppose the majoritarian nature of direct democracy , feeling that it can impede individual liberty and favor consensus democracy . </s>
<s> in anarchist communism , as money would be abolished , individuals would not receive direct compensation for labour ( through sharing of profits or payment ) but would have free access to the resources and surplus of the commune . </s>
<s> according to anarchist communist peter kropotkin and later murray bookchin , the members of such a society would spontaneously perform all necessary labour because they would recognize the benefits of communal enterprise and mutual aid . </s>
<s> kropotkin believed that private property was one of the causes of oppression and exploitation and called for its abolition , advocating instead common ownership . </s>
<s> kropotkin said that `` houses , fields , and factories will no longer be private property , and that they will belong to the commune or the nation and money , wages , and trade would be abolished . </s>
<s> `` in response to those criticizing kropotkin for supporting expropriation of homes and means of production from those who did not wish to take part in anarcho-communism , he replied that if someone did not want to join the commune they would be left alone as long as they are a `` peasant who is in possession of just the amount of land he can cultivate , `` or `` a family inhabiting a house which affords them just enough space ... considered necessary for that number of people `` or an artisan `` working with their own tools or handloom . </s>
<s> `` arguing that `` the landlord owes his riches to the poverty of the peasants , and the wealth of the capitalist comes from the same source . </s>
<s> `` the status of anarchist communism within anarchism is disputed , because most individualist anarchists consider communitarianism incompatible with political freedom . </s>
<s> however anarcho communism does not always have a communitarian philosophy , some forms of anarchist communism are strongly egoist , and are strongly influenced by radical individualist philosophy , believing that anarcho-communism does not require a communitarian nature at all . </s>
<s> anarchist communist emma goldman blended the philosophies of both max stirner and kropotkin in her own . </s>
<s> platformism is an anarchist communist tendency in the tradition of nestor makhno , who argued for the `` vital need of an organization which , having attracted most of the participants in the anarchist movement , would establish a common tactical and political line for anarchism and thereby serve as a guide for the whole movement . </s>
<s> `` anarchism without adjectives . </s>
