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sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import typing as t
   5from collections import defaultdict
   6from functools import reduce
   7
   8from sqlglot import exp
   9from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  10from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, seq_get
  11from sqlglot.time import format_time
  12from sqlglot.tokens import Tokenizer, TokenType
  13
  14if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  15    from sqlglot._typing import E
  16
  17logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  18
  19
  20class Generator:
  21    """
  22    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  23
  24    Args:
  25        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  26            Default: False.
  27        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  28            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  29            True or 'always': Always quote.
  30            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  31        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  32            Default: False.
  33        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  34            Default: 2.
  35        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  36            Default: 2.
  37        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  38            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  39            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  40            False: Disables function name normalization.
  41        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  42            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  43        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  44            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  45            Default: 3
  46        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  47            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  48            Default: False
  49        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  50            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  51            line length.
  52            Default: 80
  53        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  54            Default: True
  55    """
  56
  57    TRANSFORMS = {
  58        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  59            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  60        ),
  61        exp.TsOrDsAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  62            "TS_OR_DS_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  63        ),
  64        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  65        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  66        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  67        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  68        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  69        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  70        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  71        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  72        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  73        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  74        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  75        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  76        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  77        exp.HeapProperty: lambda self, e: "HEAP",
  78        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  79        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  80        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
  81        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  82        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  83        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  84        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  85        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  86        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  87        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
  88        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  89        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  92        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  95        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  96        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  97        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  98        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
  99        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
 100        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
 101        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 102        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
 103        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 104        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 105        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
 106        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 107        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
 108        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 109    }
 110
 111    # Whether the base comes first
 112    LOG_BASE_FIRST = True
 113
 114    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
 115    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
 116
 117    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 118    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 119
 120    # Always do union distinct or union all
 121    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 122
 123    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 124    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 125
 126    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 127    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 128
 129    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 130    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 131
 132    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 133    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 134
 135    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 136    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 137
 138    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 139    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 140
 141    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 142    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 143
 144    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 145    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 146
 147    # Whether or not limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 148    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 149
 150    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 151    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 152
 153    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 154    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 155
 156    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 157    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 158
 159    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 160    JOIN_HINTS = True
 161
 162    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 163    TABLE_HINTS = True
 164
 165    # Whether or not query hints should be generated
 166    QUERY_HINTS = True
 167
 168    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 169    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 170
 171    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 172    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 173
 174    # Whether or not to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 175    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 176
 177    # Whether or not to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 178    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 179
 180    # Whether or not to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 181    RETURNING_END = True
 182
 183    # Whether or not to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 184    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 185
 186    # Whether or not to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 187    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 188
 189    # Whether or not TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 190    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 191
 192    # Whether or not the NVL2 function is supported
 193    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 194
 195    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 196    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 197
 198    # Whether or not VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 199    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 200    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 201    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 202
 203    # Whether or not the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 204    ALTER_TABLE_ADD_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 205
 206    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 207    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 208
 209    # Whether or not FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 210    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 211
 212    # Whether or not JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 213    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 214
 215    # Whether or not session variables / parameters are supported, e.g. @x in T-SQL
 216    SUPPORTS_PARAMETERS = True
 217
 218    # Whether or not to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 219    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 220
 221    # Whether or not CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 222    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 223
 224    # Whether or not parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 225    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 226
 227    # Whether or not COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 228    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 229
 230    # Whether or not data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 231    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 232
 233    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 234        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 235        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 236        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 237        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 238        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 239        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 240        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 241        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 242        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 243    }
 244
 245    STAR_MAPPING = {
 246        "except": "EXCEPT",
 247        "replace": "REPLACE",
 248    }
 249
 250    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 251        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 252        "seconds": "second",
 253        "minutes": "minute",
 254        "hours": "hour",
 255        "days": "day",
 256        "weeks": "week",
 257        "months": "month",
 258        "quarters": "quarter",
 259        "years": "year",
 260    }
 261
 262    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 263
 264    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 265
 266    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 267
 268    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 269        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 270        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 271        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 272        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 273        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 274        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 275        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 276        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 277        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 278        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 279        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 280        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 281        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 282        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 283        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 284        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 285        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 286        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 287        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 288        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 289        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 290        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 291        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 292        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 293        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 294        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 295        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 296        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 297        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 298        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 299        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 300        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 301        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 302        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 303        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 304        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 305        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 306        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 307        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 308        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 309        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 310        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 311        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 312        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 313        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 314        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 315        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 316        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 317        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 318        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 319        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 320        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 321        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 322        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 323        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 324        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 325        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 326        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 327        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 328        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 329        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 330        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 331    }
 332
 333    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 334    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 335
 336    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 337    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 338        exp.Create,
 339        exp.Delete,
 340        exp.Drop,
 341        exp.From,
 342        exp.Insert,
 343        exp.Join,
 344        exp.Select,
 345        exp.Update,
 346        exp.Where,
 347        exp.With,
 348    )
 349
 350    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 351    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 352        exp.Binary,
 353        exp.Union,
 354    )
 355
 356    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 357    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 358        exp.Column,
 359        exp.Literal,
 360        exp.Neg,
 361        exp.Paren,
 362    )
 363
 364    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 365
 366    # Autofilled
 367    INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 368    INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: t.Dict = {}
 369    INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 370    INDEX_OFFSET = 0
 371    UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
 372    ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
 373    IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
 374    STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
 375    NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = "upper"
 376    NULL_ORDERING = "nulls_are_small"
 377
 378    can_identify: t.Callable[[str, str | bool], bool]
 379
 380    # Delimiters for quotes, identifiers and the corresponding escape characters
 381    QUOTE_START = "'"
 382    QUOTE_END = "'"
 383    IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
 384    IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
 385    TOKENIZER_CLASS = Tokenizer
 386
 387    # Delimiters for bit, hex, byte and raw literals
 388    BIT_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 389    BIT_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 390    HEX_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 391    HEX_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 392    BYTE_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 393    BYTE_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 394
 395    __slots__ = (
 396        "pretty",
 397        "identify",
 398        "normalize",
 399        "pad",
 400        "_indent",
 401        "normalize_functions",
 402        "unsupported_level",
 403        "max_unsupported",
 404        "leading_comma",
 405        "max_text_width",
 406        "comments",
 407        "unsupported_messages",
 408        "_escaped_quote_end",
 409        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 410        "_cache",
 411    )
 412
 413    def __init__(
 414        self,
 415        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 416        identify: str | bool = False,
 417        normalize: bool = False,
 418        pad: int = 2,
 419        indent: int = 2,
 420        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 421        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 422        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 423        leading_comma: bool = False,
 424        max_text_width: int = 80,
 425        comments: bool = True,
 426    ):
 427        import sqlglot
 428
 429        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 430        self.identify = identify
 431        self.normalize = normalize
 432        self.pad = pad
 433        self._indent = indent
 434        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 435        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 436        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 437        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 438        self.comments = comments
 439
 440        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 441        self.normalize_functions = (
 442            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 443        )
 444
 445        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 446        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.QUOTE_END
 447        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 448            self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.IDENTIFIER_END
 449        )
 450        self._cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
 451
 452    def generate(
 453        self,
 454        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
 455        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
 456    ) -> str:
 457        """
 458        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 459
 460        Args:
 461            expression: The syntax tree.
 462            cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression
 463                which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
 464
 465        Returns:
 466            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 467        """
 468        if cache is not None:
 469            self._cache = cache
 470
 471        self.unsupported_messages = []
 472        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 473        self._cache = None
 474
 475        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 476            return sql
 477
 478        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 479            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 480                logger.warning(msg)
 481        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 482            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 483
 484        if self.pretty:
 485            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 486        return sql
 487
 488    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 489        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 490            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 491        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 492
 493    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 494        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 495
 496    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 497        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 498
 499    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 500        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 501        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 502        return comment
 503
 504    def maybe_comment(
 505        self,
 506        sql: str,
 507        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 508        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 509    ) -> str:
 510        comments = (
 511            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 512            if self.comments
 513            else None
 514        )
 515
 516        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 517            return sql
 518
 519        comments_sql = " ".join(
 520            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 521        )
 522
 523        if not comments_sql:
 524            return sql
 525
 526        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 527            return (
 528                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 529                if sql[0].isspace()
 530                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 531            )
 532
 533        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 534
 535    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 536        this_sql = self.indent(
 537            self.sql(expression)
 538            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 539            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 540            level=1,
 541            pad=0,
 542        )
 543        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 544
 545    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 546        original = self.identify
 547        self.identify = False
 548        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 549        self.identify = original
 550        return result
 551
 552    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 553        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 554            return name.upper()
 555        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 556            return name.lower()
 557        return name
 558
 559    def indent(
 560        self,
 561        sql: str,
 562        level: int = 0,
 563        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 564        skip_first: bool = False,
 565        skip_last: bool = False,
 566    ) -> str:
 567        if not self.pretty:
 568            return sql
 569
 570        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 571        lines = sql.split("\n")
 572
 573        return "\n".join(
 574            line
 575            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 576            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 577            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 578        )
 579
 580    def sql(
 581        self,
 582        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 583        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 584        comment: bool = True,
 585    ) -> str:
 586        if not expression:
 587            return ""
 588
 589        if isinstance(expression, str):
 590            return expression
 591
 592        if key:
 593            value = expression.args.get(key)
 594            if value:
 595                return self.sql(value)
 596            return ""
 597
 598        if self._cache is not None:
 599            expression_id = hash(expression)
 600
 601            if expression_id in self._cache:
 602                return self._cache[expression_id]
 603
 604        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 605
 606        if callable(transform):
 607            sql = transform(self, expression)
 608        elif transform:
 609            sql = transform
 610        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 611            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 612
 613            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 614                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 615            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 616                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 617            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 618                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 619            else:
 620                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 621        else:
 622            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 623
 624        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 625
 626        if self._cache is not None:
 627            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
 628        return sql
 629
 630    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 631        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 632        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 633        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 634
 635    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 636        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 637        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 638        options = expression.args.get("options")
 639        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 640        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 641        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 642        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 643        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 644
 645    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 646        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 647            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 648        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 649        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 650
 651    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 652        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 653
 654        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 655            join_mark = ""
 656            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 657
 658        column = ".".join(
 659            self.sql(part)
 660            for part in (
 661                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 662                expression.args.get("db"),
 663                expression.args.get("table"),
 664                expression.args.get("this"),
 665            )
 666            if part
 667        )
 668
 669        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 670
 671    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 672        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 673        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 674        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 675        return f"{position}{this}"
 676
 677    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 678        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 679        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 680        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 681        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 682        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 683        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 684        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 685        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 686
 687        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 688            kind = ""
 689
 690        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 691
 692    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 693        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 694        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 695        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 696
 697    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 698        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 699        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 700            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 701        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 702            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 703        else:
 704            persisted = ""
 705        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 706
 707    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 708        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 709
 710    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 711        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 712            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 713        else:
 714            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 715
 716        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 717
 718    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 719        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 720    ) -> str:
 721        this = ""
 722        if expression.this is not None:
 723            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 724            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 725
 726        start = expression.args.get("start")
 727        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 728        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 729        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 730        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 731        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 732        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 733        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 734        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 735        cycle_sql = ""
 736
 737        if cycle is not None:
 738            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 739            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 740
 741        sequence_opts = ""
 742        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 743            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 744            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 745
 746        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 747        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 748
 749        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 750
 751    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 752        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 753
 754    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 755        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 756        if desc is not None:
 757            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 758        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 759
 760    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 761        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 762        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 763        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 764        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 765        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}"
 766
 767    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 768        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 769
 770    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 771        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 772        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 773        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 774
 775        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 776
 777        properties_sql = ""
 778        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 779            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 780        ):
 781            properties_sql = self.sql(
 782                exp.Properties(
 783                    expressions=[
 784                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 785                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 786                    ]
 787                )
 788            )
 789
 790        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 791        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 792
 793        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 794        if expression_sql:
 795            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 796
 797            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 798                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 799                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 800                        exp.Properties(
 801                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 802                        ),
 803                        wrapped=False,
 804                    )
 805                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 806                else:
 807                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 808
 809        postindex_props_sql = ""
 810        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 811            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 812                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 813                wrapped=False,
 814                prefix=" ",
 815            )
 816
 817        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 818        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 819        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 820
 821        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 822        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 823
 824        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 825        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 826            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 827                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 828                sep=" ",
 829                prefix=" ",
 830                wrapped=False,
 831            )
 832
 833        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 834
 835        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 836        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 837            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 838                exp.Properties(
 839                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 840                ),
 841                sep=" ",
 842                prefix=" ",
 843                wrapped=False,
 844            )
 845
 846        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 847        no_schema_binding = (
 848            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 849        )
 850
 851        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 852        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 853
 854        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 855        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 856
 857    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 858        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 859        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
 860        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
 861        this = f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
 862        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 863
 864        if when:
 865            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 866            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 867            return f"{this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 868
 869        return this
 870
 871    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 872        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 873
 874    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 875        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 876        if with_:
 877            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 878        return sql
 879
 880    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 881        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 882        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
 883
 884        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 885
 886    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 887        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 888        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 889
 890    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 891        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 892        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 893        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 894
 895        if not alias and not self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
 896            alias = "_t"
 897
 898        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 899
 900    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 901        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 902        if self.BIT_START:
 903            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
 904        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 905
 906    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 907        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 908        if self.HEX_START:
 909            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
 910        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 911
 912    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 913        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 914        if self.BYTE_START:
 915            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
 916        return this
 917
 918    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 919        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
 920        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
 921
 922    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
 923        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 924        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 925        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
 926        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 927
 928    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 929        type_value = expression.this
 930
 931        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
 932            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 933        else:
 934            type_sql = (
 935                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 936                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
 937                else type_value
 938            )
 939
 940        nested = ""
 941        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 942        values = ""
 943
 944        if interior:
 945            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 946                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 947                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 948                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 949                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 950                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 951            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
 952                nested = f" {interior}"
 953            else:
 954                nested = f"({interior})"
 955
 956        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 957        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
 958            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
 959            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
 960        ):
 961            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
 962
 963        return type_sql
 964
 965    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 966        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 967        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 968        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 969        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
 970
 971    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 972        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 973        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 974        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 975        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
 976        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
 977        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
 978        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
 979        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
 980        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
 981        if self.RETURNING_END:
 982            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
 983        else:
 984            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
 985        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
 986
 987    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
 988        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 989        kind = expression.args["kind"]
 990        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
 991        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
 992        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
 993        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
 994        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
 995        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
 996        return (
 997            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
 998        )
 999
1000    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1001        return self.prepend_ctes(
1002            expression,
1003            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
1004        )
1005
1006    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1007        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1008
1009    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1010        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1011        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
1012        count = expression.args.get("count")
1013        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1014        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1015            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1016        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1017        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1018
1019    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1020        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1021            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1022            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1023            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1024
1025        agg = expression.this.copy()
1026        agg_arg = agg.this
1027        cond = expression.expression.this
1028        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1029        return self.sql(agg)
1030
1031    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1032        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1033            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1034            return ""
1035
1036        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1037
1038    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1039        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1040        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1041        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1042        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1043        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1044        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1045        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1046        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1047        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1048        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1049        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1050        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1051        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1052        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1053        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1054        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}{where}"
1055
1056    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1057        text = expression.name
1058        lower = text.lower()
1059        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1060        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1061        if (
1062            expression.quoted
1063            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1064            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1065            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1066        ):
1067            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1068        return text
1069
1070    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1071        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1072        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1073        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1074        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1075        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1076
1077    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1078        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1079        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1080
1081    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1082        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1083
1084    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1085        root_properties = []
1086        with_properties = []
1087
1088        for p in expression.expressions:
1089            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1090            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1091                with_properties.append(p.copy())
1092            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1093                root_properties.append(p.copy())
1094
1095        return self.root_properties(
1096            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1097        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1098
1099    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1100        if properties.expressions:
1101            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1102        return ""
1103
1104    def properties(
1105        self,
1106        properties: exp.Properties,
1107        prefix: str = "",
1108        sep: str = ", ",
1109        suffix: str = "",
1110        wrapped: bool = True,
1111    ) -> str:
1112        if properties.expressions:
1113            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1114            if expressions:
1115                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1116                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1117        return ""
1118
1119    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1120        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1121
1122    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1123        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1124        for p in properties.expressions:
1125            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1126            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1127                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p.copy())
1128            else:
1129                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1130
1131        return properties_locs
1132
1133    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1134        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1135            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1136        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1137
1138    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1139        property_cls = expression.__class__
1140        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1141            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1142
1143        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1144        if not property_name:
1145            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1146
1147        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1148
1149    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1150        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1151        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1152        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1153
1154    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1155        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1156        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1157        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1158
1159    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1160        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1161        local = expression.args.get("local")
1162        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1163        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1164        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1165        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1166        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1167
1168    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1169        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1170        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1171        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1172
1173    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1174        if expression.args.get("default"):
1175            property = "DEFAULT"
1176        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1177            property = "ON"
1178        else:
1179            property = "OFF"
1180        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1181
1182    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1183        if expression.args.get("no"):
1184            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1185        if expression.args.get("default"):
1186            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1187
1188        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1189        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1190
1191    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1192        default = expression.args.get("default")
1193        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1194        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1195        if default or minimum or maximum:
1196            if default:
1197                prop = "DEFAULT"
1198            elif minimum:
1199                prop = "MINIMUM"
1200            else:
1201                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1202            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1203        units = expression.args.get("units")
1204        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1205        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1206
1207    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1208        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1209        always = expression.args.get("always")
1210        default = expression.args.get("default")
1211        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1212        never = expression.args.get("never")
1213
1214        if autotemp is not None:
1215            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1216        elif always:
1217            prop = "ALWAYS"
1218        elif default:
1219            prop = "DEFAULT"
1220        elif manual:
1221            prop = "MANUAL"
1222        elif never:
1223            prop = "NEVER"
1224        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1225
1226    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1227        no = expression.args.get("no")
1228        no = " NO" if no else ""
1229        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1230        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1231
1232        for_ = ""
1233        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1234            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1235        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1236            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1237        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1238            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1239        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1240
1241    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1242        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1243        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1244        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1245        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1246        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1247        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1248        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1249
1250    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1251        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1252        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1253        statistics_sql = ""
1254        if statistics is not None:
1255            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1256        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1257
1258    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1259        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1260
1261        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1262            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1263        else:
1264            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1265
1266        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1267        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1268        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1269
1270        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1271
1272        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1273        partition_sql = (
1274            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1275        )
1276        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1277        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1278        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1279        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1280        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1281        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1282
1283        if self.RETURNING_END:
1284            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1285        else:
1286            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1287
1288        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1289        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1290
1291    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1292        return self.prepend_ctes(
1293            expression,
1294            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1295        )
1296
1297    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1298        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1299
1300    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1301        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1302
1303    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1304        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1305        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1306        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1307        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1308        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1309
1310    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1311        return expression.name.upper()
1312
1313    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1314        return expression.name.upper()
1315
1316    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1317        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1318        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1319        if constraint:
1320            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1321        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1322        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1323        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1324        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1325        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1326        if expressions:
1327            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1328        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1329
1330    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1331        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1332
1333    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1334        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1335        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1336        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1337        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1338        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1339        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1340        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1341        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1342        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1343        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1344        null = expression.args.get("null")
1345        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1346        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1347
1348    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1349        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1350
1351    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1352        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1353        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1354        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1355        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1356
1357    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1358        table = ".".join(
1359            part
1360            for part in [
1361                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1362                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1363                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1364            ]
1365            if part
1366        )
1367
1368        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1369        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1370        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1371        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1372        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1373        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1374        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1375        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1376        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1377        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1378
1379        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1380        if file_format:
1381            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1382            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1383            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1384
1385        index = self.sql(expression, "index")
1386        index = f" AT {index}" if index else ""
1387
1388        return f"{table}{version}{file_format}{alias}{index}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
1389
1390    def tablesample_sql(
1391        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1392    ) -> str:
1393        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1394            table = expression.this.copy()
1395            table.set("alias", None)
1396            this = self.sql(table)
1397            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1398        else:
1399            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1400            alias = ""
1401
1402        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1403        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1404        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1405        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1406        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1407        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1408        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1409        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1410        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1411        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1412        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1413
1414        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1415        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1416            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1417
1418        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1419        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1420        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1421
1422        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}"
1423        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1424            expr = f"({expr})"
1425
1426        return f"{this} {kind} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1427
1428    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1429        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1430
1431        if expression.this:
1432            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1433            if not expressions:
1434                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1435
1436            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1437            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1438            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1439            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1440            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1441
1442        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1443        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1444        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1445        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1446        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1447        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1448        if include_nulls is not None:
1449            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1450        else:
1451            nulls = ""
1452        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1453
1454    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1455        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1456        kind = expression.text("kind")
1457        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1458        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1459
1460    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1461        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1462
1463    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1464        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1465        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1466        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1467        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1468        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1469        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1470        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1471        if self.RETURNING_END:
1472            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1473        else:
1474            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1475        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1476        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1477
1478    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1479        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1480        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1481            args = self.expressions(expression)
1482            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1483            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1484            values = (
1485                f"({values})"
1486                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1487                else values
1488            )
1489            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1490
1491        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1492        expression = expression.copy()
1493        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1494        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1495
1496        selects: t.List[exp.Subqueryable] = []
1497
1498        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1499            row = tup.expressions
1500
1501            if i == 0 and column_names:
1502                row = [
1503                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1504                ]
1505
1506            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1507
1508        if self.pretty:
1509            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1510            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1511            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1512            subqueryable = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1513            return self.subquery_sql(
1514                subqueryable.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False)
1515            )
1516
1517        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1518        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1519        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1520
1521    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1522        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1523
1524    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1525        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1526        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1527        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1528
1529    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1530        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1531
1532    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1533        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1534
1535        if expression.args.get("all"):
1536            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1537
1538        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1539        grouping_sets = (
1540            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1541        )
1542
1543        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1544        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1545            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1546        else:
1547            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1548            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1549
1550        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1551        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1552            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1553        else:
1554            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1555            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1556
1557        groupings = csv(
1558            grouping_sets,
1559            cube_sql,
1560            rollup_sql,
1561            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1562            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1563        )
1564
1565        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1566            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1567
1568        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1569
1570    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1571        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1572        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1573
1574    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1575        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1576        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1577        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1578        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY {connect}")
1579        return start + connect
1580
1581    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1582        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1583
1584    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1585        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1586            side = None
1587        else:
1588            side = expression.side
1589
1590        op_sql = " ".join(
1591            op
1592            for op in (
1593                expression.method,
1594                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1595                side,
1596                expression.kind,
1597                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1598            )
1599            if op
1600        )
1601        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1602        using = expression.args.get("using")
1603
1604        if not on_sql and using:
1605            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1606
1607        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1608
1609        if on_sql:
1610            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1611            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1612            if using:
1613                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1614            else:
1615                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1616        elif not op_sql:
1617            return f", {this_sql}"
1618
1619        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1620        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1621
1622    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1623        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1624        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1625        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1626
1627    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1628        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1629
1630        if expression.args.get("view"):
1631            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1632            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1633            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1634            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1635            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1636            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1637
1638        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1639        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1640        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1641
1642    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1643        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1644        args = ", ".join(
1645            self.sql(self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e)
1646            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1647            if e
1648        )
1649        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args}"
1650
1651    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1652        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1653        expression = expression.expression
1654        expression = (
1655            self._simplify_unless_literal(expression) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else expression
1656        )
1657        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression)}"
1658
1659    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1660        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1661        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1662        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1663        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1664        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1665        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1666        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1667        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1668
1669    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1670        expressions = (
1671            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1672        )
1673        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1674        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1675
1676    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1677        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1678
1679    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1680        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1681            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1682            return ""
1683
1684        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1685        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1686        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1687        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1688
1689        if wait is not None:
1690            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1691                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1692            else:
1693                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1694
1695        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1696
1697    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1698        text = expression.this or ""
1699        if expression.is_string:
1700            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1701        return text
1702
1703    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1704        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1705        if self.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES:
1706            text = "".join(self.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES.get(ch, ch) for ch in text)
1707        elif self.pretty:
1708            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1709        return text
1710
1711    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1712        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1713        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1714        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1715        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1716        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1717        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1718        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1719        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1720        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1721        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1722        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1723
1724    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1725        return "NULL"
1726
1727    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1728        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1729
1730    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1731        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1732        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1733        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1734
1735    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1736        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1737
1738    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1739        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1740
1741    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1742        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1743
1744    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1745        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1746        asc = not desc
1747
1748        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1749        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1750        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1751        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1752        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1753
1754        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
1755        nulls_sort_change = ""
1756        if nulls_first and (
1757            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1758        ):
1759            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1760        elif (
1761            nulls_last
1762            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1763            and not nulls_are_last
1764        ):
1765            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1766
1767        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1768            self.unsupported(
1769                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1770            )
1771            nulls_sort_change = ""
1772
1773        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1774
1775    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1776        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1777        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1778        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1779        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1780        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1781        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1782        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1783        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1784        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1785        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1786        definition_sqls = [
1787            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1788            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1789        ]
1790        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1791        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1792        body = "".join(
1793            (
1794                partition,
1795                order,
1796                measures,
1797                rows,
1798                after,
1799                pattern,
1800                define,
1801            )
1802        )
1803        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1804        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1805        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1806
1807    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1808        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1809
1810        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1811        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1812
1813        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1814            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1815        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1816            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1817
1818        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1819
1820        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1821            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1822            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1823            else []
1824        )
1825
1826        return csv(
1827            *sqls,
1828            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1829            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
1830            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1831            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1832            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1833            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1834            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1835            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1836            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1837            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1838            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1839            sep="",
1840        )
1841
1842    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1843        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1844    ) -> t.List[str]:
1845        return [
1846            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1847            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1848        ]
1849
1850    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1851        return [
1852            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1853            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1854            if expression.args.get("windows")
1855            else "",
1856            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1857            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1858            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1859        ]
1860
1861    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1862        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1863        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1864        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1865
1866    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1867        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1868        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1869        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1870        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1871        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1872        top = (
1873            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1874            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1875            else ""
1876        )
1877
1878        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1879
1880        if kind:
1881            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1882                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1883            else:
1884                if kind == "STRUCT":
1885                    expressions = self.expressions(
1886                        sqls=[
1887                            self.sql(
1888                                exp.Struct(
1889                                    expressions=[
1890                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1891                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1892                                        )
1893                                        for e in expression.expressions
1894                                    ]
1895                                )
1896                            )
1897                        ]
1898                    )
1899                kind = ""
1900
1901        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1902        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1903            expression,
1904            f"SELECT{top}{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1905            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1906            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1907        )
1908        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1909
1910    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1911        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1912        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1913        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
1914
1915    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1916        if expression.expressions:
1917            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1918        return ""
1919
1920    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1921        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1922        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1923        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1924        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1925        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
1926
1927    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1928        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1929        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}" if self.SUPPORTS_PARAMETERS else this
1930
1931    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1932        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1933        kind = expression.text("kind")
1934        if kind:
1935            kind = f"{kind}."
1936        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
1937
1938    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1939        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
1940
1941    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1942        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1943        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1944
1945        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1946        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1947
1948        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1949        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1950
1951    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1952        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1953        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1954
1955    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1956        return self.prepend_ctes(
1957            expression,
1958            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1959        )
1960
1961    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1962        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1963        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1964        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1965        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
1966
1967    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1968        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1969
1970        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1971        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1972
1973        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
1974            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
1975                alias = alias.copy()
1976                alias.append("columns", offset.copy())
1977
1978        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1979            columns = alias.columns
1980            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1981        else:
1982            alias = self.sql(alias)
1983
1984        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1985        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
1986            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
1987        else:
1988            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
1989                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
1990            elif offset:
1991                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
1992            else:
1993                suffix = alias
1994
1995        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
1996
1997    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1998        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1999        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2000
2001    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2002        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2003        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2004        order = expression.args.get("order")
2005        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2006        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2007        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2008        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2009
2010        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2011
2012        first = expression.args.get("first")
2013        if first is None:
2014            first = ""
2015        else:
2016            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2017
2018        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2019            return f"{this} {alias}"
2020
2021        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2022        return f"{this} ({args})"
2023
2024    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2025        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2026        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2027
2028    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2029        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2030        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2031        end = (
2032            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2033            or "CURRENT ROW"
2034        )
2035        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2036
2037    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2038        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2039        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2040        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2041
2042    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2043        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2044        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2045        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2046        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2047
2048    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2049        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
2050        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2051
2052        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2053
2054    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
2055        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
2056
2057    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2058        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2059
2060    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2061        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2062        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
2063            this = self.wrap(this)
2064        return f"ANY {this}"
2065
2066    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2067        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2068
2069    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2070        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2071        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2072
2073        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2074            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2075            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2076
2077        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2078
2079        if default:
2080            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2081
2082        statements.append("END")
2083
2084        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
2085            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2086
2087        return " ".join(statements)
2088
2089    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2090        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2091        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2092        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2093
2094    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2095        order = expression.args.get("order")
2096        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2097        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2098
2099    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2100        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2101        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2102        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2103
2104    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2105        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2106
2107        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2108            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2109        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2110            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2111        else:
2112            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2113
2114    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
2115        expressions = expression.expressions
2116        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2117            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
2118        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2119
2120    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2121        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2122        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2123
2124    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2125        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2126        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2127        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2128        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2129        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2130        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2131        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2132        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2133
2134    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2135        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2136        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2137        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2138        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2139
2140    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2141        expression = expression.copy()
2142        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2143
2144    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2145        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2146        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2147        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2148
2149    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2150        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2151
2152    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2153        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2154
2155    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
2156        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2157        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2158        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2159        if unique_keys is not None:
2160            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2161        else:
2162            unique_keys = ""
2163        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2164        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2165        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2166        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2167        return self.func(
2168            "JSON_OBJECT",
2169            *expression.expressions,
2170            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2171        )
2172
2173    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2174        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2175        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2176        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2177        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2178        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2179        return self.func(
2180            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2181        )
2182
2183    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2184        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2185        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2186        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2187        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2188        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2189        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2190        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2191        return self.func(
2192            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2193            this,
2194            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2195        )
2196
2197    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2198        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2199        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2200        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2201
2202        if nested_schema:
2203            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2204
2205        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2206        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2207        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2208        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2209
2210    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2211        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2212
2213    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2214        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2215        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2216        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2217        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2218        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2219        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2220        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2221        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2222        return self.func(
2223            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2224        )
2225
2226    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2227        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2228        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2229        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2230        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2231        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2232        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2233
2234    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2235        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2236        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2237        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2238        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2239        with_ = (
2240            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2241            if expressions
2242            else ""
2243        )
2244        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2245
2246    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2247        query = expression.args.get("query")
2248        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2249        field = expression.args.get("field")
2250        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2251
2252        if query:
2253            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2254        elif unnest:
2255            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2256        elif field:
2257            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2258        else:
2259            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2260
2261        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2262
2263    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2264        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2265
2266    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2267        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2268        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2269            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
2270        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2271
2272        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2273            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2274            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2275
2276        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2277        if this:
2278            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2279            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2280
2281        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2282
2283    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2284        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2285
2286    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2287        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2288        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2289        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2290        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2291        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2292        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2293
2294    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2295        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
2296
2297    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2298        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2299            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2300        else:
2301            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2302            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2303
2304        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2305
2306    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2307        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2308        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2309        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2310        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2311
2312    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2313        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2314
2315    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2316        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2317        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2318        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2319
2320    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2321        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2322
2323    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2324        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2325        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2326        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2327
2328    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2329        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2330
2331    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2332        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
2333
2334    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2335        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
2336
2337    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2338        if not self.pretty:
2339            return self.binary(expression, op)
2340
2341        sqls = tuple(
2342            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2343            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2344        )
2345
2346        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2347        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
2348
2349    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2350        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2351
2352    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2353        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2354
2355    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2356        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2357
2358    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2359        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2360
2361    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2362        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2363
2364    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2365        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2366
2367    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2368        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2369        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2370        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')}{format_sql})"
2371
2372    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2373        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2374        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2375
2376    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2377        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2378            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2379        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2380
2381    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2382        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2383
2384    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2385        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2386        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2387        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2388        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2389        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2390
2391    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2392        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2393        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2394        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2395        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2396        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2397        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2398        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2399        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2400        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2401
2402    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2403        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2404        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2405        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2406        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2407
2408        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2409            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2410
2411        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2412
2413    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2414        return "BEGIN"
2415
2416    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2417        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2418        if chain is not None:
2419            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2420
2421        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2422
2423    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2424        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2425        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2426        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2427
2428    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2429        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2430
2431        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2432        if dtype:
2433            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2434            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2435            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2436            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2437            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2438
2439        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2440        if default:
2441            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2442
2443        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2444            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2445
2446        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2447
2448    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2449        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2450            # Remove db from tables
2451            expression = expression.transform(
2452                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2453            )
2454        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2455        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2456
2457    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2458        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2459
2460        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2461            if self.ALTER_TABLE_ADD_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
2462                actions = self.expressions(
2463                    expression,
2464                    key="actions",
2465                    prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
2466                )
2467            else:
2468                actions = f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions')}"
2469        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2470            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2471        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2472            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2473        else:
2474            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2475
2476        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2477        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2478        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2479
2480    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2481        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2482        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2483        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2484
2485    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2486        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2487        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2488        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2489
2490        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2491        if enforced is not None:
2492            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2493
2494        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2495
2496    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2497        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2498        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2499
2500        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2501        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2502        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2503
2504    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2505        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2506
2507    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2508        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2509
2510    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2511        return self.sql(
2512            exp.Cast(
2513                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this.copy(), expression=expression.expression.copy()),
2514                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2515            )
2516        )
2517
2518    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2519        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2520
2521    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2522        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2523            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2524        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
2525
2526    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2527        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2528
2529    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2530        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2531
2532    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2533        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2534
2535    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2536        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2537
2538    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2539        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2540
2541    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2542        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2543
2544    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2545        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2546
2547    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2548        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2549
2550    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2551        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2552
2553    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2554        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2555
2556    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2557        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2558
2559    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2560        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2561            return self.sql(
2562                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2563            )
2564        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2565
2566    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2567        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2568
2569    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2570        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2571
2572    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2573        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2574
2575    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2576        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2577
2578    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2579        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2580
2581    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2582        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2583
2584    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2585        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2586
2587    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2588        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2589
2590    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2591        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2592
2593    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2594        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2595
2596    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2597        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2598
2599    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2600        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2601
2602    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2603        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2604
2605    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2606        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
2607
2608    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
2609        args = list(expression.args.values())
2610        if not self.LOG_BASE_FIRST:
2611            args.reverse()
2612        return self.func("LOG", *args)
2613
2614    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2615        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2616        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2617        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2618        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2619        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2620
2621    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2622        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2623        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2624
2625    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2626        args = []
2627
2628        for key in expression.arg_types:
2629            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2630
2631            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2632                for value in arg_value:
2633                    args.append(value)
2634            elif arg_value is not None:
2635                args.append(arg_value)
2636
2637        if self.normalize_functions:
2638            name = expression.sql_name()
2639        else:
2640            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2641
2642        return self.func(name, *args)
2643
2644    def func(
2645        self,
2646        name: str,
2647        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2648        prefix: str = "(",
2649        suffix: str = ")",
2650    ) -> str:
2651        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2652
2653    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2654        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2655        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2656            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2657        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2658
2659    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2660        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2661
2662    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2663        return format_time(
2664            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2665        )
2666
2667    def expressions(
2668        self,
2669        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2670        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2671        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2672        flat: bool = False,
2673        indent: bool = True,
2674        skip_first: bool = False,
2675        sep: str = ", ",
2676        prefix: str = "",
2677    ) -> str:
2678        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2679
2680        if not expressions:
2681            return ""
2682
2683        if flat:
2684            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2685
2686        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2687
2688        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2689        pad = " " * self.pad
2690        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2691
2692        result_sqls = []
2693        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2694            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2695            if not sql:
2696                continue
2697
2698            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2699
2700            if self.pretty:
2701                if self.leading_comma:
2702                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2703                else:
2704                    result_sqls.append(
2705                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2706                    )
2707            else:
2708                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2709
2710        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2711        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
2712
2713    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2714        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2715        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2716        if flat:
2717            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2718        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2719
2720    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2721        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2722        if not property_name:
2723            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2724        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2725
2726    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Union, op: str) -> str:
2727        this = self.maybe_comment(self.sql(expression, "this"), comments=expression.comments)
2728        op = self.seg(op)
2729        return self.query_modifiers(
2730            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2731        )
2732
2733    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2734        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2735
2736    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2737        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2738
2739    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2740        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2741        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2742        expressions = (
2743            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2744        )
2745        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2746
2747    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2748        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2749        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2750        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2751
2752    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2753        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2754
2755    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2756        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2757        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2758        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2759        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2760
2761        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2762        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2763            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2764            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2765                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2766        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2767            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2768                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2769            else:
2770                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2771        else:
2772            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2773        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2774
2775    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2776        table = expression.this
2777        table_alias = ""
2778
2779        hints = table.args.get("hints")
2780        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
2781            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
2782            table = table.copy()
2783            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
2784
2785        this = self.sql(table)
2786        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2787        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2788        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
2789
2790        return f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
2791
2792    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2793        if expression.args.get("format"):
2794            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2795
2796        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2797
2798    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2799        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2800        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2801        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2802        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2803        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2804
2805    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2806        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2807        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2808        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2809        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2810
2811    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2812        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
2813
2814    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2815        return ""
2816
2817    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2818        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2819        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2820        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2821        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2822        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
2823
2824    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2825        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2826        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2827
2828        if having:
2829            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2830
2831        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
2832
2833    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2834        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2835        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2836        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2837        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2838        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2839        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2840        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2841        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2842        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2843        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2844        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2845        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
2846        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
2847
2848    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2849        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
2850        if key_block_size:
2851            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
2852
2853        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2854        if using:
2855            return f"USING {using}"
2856
2857        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
2858        if parser:
2859            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
2860
2861        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2862        if comment:
2863            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
2864
2865        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
2866        if visible is not None:
2867            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
2868
2869        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
2870        if engine_attr:
2871            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
2872
2873        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
2874        if secondary_engine_attr:
2875            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
2876
2877        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
2878        return ""
2879
2880    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2881        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2882        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
2883        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2884        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2885        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
2886        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
2887        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2888        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
2889        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
2890        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2891        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{schema}{options}"
2892
2893    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
2894        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
2895            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2896
2897        case = exp.Case().when(
2898            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
2899            expression.args["true"].copy(),
2900            copy=False,
2901        )
2902        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
2903        if else_cond:
2904            case.else_(else_cond.copy(), copy=False)
2905
2906        return self.sql(case)
2907
2908    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
2909        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2910        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2911        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
2912        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2913        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
2914        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
2915
2916    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
2917        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
2918
2919    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
2920        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2921
2922    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
2923        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
2924        model = f"MODEL {model}"
2925        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2926        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
2927        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
2928        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
2929
2930    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
2931        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
2932            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
2933
2934            expression = simplify(expression.copy())
2935
2936        return expression
2937
2938
2939def cached_generator(
2940    cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
2941) -> t.Callable[[exp.Expression], str]:
2942    """Returns a cached generator."""
2943    cache = {} if cache is None else cache
2944    generator = Generator(normalize=True, identify="safe")
2945    return lambda e: generator.generate(e, cache)
logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
class Generator:
  21class Generator:
  22    """
  23    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  24
  25    Args:
  26        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  27            Default: False.
  28        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  29            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  30            True or 'always': Always quote.
  31            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  32        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  33            Default: False.
  34        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  35            Default: 2.
  36        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  37            Default: 2.
  38        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  39            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  40            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  41            False: Disables function name normalization.
  42        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  43            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  44        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  45            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  46            Default: 3
  47        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  48            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  49            Default: False
  50        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  51            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  52            line length.
  53            Default: 80
  54        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  55            Default: True
  56    """
  57
  58    TRANSFORMS = {
  59        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  60            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  61        ),
  62        exp.TsOrDsAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  63            "TS_OR_DS_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  64        ),
  65        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  66        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  67        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  68        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  69        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  70        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  71        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  72        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  73        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  74        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  75        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  76        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  77        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  78        exp.HeapProperty: lambda self, e: "HEAP",
  79        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  80        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  81        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
  82        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  83        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  84        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  85        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  86        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  87        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  88        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
  89        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  90        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  92        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  95        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  96        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  97        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  98        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  99        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 100        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
 101        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
 102        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 103        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
 104        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 105        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 106        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
 107        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 108        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
 109        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 110    }
 111
 112    # Whether the base comes first
 113    LOG_BASE_FIRST = True
 114
 115    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
 116    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
 117
 118    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 119    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 120
 121    # Always do union distinct or union all
 122    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 123
 124    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 125    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 126
 127    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 128    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 129
 130    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 131    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 132
 133    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 134    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 135
 136    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 137    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 138
 139    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 140    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 141
 142    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 143    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 144
 145    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 146    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 147
 148    # Whether or not limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 149    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 150
 151    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 152    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 153
 154    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 155    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 156
 157    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 158    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 159
 160    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 161    JOIN_HINTS = True
 162
 163    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 164    TABLE_HINTS = True
 165
 166    # Whether or not query hints should be generated
 167    QUERY_HINTS = True
 168
 169    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 170    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 171
 172    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 173    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 174
 175    # Whether or not to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 176    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 177
 178    # Whether or not to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 179    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 180
 181    # Whether or not to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 182    RETURNING_END = True
 183
 184    # Whether or not to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 185    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 186
 187    # Whether or not to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 188    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 189
 190    # Whether or not TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 191    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 192
 193    # Whether or not the NVL2 function is supported
 194    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 195
 196    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 197    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 198
 199    # Whether or not VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 200    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 201    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 202    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 203
 204    # Whether or not the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 205    ALTER_TABLE_ADD_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 206
 207    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 208    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 209
 210    # Whether or not FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 211    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 212
 213    # Whether or not JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 214    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 215
 216    # Whether or not session variables / parameters are supported, e.g. @x in T-SQL
 217    SUPPORTS_PARAMETERS = True
 218
 219    # Whether or not to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 220    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 221
 222    # Whether or not CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 223    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 224
 225    # Whether or not parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 226    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 227
 228    # Whether or not COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 229    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 230
 231    # Whether or not data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 232    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 233
 234    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 235        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 236        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 237        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 238        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 239        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 240        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 241        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 242        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 243        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 244    }
 245
 246    STAR_MAPPING = {
 247        "except": "EXCEPT",
 248        "replace": "REPLACE",
 249    }
 250
 251    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 252        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 253        "seconds": "second",
 254        "minutes": "minute",
 255        "hours": "hour",
 256        "days": "day",
 257        "weeks": "week",
 258        "months": "month",
 259        "quarters": "quarter",
 260        "years": "year",
 261    }
 262
 263    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 264
 265    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 266
 267    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 268
 269    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 270        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 271        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 272        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 273        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 274        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 275        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 276        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 277        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 278        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 279        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 280        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 281        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 282        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 283        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 284        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 285        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 286        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 287        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 288        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 289        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 290        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 291        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 292        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 293        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 294        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 295        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 296        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 297        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 298        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 299        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 300        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 301        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 302        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 303        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 304        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 305        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 306        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 307        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 308        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 309        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 310        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 311        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 312        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 313        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 314        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 315        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 316        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 317        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 318        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 319        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 320        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 321        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 322        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 323        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 324        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 325        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 326        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 327        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 328        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 329        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 330        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 331        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 332    }
 333
 334    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 335    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 336
 337    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 338    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 339        exp.Create,
 340        exp.Delete,
 341        exp.Drop,
 342        exp.From,
 343        exp.Insert,
 344        exp.Join,
 345        exp.Select,
 346        exp.Update,
 347        exp.Where,
 348        exp.With,
 349    )
 350
 351    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 352    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 353        exp.Binary,
 354        exp.Union,
 355    )
 356
 357    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 358    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 359        exp.Column,
 360        exp.Literal,
 361        exp.Neg,
 362        exp.Paren,
 363    )
 364
 365    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 366
 367    # Autofilled
 368    INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 369    INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: t.Dict = {}
 370    INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 371    INDEX_OFFSET = 0
 372    UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
 373    ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
 374    IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
 375    STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
 376    NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = "upper"
 377    NULL_ORDERING = "nulls_are_small"
 378
 379    can_identify: t.Callable[[str, str | bool], bool]
 380
 381    # Delimiters for quotes, identifiers and the corresponding escape characters
 382    QUOTE_START = "'"
 383    QUOTE_END = "'"
 384    IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
 385    IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
 386    TOKENIZER_CLASS = Tokenizer
 387
 388    # Delimiters for bit, hex, byte and raw literals
 389    BIT_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 390    BIT_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 391    HEX_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 392    HEX_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 393    BYTE_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 394    BYTE_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 395
 396    __slots__ = (
 397        "pretty",
 398        "identify",
 399        "normalize",
 400        "pad",
 401        "_indent",
 402        "normalize_functions",
 403        "unsupported_level",
 404        "max_unsupported",
 405        "leading_comma",
 406        "max_text_width",
 407        "comments",
 408        "unsupported_messages",
 409        "_escaped_quote_end",
 410        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 411        "_cache",
 412    )
 413
 414    def __init__(
 415        self,
 416        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 417        identify: str | bool = False,
 418        normalize: bool = False,
 419        pad: int = 2,
 420        indent: int = 2,
 421        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 422        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 423        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 424        leading_comma: bool = False,
 425        max_text_width: int = 80,
 426        comments: bool = True,
 427    ):
 428        import sqlglot
 429
 430        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 431        self.identify = identify
 432        self.normalize = normalize
 433        self.pad = pad
 434        self._indent = indent
 435        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 436        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 437        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 438        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 439        self.comments = comments
 440
 441        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 442        self.normalize_functions = (
 443            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 444        )
 445
 446        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 447        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.QUOTE_END
 448        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 449            self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.IDENTIFIER_END
 450        )
 451        self._cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
 452
 453    def generate(
 454        self,
 455        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
 456        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
 457    ) -> str:
 458        """
 459        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 460
 461        Args:
 462            expression: The syntax tree.
 463            cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression
 464                which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
 465
 466        Returns:
 467            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 468        """
 469        if cache is not None:
 470            self._cache = cache
 471
 472        self.unsupported_messages = []
 473        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 474        self._cache = None
 475
 476        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 477            return sql
 478
 479        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 480            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 481                logger.warning(msg)
 482        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 483            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 484
 485        if self.pretty:
 486            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 487        return sql
 488
 489    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 490        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 491            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 492        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 493
 494    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 495        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 496
 497    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 498        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 499
 500    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 501        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 502        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 503        return comment
 504
 505    def maybe_comment(
 506        self,
 507        sql: str,
 508        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 509        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 510    ) -> str:
 511        comments = (
 512            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 513            if self.comments
 514            else None
 515        )
 516
 517        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 518            return sql
 519
 520        comments_sql = " ".join(
 521            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 522        )
 523
 524        if not comments_sql:
 525            return sql
 526
 527        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 528            return (
 529                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 530                if sql[0].isspace()
 531                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 532            )
 533
 534        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 535
 536    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 537        this_sql = self.indent(
 538            self.sql(expression)
 539            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 540            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 541            level=1,
 542            pad=0,
 543        )
 544        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 545
 546    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 547        original = self.identify
 548        self.identify = False
 549        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 550        self.identify = original
 551        return result
 552
 553    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 554        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 555            return name.upper()
 556        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 557            return name.lower()
 558        return name
 559
 560    def indent(
 561        self,
 562        sql: str,
 563        level: int = 0,
 564        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 565        skip_first: bool = False,
 566        skip_last: bool = False,
 567    ) -> str:
 568        if not self.pretty:
 569            return sql
 570
 571        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 572        lines = sql.split("\n")
 573
 574        return "\n".join(
 575            line
 576            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 577            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 578            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 579        )
 580
 581    def sql(
 582        self,
 583        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 584        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 585        comment: bool = True,
 586    ) -> str:
 587        if not expression:
 588            return ""
 589
 590        if isinstance(expression, str):
 591            return expression
 592
 593        if key:
 594            value = expression.args.get(key)
 595            if value:
 596                return self.sql(value)
 597            return ""
 598
 599        if self._cache is not None:
 600            expression_id = hash(expression)
 601
 602            if expression_id in self._cache:
 603                return self._cache[expression_id]
 604
 605        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 606
 607        if callable(transform):
 608            sql = transform(self, expression)
 609        elif transform:
 610            sql = transform
 611        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 612            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 613
 614            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 615                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 616            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 617                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 618            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 619                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 620            else:
 621                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 622        else:
 623            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 624
 625        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 626
 627        if self._cache is not None:
 628            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
 629        return sql
 630
 631    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 632        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 633        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 634        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 635
 636    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 637        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 638        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 639        options = expression.args.get("options")
 640        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 641        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 642        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 643        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 644        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 645
 646    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 647        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 648            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 649        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 650        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 651
 652    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 653        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 654
 655        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 656            join_mark = ""
 657            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 658
 659        column = ".".join(
 660            self.sql(part)
 661            for part in (
 662                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 663                expression.args.get("db"),
 664                expression.args.get("table"),
 665                expression.args.get("this"),
 666            )
 667            if part
 668        )
 669
 670        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 671
 672    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 673        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 674        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 675        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 676        return f"{position}{this}"
 677
 678    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 679        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 680        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 681        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 682        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 683        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 684        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 685        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 686        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 687
 688        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 689            kind = ""
 690
 691        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 692
 693    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 694        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 695        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 696        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 697
 698    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 699        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 700        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 701            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 702        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 703            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 704        else:
 705            persisted = ""
 706        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 707
 708    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 709        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 710
 711    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 712        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 713            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 714        else:
 715            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 716
 717        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 718
 719    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 720        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 721    ) -> str:
 722        this = ""
 723        if expression.this is not None:
 724            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 725            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 726
 727        start = expression.args.get("start")
 728        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 729        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 730        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 731        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 732        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 733        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 734        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 735        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 736        cycle_sql = ""
 737
 738        if cycle is not None:
 739            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 740            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 741
 742        sequence_opts = ""
 743        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 744            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 745            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 746
 747        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 748        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 749
 750        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 751
 752    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 753        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 754
 755    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 756        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 757        if desc is not None:
 758            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 759        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 760
 761    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 762        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 763        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 764        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 765        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 766        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}"
 767
 768    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 769        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 770
 771    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 772        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 773        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 774        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 775
 776        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 777
 778        properties_sql = ""
 779        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 780            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 781        ):
 782            properties_sql = self.sql(
 783                exp.Properties(
 784                    expressions=[
 785                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 786                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 787                    ]
 788                )
 789            )
 790
 791        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 792        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 793
 794        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 795        if expression_sql:
 796            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 797
 798            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 799                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 800                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 801                        exp.Properties(
 802                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 803                        ),
 804                        wrapped=False,
 805                    )
 806                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 807                else:
 808                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 809
 810        postindex_props_sql = ""
 811        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 812            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 813                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 814                wrapped=False,
 815                prefix=" ",
 816            )
 817
 818        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 819        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 820        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 821
 822        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 823        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 824
 825        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 826        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 827            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 828                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 829                sep=" ",
 830                prefix=" ",
 831                wrapped=False,
 832            )
 833
 834        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 835
 836        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 837        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 838            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 839                exp.Properties(
 840                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 841                ),
 842                sep=" ",
 843                prefix=" ",
 844                wrapped=False,
 845            )
 846
 847        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 848        no_schema_binding = (
 849            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 850        )
 851
 852        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 853        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 854
 855        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 856        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 857
 858    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 859        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 860        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
 861        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
 862        this = f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
 863        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 864
 865        if when:
 866            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 867            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 868            return f"{this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 869
 870        return this
 871
 872    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 873        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 874
 875    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 876        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 877        if with_:
 878            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 879        return sql
 880
 881    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 882        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 883        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
 884
 885        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 886
 887    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 888        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 889        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 890
 891    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 892        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 893        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 894        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 895
 896        if not alias and not self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
 897            alias = "_t"
 898
 899        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 900
 901    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 902        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 903        if self.BIT_START:
 904            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
 905        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 906
 907    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 908        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 909        if self.HEX_START:
 910            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
 911        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 912
 913    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 914        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 915        if self.BYTE_START:
 916            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
 917        return this
 918
 919    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 920        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
 921        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
 922
 923    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
 924        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 925        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 926        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
 927        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 928
 929    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 930        type_value = expression.this
 931
 932        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
 933            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 934        else:
 935            type_sql = (
 936                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 937                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
 938                else type_value
 939            )
 940
 941        nested = ""
 942        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 943        values = ""
 944
 945        if interior:
 946            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 947                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 948                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 949                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 950                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 951                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 952            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
 953                nested = f" {interior}"
 954            else:
 955                nested = f"({interior})"
 956
 957        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 958        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
 959            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
 960            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
 961        ):
 962            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
 963
 964        return type_sql
 965
 966    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 967        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 968        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 969        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 970        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
 971
 972    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 973        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 974        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 975        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 976        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
 977        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
 978        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
 979        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
 980        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
 981        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
 982        if self.RETURNING_END:
 983            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
 984        else:
 985            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
 986        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
 987
 988    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
 989        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 990        kind = expression.args["kind"]
 991        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
 992        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
 993        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
 994        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
 995        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
 996        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
 997        return (
 998            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
 999        )
1000
1001    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1002        return self.prepend_ctes(
1003            expression,
1004            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
1005        )
1006
1007    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1008        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1009
1010    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1011        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1012        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
1013        count = expression.args.get("count")
1014        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1015        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1016            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1017        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1018        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1019
1020    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1021        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1022            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1023            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1024            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1025
1026        agg = expression.this.copy()
1027        agg_arg = agg.this
1028        cond = expression.expression.this
1029        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1030        return self.sql(agg)
1031
1032    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1033        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1034            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1035            return ""
1036
1037        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1038
1039    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1040        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1041        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1042        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1043        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1044        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1045        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1046        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1047        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1048        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1049        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1050        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1051        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1052        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1053        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1054        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1055        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}{where}"
1056
1057    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1058        text = expression.name
1059        lower = text.lower()
1060        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1061        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1062        if (
1063            expression.quoted
1064            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1065            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1066            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1067        ):
1068            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1069        return text
1070
1071    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1072        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1073        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1074        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1075        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1076        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1077
1078    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1079        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1080        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1081
1082    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1083        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1084
1085    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1086        root_properties = []
1087        with_properties = []
1088
1089        for p in expression.expressions:
1090            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1091            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1092                with_properties.append(p.copy())
1093            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1094                root_properties.append(p.copy())
1095
1096        return self.root_properties(
1097            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1098        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1099
1100    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1101        if properties.expressions:
1102            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1103        return ""
1104
1105    def properties(
1106        self,
1107        properties: exp.Properties,
1108        prefix: str = "",
1109        sep: str = ", ",
1110        suffix: str = "",
1111        wrapped: bool = True,
1112    ) -> str:
1113        if properties.expressions:
1114            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1115            if expressions:
1116                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1117                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1118        return ""
1119
1120    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1121        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1122
1123    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1124        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1125        for p in properties.expressions:
1126            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1127            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1128                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p.copy())
1129            else:
1130                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1131
1132        return properties_locs
1133
1134    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1135        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1136            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1137        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1138
1139    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1140        property_cls = expression.__class__
1141        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1142            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1143
1144        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1145        if not property_name:
1146            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1147
1148        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1149
1150    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1151        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1152        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1153        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1154
1155    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1156        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1157        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1158        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1159
1160    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1161        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1162        local = expression.args.get("local")
1163        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1164        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1165        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1166        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1167        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1168
1169    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1170        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1171        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1172        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1173
1174    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1175        if expression.args.get("default"):
1176            property = "DEFAULT"
1177        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1178            property = "ON"
1179        else:
1180            property = "OFF"
1181        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1182
1183    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1184        if expression.args.get("no"):
1185            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1186        if expression.args.get("default"):
1187            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1188
1189        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1190        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1191
1192    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1193        default = expression.args.get("default")
1194        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1195        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1196        if default or minimum or maximum:
1197            if default:
1198                prop = "DEFAULT"
1199            elif minimum:
1200                prop = "MINIMUM"
1201            else:
1202                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1203            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1204        units = expression.args.get("units")
1205        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1206        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1207
1208    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1209        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1210        always = expression.args.get("always")
1211        default = expression.args.get("default")
1212        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1213        never = expression.args.get("never")
1214
1215        if autotemp is not None:
1216            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1217        elif always:
1218            prop = "ALWAYS"
1219        elif default:
1220            prop = "DEFAULT"
1221        elif manual:
1222            prop = "MANUAL"
1223        elif never:
1224            prop = "NEVER"
1225        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1226
1227    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1228        no = expression.args.get("no")
1229        no = " NO" if no else ""
1230        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1231        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1232
1233        for_ = ""
1234        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1235            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1236        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1237            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1238        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1239            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1240        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1241
1242    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1243        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1244        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1245        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1246        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1247        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1248        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1249        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1250
1251    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1252        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1253        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1254        statistics_sql = ""
1255        if statistics is not None:
1256            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1257        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1258
1259    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1260        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1261
1262        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1263            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1264        else:
1265            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1266
1267        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1268        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1269        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1270
1271        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1272
1273        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1274        partition_sql = (
1275            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1276        )
1277        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1278        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1279        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1280        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1281        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1282        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1283
1284        if self.RETURNING_END:
1285            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1286        else:
1287            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1288
1289        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1290        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1291
1292    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1293        return self.prepend_ctes(
1294            expression,
1295            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1296        )
1297
1298    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1299        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1300
1301    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1302        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1303
1304    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1305        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1306        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1307        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1308        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1309        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1310
1311    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1312        return expression.name.upper()
1313
1314    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1315        return expression.name.upper()
1316
1317    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1318        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1319        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1320        if constraint:
1321            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1322        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1323        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1324        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1325        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1326        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1327        if expressions:
1328            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1329        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1330
1331    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1332        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1333
1334    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1335        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1336        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1337        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1338        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1339        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1340        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1341        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1342        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1343        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1344        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1345        null = expression.args.get("null")
1346        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1347        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1348
1349    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1350        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1351
1352    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1353        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1354        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1355        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1356        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1357
1358    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1359        table = ".".join(
1360            part
1361            for part in [
1362                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1363                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1364                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1365            ]
1366            if part
1367        )
1368
1369        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1370        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1371        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1372        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1373        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1374        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1375        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1376        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1377        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1378        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1379
1380        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1381        if file_format:
1382            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1383            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1384            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1385
1386        index = self.sql(expression, "index")
1387        index = f" AT {index}" if index else ""
1388
1389        return f"{table}{version}{file_format}{alias}{index}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
1390
1391    def tablesample_sql(
1392        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1393    ) -> str:
1394        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1395            table = expression.this.copy()
1396            table.set("alias", None)
1397            this = self.sql(table)
1398            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1399        else:
1400            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1401            alias = ""
1402
1403        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1404        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1405        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1406        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1407        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1408        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1409        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1410        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1411        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1412        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1413        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1414
1415        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1416        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1417            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1418
1419        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1420        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1421        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1422
1423        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}"
1424        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1425            expr = f"({expr})"
1426
1427        return f"{this} {kind} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1428
1429    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1430        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1431
1432        if expression.this:
1433            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1434            if not expressions:
1435                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1436
1437            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1438            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1439            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1440            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1441            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1442
1443        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1444        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1445        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1446        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1447        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1448        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1449        if include_nulls is not None:
1450            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1451        else:
1452            nulls = ""
1453        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1454
1455    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1456        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1457        kind = expression.text("kind")
1458        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1459        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1460
1461    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1462        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1463
1464    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1465        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1466        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1467        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1468        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1469        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1470        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1471        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1472        if self.RETURNING_END:
1473            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1474        else:
1475            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1476        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1477        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1478
1479    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1480        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1481        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1482            args = self.expressions(expression)
1483            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1484            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1485            values = (
1486                f"({values})"
1487                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1488                else values
1489            )
1490            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1491
1492        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1493        expression = expression.copy()
1494        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1495        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1496
1497        selects: t.List[exp.Subqueryable] = []
1498
1499        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1500            row = tup.expressions
1501
1502            if i == 0 and column_names:
1503                row = [
1504                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1505                ]
1506
1507            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1508
1509        if self.pretty:
1510            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1511            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1512            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1513            subqueryable = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1514            return self.subquery_sql(
1515                subqueryable.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False)
1516            )
1517
1518        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1519        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1520        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1521
1522    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1523        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1524
1525    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1526        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1527        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1528        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1529
1530    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1531        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1532
1533    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1534        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1535
1536        if expression.args.get("all"):
1537            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1538
1539        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1540        grouping_sets = (
1541            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1542        )
1543
1544        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1545        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1546            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1547        else:
1548            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1549            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1550
1551        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1552        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1553            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1554        else:
1555            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1556            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1557
1558        groupings = csv(
1559            grouping_sets,
1560            cube_sql,
1561            rollup_sql,
1562            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1563            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1564        )
1565
1566        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1567            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1568
1569        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1570
1571    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1572        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1573        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1574
1575    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1576        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1577        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1578        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1579        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY {connect}")
1580        return start + connect
1581
1582    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1583        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1584
1585    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1586        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1587            side = None
1588        else:
1589            side = expression.side
1590
1591        op_sql = " ".join(
1592            op
1593            for op in (
1594                expression.method,
1595                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1596                side,
1597                expression.kind,
1598                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1599            )
1600            if op
1601        )
1602        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1603        using = expression.args.get("using")
1604
1605        if not on_sql and using:
1606            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1607
1608        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1609
1610        if on_sql:
1611            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1612            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1613            if using:
1614                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1615            else:
1616                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1617        elif not op_sql:
1618            return f", {this_sql}"
1619
1620        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1621        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1622
1623    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1624        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1625        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1626        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1627
1628    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1629        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1630
1631        if expression.args.get("view"):
1632            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1633            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1634            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1635            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1636            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1637            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1638
1639        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1640        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1641        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1642
1643    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1644        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1645        args = ", ".join(
1646            self.sql(self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e)
1647            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1648            if e
1649        )
1650        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args}"
1651
1652    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1653        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1654        expression = expression.expression
1655        expression = (
1656            self._simplify_unless_literal(expression) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else expression
1657        )
1658        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression)}"
1659
1660    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1661        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1662        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1663        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1664        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1665        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1666        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1667        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1668        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1669
1670    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1671        expressions = (
1672            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1673        )
1674        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1675        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1676
1677    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1678        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1679
1680    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1681        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1682            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1683            return ""
1684
1685        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1686        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1687        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1688        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1689
1690        if wait is not None:
1691            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1692                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1693            else:
1694                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1695
1696        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1697
1698    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1699        text = expression.this or ""
1700        if expression.is_string:
1701            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1702        return text
1703
1704    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1705        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1706        if self.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES:
1707            text = "".join(self.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES.get(ch, ch) for ch in text)
1708        elif self.pretty:
1709            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1710        return text
1711
1712    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1713        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1714        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1715        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1716        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1717        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1718        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1719        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1720        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1721        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1722        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1723        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1724
1725    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1726        return "NULL"
1727
1728    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1729        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1730
1731    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1732        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1733        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1734        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1735
1736    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1737        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1738
1739    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1740        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1741
1742    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1743        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1744
1745    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1746        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1747        asc = not desc
1748
1749        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1750        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1751        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1752        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1753        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1754
1755        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
1756        nulls_sort_change = ""
1757        if nulls_first and (
1758            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1759        ):
1760            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1761        elif (
1762            nulls_last
1763            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1764            and not nulls_are_last
1765        ):
1766            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1767
1768        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1769            self.unsupported(
1770                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1771            )
1772            nulls_sort_change = ""
1773
1774        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1775
1776    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1777        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1778        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1779        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1780        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1781        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1782        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1783        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1784        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1785        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1786        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1787        definition_sqls = [
1788            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1789            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1790        ]
1791        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1792        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1793        body = "".join(
1794            (
1795                partition,
1796                order,
1797                measures,
1798                rows,
1799                after,
1800                pattern,
1801                define,
1802            )
1803        )
1804        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1805        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1806        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1807
1808    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1809        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1810
1811        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1812        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1813
1814        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1815            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1816        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1817            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1818
1819        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1820
1821        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1822            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1823            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1824            else []
1825        )
1826
1827        return csv(
1828            *sqls,
1829            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1830            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
1831            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1832            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1833            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1834            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1835            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1836            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1837            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1838            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1839            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1840            sep="",
1841        )
1842
1843    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1844        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1845    ) -> t.List[str]:
1846        return [
1847            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1848            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1849        ]
1850
1851    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1852        return [
1853            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1854            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1855            if expression.args.get("windows")
1856            else "",
1857            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1858            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1859            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1860        ]
1861
1862    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1863        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1864        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1865        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1866
1867    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1868        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1869        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1870        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1871        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1872        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1873        top = (
1874            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1875            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1876            else ""
1877        )
1878
1879        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1880
1881        if kind:
1882            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1883                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1884            else:
1885                if kind == "STRUCT":
1886                    expressions = self.expressions(
1887                        sqls=[
1888                            self.sql(
1889                                exp.Struct(
1890                                    expressions=[
1891                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1892                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1893                                        )
1894                                        for e in expression.expressions
1895                                    ]
1896                                )
1897                            )
1898                        ]
1899                    )
1900                kind = ""
1901
1902        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1903        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1904            expression,
1905            f"SELECT{top}{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1906            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1907            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1908        )
1909        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1910
1911    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1912        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1913        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1914        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
1915
1916    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1917        if expression.expressions:
1918            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1919        return ""
1920
1921    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1922        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1923        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1924        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1925        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1926        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
1927
1928    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1929        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1930        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}" if self.SUPPORTS_PARAMETERS else this
1931
1932    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1933        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1934        kind = expression.text("kind")
1935        if kind:
1936            kind = f"{kind}."
1937        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
1938
1939    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1940        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
1941
1942    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1943        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1944        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1945
1946        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1947        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1948
1949        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1950        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1951
1952    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1953        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1954        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1955
1956    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1957        return self.prepend_ctes(
1958            expression,
1959            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1960        )
1961
1962    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1963        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1964        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1965        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1966        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
1967
1968    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1969        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1970
1971        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1972        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1973
1974        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
1975            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
1976                alias = alias.copy()
1977                alias.append("columns", offset.copy())
1978
1979        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1980            columns = alias.columns
1981            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1982        else:
1983            alias = self.sql(alias)
1984
1985        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1986        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
1987            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
1988        else:
1989            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
1990                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
1991            elif offset:
1992                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
1993            else:
1994                suffix = alias
1995
1996        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
1997
1998    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1999        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2000        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2001
2002    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2003        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2004        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2005        order = expression.args.get("order")
2006        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2007        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2008        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2009        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2010
2011        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2012
2013        first = expression.args.get("first")
2014        if first is None:
2015            first = ""
2016        else:
2017            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2018
2019        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2020            return f"{this} {alias}"
2021
2022        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2023        return f"{this} ({args})"
2024
2025    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2026        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2027        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2028
2029    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2030        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2031        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2032        end = (
2033            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2034            or "CURRENT ROW"
2035        )
2036        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2037
2038    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2039        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2040        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2041        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2042
2043    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2044        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2045        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2046        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2047        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2048
2049    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2050        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
2051        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2052
2053        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2054
2055    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
2056        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
2057
2058    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2059        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2060
2061    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2062        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2063        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
2064            this = self.wrap(this)
2065        return f"ANY {this}"
2066
2067    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2068        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2069
2070    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2071        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2072        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2073
2074        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2075            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2076            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2077
2078        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2079
2080        if default:
2081            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2082
2083        statements.append("END")
2084
2085        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
2086            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2087
2088        return " ".join(statements)
2089
2090    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2091        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2092        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2093        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2094
2095    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2096        order = expression.args.get("order")
2097        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2098        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2099
2100    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2101        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2102        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2103        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2104
2105    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2106        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2107
2108        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2109            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2110        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2111            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2112        else:
2113            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2114
2115    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
2116        expressions = expression.expressions
2117        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2118            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
2119        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2120
2121    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2122        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2123        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2124
2125    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2126        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2127        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2128        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2129        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2130        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2131        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2132        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2133        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2134
2135    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2136        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2137        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2138        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2139        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2140
2141    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2142        expression = expression.copy()
2143        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2144
2145    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2146        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2147        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2148        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2149
2150    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2151        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2152
2153    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2154        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2155
2156    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
2157        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2158        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2159        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2160        if unique_keys is not None:
2161            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2162        else:
2163            unique_keys = ""
2164        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2165        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2166        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2167        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2168        return self.func(
2169            "JSON_OBJECT",
2170            *expression.expressions,
2171            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2172        )
2173
2174    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2175        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2176        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2177        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2178        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2179        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2180        return self.func(
2181            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2182        )
2183
2184    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2185        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2186        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2187        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2188        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2189        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2190        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2191        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2192        return self.func(
2193            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2194            this,
2195            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2196        )
2197
2198    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2199        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2200        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2201        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2202
2203        if nested_schema:
2204            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2205
2206        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2207        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2208        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2209        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2210
2211    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2212        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2213
2214    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2215        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2216        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2217        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2218        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2219        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2220        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2221        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2222        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2223        return self.func(
2224            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2225        )
2226
2227    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2228        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2229        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2230        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2231        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2232        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2233        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2234
2235    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2236        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2237        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2238        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2239        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2240        with_ = (
2241            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2242            if expressions
2243            else ""
2244        )
2245        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2246
2247    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2248        query = expression.args.get("query")
2249        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2250        field = expression.args.get("field")
2251        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2252
2253        if query:
2254            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2255        elif unnest:
2256            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2257        elif field:
2258            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2259        else:
2260            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2261
2262        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2263
2264    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2265        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2266
2267    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2268        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2269        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2270            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
2271        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2272
2273        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2274            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2275            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2276
2277        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2278        if this:
2279            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2280            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2281
2282        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2283
2284    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2285        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2286
2287    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2288        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2289        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2290        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2291        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2292        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2293        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2294
2295    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2296        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
2297
2298    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2299        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2300            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2301        else:
2302            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2303            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2304
2305        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2306
2307    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2308        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2309        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2310        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2311        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2312
2313    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2314        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2315
2316    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2317        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2318        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2319        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2320
2321    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2322        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2323
2324    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2325        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2326        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2327        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2328
2329    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2330        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2331
2332    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2333        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
2334
2335    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2336        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
2337
2338    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2339        if not self.pretty:
2340            return self.binary(expression, op)
2341
2342        sqls = tuple(
2343            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2344            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2345        )
2346
2347        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2348        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
2349
2350    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2351        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2352
2353    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2354        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2355
2356    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2357        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2358
2359    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2360        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2361
2362    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2363        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2364
2365    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2366        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2367
2368    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2369        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2370        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2371        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')}{format_sql})"
2372
2373    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2374        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2375        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2376
2377    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2378        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2379            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2380        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2381
2382    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2383        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2384
2385    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2386        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2387        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2388        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2389        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2390        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2391
2392    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2393        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2394        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2395        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2396        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2397        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2398        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2399        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2400        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2401        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2402
2403    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2404        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2405        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2406        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2407        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2408
2409        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2410            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2411
2412        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2413
2414    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2415        return "BEGIN"
2416
2417    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2418        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2419        if chain is not None:
2420            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2421
2422        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2423
2424    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2425        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2426        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2427        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2428
2429    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2430        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2431
2432        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2433        if dtype:
2434            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2435            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2436            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2437            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2438            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2439
2440        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2441        if default:
2442            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2443
2444        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2445            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2446
2447        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2448
2449    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2450        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2451            # Remove db from tables
2452            expression = expression.transform(
2453                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2454            )
2455        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2456        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2457
2458    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2459        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2460
2461        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2462            if self.ALTER_TABLE_ADD_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
2463                actions = self.expressions(
2464                    expression,
2465                    key="actions",
2466                    prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
2467                )
2468            else:
2469                actions = f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions')}"
2470        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2471            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2472        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2473            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2474        else:
2475            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2476
2477        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2478        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2479        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2480
2481    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2482        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2483        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2484        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2485
2486    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2487        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2488        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2489        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2490
2491        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2492        if enforced is not None:
2493            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2494
2495        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2496
2497    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2498        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2499        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2500
2501        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2502        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2503        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2504
2505    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2506        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2507
2508    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2509        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2510
2511    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2512        return self.sql(
2513            exp.Cast(
2514                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this.copy(), expression=expression.expression.copy()),
2515                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2516            )
2517        )
2518
2519    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2520        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2521
2522    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2523        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2524            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2525        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
2526
2527    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2528        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2529
2530    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2531        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2532
2533    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2534        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2535
2536    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2537        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2538
2539    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2540        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2541
2542    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2543        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2544
2545    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2546        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2547
2548    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2549        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2550
2551    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2552        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2553
2554    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2555        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2556
2557    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2558        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2559
2560    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2561        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2562            return self.sql(
2563                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2564            )
2565        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2566
2567    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2568        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2569
2570    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2571        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2572
2573    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2574        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2575
2576    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2577        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2578
2579    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2580        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2581
2582    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2583        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2584
2585    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2586        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2587
2588    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2589        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2590
2591    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2592        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2593
2594    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2595        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2596
2597    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2598        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2599
2600    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2601        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2602
2603    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2604        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2605
2606    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2607        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
2608
2609    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
2610        args = list(expression.args.values())
2611        if not self.LOG_BASE_FIRST:
2612            args.reverse()
2613        return self.func("LOG", *args)
2614
2615    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2616        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2617        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2618        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2619        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2620        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2621
2622    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2623        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2624        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2625
2626    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2627        args = []
2628
2629        for key in expression.arg_types:
2630            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2631
2632            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2633                for value in arg_value:
2634                    args.append(value)
2635            elif arg_value is not None:
2636                args.append(arg_value)
2637
2638        if self.normalize_functions:
2639            name = expression.sql_name()
2640        else:
2641            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2642
2643        return self.func(name, *args)
2644
2645    def func(
2646        self,
2647        name: str,
2648        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2649        prefix: str = "(",
2650        suffix: str = ")",
2651    ) -> str:
2652        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2653
2654    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2655        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2656        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2657            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2658        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2659
2660    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2661        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2662
2663    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2664        return format_time(
2665            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2666        )
2667
2668    def expressions(
2669        self,
2670        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2671        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2672        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2673        flat: bool = False,
2674        indent: bool = True,
2675        skip_first: bool = False,
2676        sep: str = ", ",
2677        prefix: str = "",
2678    ) -> str:
2679        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2680
2681        if not expressions:
2682            return ""
2683
2684        if flat:
2685            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2686
2687        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2688
2689        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2690        pad = " " * self.pad
2691        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2692
2693        result_sqls = []
2694        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2695            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2696            if not sql:
2697                continue
2698
2699            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2700
2701            if self.pretty:
2702                if self.leading_comma:
2703                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2704                else:
2705                    result_sqls.append(
2706                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2707                    )
2708            else:
2709                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2710
2711        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2712        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
2713
2714    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2715        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2716        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2717        if flat:
2718            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2719        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2720
2721    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2722        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2723        if not property_name:
2724            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2725        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2726
2727    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Union, op: str) -> str:
2728        this = self.maybe_comment(self.sql(expression, "this"), comments=expression.comments)
2729        op = self.seg(op)
2730        return self.query_modifiers(
2731            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2732        )
2733
2734    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2735        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2736
2737    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2738        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2739
2740    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2741        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2742        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2743        expressions = (
2744            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2745        )
2746        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2747
2748    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2749        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2750        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2751        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2752
2753    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2754        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2755
2756    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2757        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2758        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2759        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2760        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2761
2762        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2763        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2764            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2765            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2766                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2767        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2768            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2769                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2770            else:
2771                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2772        else:
2773            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2774        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2775
2776    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2777        table = expression.this
2778        table_alias = ""
2779
2780        hints = table.args.get("hints")
2781        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
2782            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
2783            table = table.copy()
2784            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
2785
2786        this = self.sql(table)
2787        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2788        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2789        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
2790
2791        return f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
2792
2793    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2794        if expression.args.get("format"):
2795            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2796
2797        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2798
2799    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2800        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2801        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2802        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2803        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2804        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2805
2806    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2807        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2808        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2809        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2810        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2811
2812    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2813        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
2814
2815    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2816        return ""
2817
2818    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2819        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2820        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2821        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2822        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2823        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
2824
2825    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2826        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2827        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2828
2829        if having:
2830            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2831
2832        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
2833
2834    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2835        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2836        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2837        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2838        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2839        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2840        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2841        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2842        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2843        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2844        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2845        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2846        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
2847        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
2848
2849    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2850        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
2851        if key_block_size:
2852            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
2853
2854        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2855        if using:
2856            return f"USING {using}"
2857
2858        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
2859        if parser:
2860            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
2861
2862        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2863        if comment:
2864            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
2865
2866        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
2867        if visible is not None:
2868            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
2869
2870        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
2871        if engine_attr:
2872            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
2873
2874        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
2875        if secondary_engine_attr:
2876            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
2877
2878        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
2879        return ""
2880
2881    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2882        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2883        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
2884        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2885        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2886        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
2887        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
2888        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2889        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
2890        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
2891        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2892        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{schema}{options}"
2893
2894    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
2895        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
2896            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2897
2898        case = exp.Case().when(
2899            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
2900            expression.args["true"].copy(),
2901            copy=False,
2902        )
2903        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
2904        if else_cond:
2905            case.else_(else_cond.copy(), copy=False)
2906
2907        return self.sql(case)
2908
2909    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
2910        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2911        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2912        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
2913        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2914        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
2915        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
2916
2917    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
2918        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
2919
2920    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
2921        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2922
2923    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
2924        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
2925        model = f"MODEL {model}"
2926        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2927        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
2928        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
2929        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
2930
2931    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
2932        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
2933            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
2934
2935            expression = simplify(expression.copy())
2936
2937        return expression

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

Arguments:
  • pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
  • identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  • normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
  • pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
  • unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True)
414    def __init__(
415        self,
416        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
417        identify: str | bool = False,
418        normalize: bool = False,
419        pad: int = 2,
420        indent: int = 2,
421        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
422        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
423        max_unsupported: int = 3,
424        leading_comma: bool = False,
425        max_text_width: int = 80,
426        comments: bool = True,
427    ):
428        import sqlglot
429
430        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
431        self.identify = identify
432        self.normalize = normalize
433        self.pad = pad
434        self._indent = indent
435        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
436        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
437        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
438        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
439        self.comments = comments
440
441        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
442        self.normalize_functions = (
443            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
444        )
445
446        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
447        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.QUOTE_END
448        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
449            self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.IDENTIFIER_END
450        )
451        self._cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
TRANSFORMS = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsAdd'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalSpan'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NonClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
LOG_BASE_FIRST = True
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXPLICIT_UNION = False
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINT_SEP = ', '
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
RETURNING_END = True
COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
ALTER_TABLE_ADD_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
SUPPORTS_PARAMETERS = True
COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.TINYTEXT: 'TINYTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.TINYBLOB: 'TINYBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET'}
STAR_MAPPING = {'except': 'EXCEPT', 'replace': 'REPLACE'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'microseconds': 'microsecond', 'seconds': 'second', 'minutes': 'minute', 'hours': 'hour', 'days': 'day', 'weeks': 'week', 'months': 'month', 'quarters': 'quarter', 'years': 'year'}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Binary'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Union'>)
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: Dict[str, str] = {}
INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: Dict = {}
INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES: Dict[str, str] = {}
INDEX_OFFSET = 0
UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = 'upper'
NULL_ORDERING = 'nulls_are_small'
@classmethod
def can_identify(text: str, identify: str | bool = 'safe') -> bool:
279    @classmethod
280    def can_identify(cls, text: str, identify: str | bool = "safe") -> bool:
281        """Checks if text can be identified given an identify option.
282
283        Args:
284            text: The text to check.
285            identify:
286                "always" or `True`: Always returns true.
287                "safe": True if the identifier is case-insensitive.
288
289        Returns:
290            Whether or not the given text can be identified.
291        """
292        if identify is True or identify == "always":
293            return True
294
295        if identify == "safe":
296            return not cls.case_sensitive(text)
297
298        return False

Checks if text can be identified given an identify option.

Arguments:
  • text: The text to check.
  • identify: "always" or True: Always returns true. "safe": True if the identifier is case-insensitive.
Returns:

Whether or not the given text can be identified.

QUOTE_START = "'"
QUOTE_END = "'"
IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
TOKENIZER_CLASS = <class 'sqlglot.tokens.Tokenizer'>
BIT_START: Optional[str] = None
BIT_END: Optional[str] = None
HEX_START: Optional[str] = None
HEX_END: Optional[str] = None
BYTE_START: Optional[str] = None
BYTE_END: Optional[str] = None
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], cache: Optional[Dict[int, str]] = None) -> str:
453    def generate(
454        self,
455        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
456        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
457    ) -> str:
458        """
459        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
460
461        Args:
462            expression: The syntax tree.
463            cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression
464                which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
465
466        Returns:
467            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
468        """
469        if cache is not None:
470            self._cache = cache
471
472        self.unsupported_messages = []
473        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
474        self._cache = None
475
476        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
477            return sql
478
479        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
480            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
481                logger.warning(msg)
482        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
483            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
484
485        if self.pretty:
486            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
487        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

Arguments:
  • expression: The syntax tree.
  • cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
Returns:

The SQL string corresponding to expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
489    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
490        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
491            raise UnsupportedError(message)
492        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
494    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
495        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
497    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
498        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
500    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
501        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
502        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
503        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None) -> str:
505    def maybe_comment(
506        self,
507        sql: str,
508        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
509        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
510    ) -> str:
511        comments = (
512            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
513            if self.comments
514            else None
515        )
516
517        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
518            return sql
519
520        comments_sql = " ".join(
521            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
522        )
523
524        if not comments_sql:
525            return sql
526
527        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
528            return (
529                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
530                if sql[0].isspace()
531                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
532            )
533
534        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
536    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
537        this_sql = self.indent(
538            self.sql(expression)
539            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
540            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
541            level=1,
542            pad=0,
543        )
544        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
546    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
547        original = self.identify
548        self.identify = False
549        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
550        self.identify = original
551        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
553    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
554        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
555            return name.upper()
556        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
557            return name.lower()
558        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
560    def indent(
561        self,
562        sql: str,
563        level: int = 0,
564        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
565        skip_first: bool = False,
566        skip_last: bool = False,
567    ) -> str:
568        if not self.pretty:
569            return sql
570
571        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
572        lines = sql.split("\n")
573
574        return "\n".join(
575            line
576            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
577            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
578            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
579        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
581    def sql(
582        self,
583        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
584        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
585        comment: bool = True,
586    ) -> str:
587        if not expression:
588            return ""
589
590        if isinstance(expression, str):
591            return expression
592
593        if key:
594            value = expression.args.get(key)
595            if value:
596                return self.sql(value)
597            return ""
598
599        if self._cache is not None:
600            expression_id = hash(expression)
601
602            if expression_id in self._cache:
603                return self._cache[expression_id]
604
605        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
606
607        if callable(transform):
608            sql = transform(self, expression)
609        elif transform:
610            sql = transform
611        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
612            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
613
614            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
615                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
616            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
617                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
618            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
619                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
620            else:
621                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
622        else:
623            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
624
625        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
626
627        if self._cache is not None:
628            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
629        return sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
631    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
632        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
633        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
634        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
636    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
637        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
638        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
639        options = expression.args.get("options")
640        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
641        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
642        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
643        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
644        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
646    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
647        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
648            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
649        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
650        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
652    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
653        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
654
655        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
656            join_mark = ""
657            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
658
659        column = ".".join(
660            self.sql(part)
661            for part in (
662                expression.args.get("catalog"),
663                expression.args.get("db"),
664                expression.args.get("table"),
665                expression.args.get("this"),
666            )
667            if part
668        )
669
670        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
672    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
673        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
674        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
675        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
676        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
678    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
679        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
680        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
681        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
682        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
683        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
684        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
685        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
686        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
687
688        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
689            kind = ""
690
691        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
693    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
694        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
695        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
696        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
698    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
699        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
700        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
701            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
702        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
703            persisted = " PERSISTED"
704        else:
705            persisted = ""
706        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
708    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
709        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
711    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
712        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
713            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
714        else:
715            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
716
717        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
719    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
720        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
721    ) -> str:
722        this = ""
723        if expression.this is not None:
724            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
725            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
726
727        start = expression.args.get("start")
728        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
729        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
730        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
731        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
732        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
733        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
734        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
735        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
736        cycle_sql = ""
737
738        if cycle is not None:
739            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
740            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
741
742        sequence_opts = ""
743        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
744            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
745            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
746
747        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
748        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
749
750        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
752    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
753        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
755    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
756        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
757        if desc is not None:
758            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
759        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
761    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
762        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
763        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
764        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
765        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
766        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}"
def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: DefaultDict) -> str:
768    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
769        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
771    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
772        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
773        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
774        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
775
776        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
777
778        properties_sql = ""
779        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
780            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
781        ):
782            properties_sql = self.sql(
783                exp.Properties(
784                    expressions=[
785                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
786                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
787                    ]
788                )
789            )
790
791        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
792        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
793
794        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
795        if expression_sql:
796            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
797
798            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
799                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
800                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
801                        exp.Properties(
802                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
803                        ),
804                        wrapped=False,
805                    )
806                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
807                else:
808                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
809
810        postindex_props_sql = ""
811        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
812            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
813                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
814                wrapped=False,
815                prefix=" ",
816            )
817
818        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
819        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
820        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
821
822        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
823        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
824
825        postcreate_props_sql = ""
826        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
827            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
828                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
829                sep=" ",
830                prefix=" ",
831                wrapped=False,
832            )
833
834        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
835
836        postexpression_props_sql = ""
837        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
838            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
839                exp.Properties(
840                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
841                ),
842                sep=" ",
843                prefix=" ",
844                wrapped=False,
845            )
846
847        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
848        no_schema_binding = (
849            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
850        )
851
852        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
853        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
854
855        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
856        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
858    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
859        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
860        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
861        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
862        this = f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
863        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
864
865        if when:
866            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
867            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
868            return f"{this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
869
870        return this
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
872    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
873        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
875    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
876        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
877        if with_:
878            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
879        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
881    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
882        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
883        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
884
885        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
887    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
888        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
889        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
891    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
892        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
893        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
894        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
895
896        if not alias and not self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
897            alias = "_t"
898
899        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
901    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
902        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
903        if self.BIT_START:
904            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
905        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
907    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
908        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
909        if self.HEX_START:
910            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
911        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
913    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
914        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
915        if self.BYTE_START:
916            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
917        return this
def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str:
919    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
920        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
921        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeParam) -> str:
923    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
924        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
925        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
926        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
927        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
929    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
930        type_value = expression.this
931
932        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
933            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
934        else:
935            type_sql = (
936                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
937                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
938                else type_value
939            )
940
941        nested = ""
942        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
943        values = ""
944
945        if interior:
946            if expression.args.get("nested"):
947                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
948                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
949                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
950                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
951                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
952            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
953                nested = f" {interior}"
954            else:
955                nested = f"({interior})"
956
957        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
958        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
959            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
960            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
961        ):
962            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
963
964        return type_sql
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
966    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
967        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
968        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
969        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
970        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
972    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
973        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
974        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
975        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
976        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
977        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
978        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
979        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
980        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
981        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
982        if self.RETURNING_END:
983            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
984        else:
985            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
986        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
988    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
989        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
990        kind = expression.args["kind"]
991        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
992        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
993        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
994        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
995        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
996        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
997        return (
998            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
999        )
def except_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1001    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1002        return self.prepend_ctes(
1003            expression,
1004            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
1005        )
def except_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1007    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1008        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
1010    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1011        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1012        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
1013        count = expression.args.get("count")
1014        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1015        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1016            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1017        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1018        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
1020    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1021        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1022            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1023            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1024            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1025
1026        agg = expression.this.copy()
1027        agg_arg = agg.this
1028        cond = expression.expression.this
1029        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1030        return self.sql(agg)
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
1032    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1033        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1034            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1035            return ""
1036
1037        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
1039    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1040        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1041        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1042        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1043        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1044        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1045        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1046        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1047        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1048        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1049        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1050        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1051        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1052        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1053        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1054        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1055        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}{where}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
1057    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1058        text = expression.name
1059        lower = text.lower()
1060        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1061        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1062        if (
1063            expression.quoted
1064            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1065            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1066            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1067        ):
1068            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1069        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1071    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1072        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1073        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1074        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1075        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1076        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str:
1078    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1079        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1080        return f"{prefix}{string}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
1082    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1083        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1085    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1086        root_properties = []
1087        with_properties = []
1088
1089        for p in expression.expressions:
1090            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1091            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1092                with_properties.append(p.copy())
1093            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1094                root_properties.append(p.copy())
1095
1096        return self.root_properties(
1097            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1098        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1100    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1101        if properties.expressions:
1102            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1103        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
1105    def properties(
1106        self,
1107        properties: exp.Properties,
1108        prefix: str = "",
1109        sep: str = ", ",
1110        suffix: str = "",
1111        wrapped: bool = True,
1112    ) -> str:
1113        if properties.expressions:
1114            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1115            if expressions:
1116                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1117                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1118        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1120    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1121        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
def locate_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> DefaultDict:
1123    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1124        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1125        for p in properties.expressions:
1126            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1127            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1128                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p.copy())
1129            else:
1130                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1131
1132        return properties_locs
def property_name( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1134    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1135        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1136            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1137        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
1139    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1140        property_cls = expression.__class__
1141        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1142            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1143
1144        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1145        if not property_name:
1146            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1147
1148        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
1150    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1151        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1152        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1153        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1155    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1156        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1157        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1158        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
1160    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1161        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1162        local = expression.args.get("local")
1163        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1164        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1165        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1166        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1167        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1169    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1170        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1171        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1172        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1174    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1175        if expression.args.get("default"):
1176            property = "DEFAULT"
1177        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1178            property = "ON"
1179        else:
1180            property = "OFF"
1181        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1183    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1184        if expression.args.get("no"):
1185            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1186        if expression.args.get("default"):
1187            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1188
1189        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1190        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1192    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1193        default = expression.args.get("default")
1194        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1195        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1196        if default or minimum or maximum:
1197            if default:
1198                prop = "DEFAULT"
1199            elif minimum:
1200                prop = "MINIMUM"
1201            else:
1202                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1203            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1204        units = expression.args.get("units")
1205        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1206        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1208    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1209        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1210        always = expression.args.get("always")
1211        default = expression.args.get("default")
1212        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1213        never = expression.args.get("never")
1214
1215        if autotemp is not None:
1216            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1217        elif always:
1218            prop = "ALWAYS"
1219        elif default:
1220            prop = "DEFAULT"
1221        elif manual:
1222            prop = "MANUAL"
1223        elif never:
1224            prop = "NEVER"
1225        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1227    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1228        no = expression.args.get("no")
1229        no = " NO" if no else ""
1230        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1231        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1232
1233        for_ = ""
1234        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1235            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1236        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1237            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1238        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1239            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1240        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1242    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1243        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1244        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1245        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1246        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1247        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1248        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1249        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1251    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1252        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1253        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1254        statistics_sql = ""
1255        if statistics is not None:
1256            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1257        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1259    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1260        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1261
1262        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1263            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1264        else:
1265            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1266
1267        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1268        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1269        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1270
1271        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1272
1273        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1274        partition_sql = (
1275            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1276        )
1277        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1278        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1279        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1280        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1281        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1282        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1283
1284        if self.RETURNING_END:
1285            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1286        else:
1287            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1288
1289        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1290        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def intersect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1292    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1293        return self.prepend_ctes(
1294            expression,
1295            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1296        )
def intersect_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1298    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1299        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1301    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1302        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def kill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kill) -> str:
1304    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1305        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1306        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1307        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1308        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1309        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1311    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1312        return expression.name.upper()
def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1314    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1315        return expression.name.upper()
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1317    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1318        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1319        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1320        if constraint:
1321            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1322        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1323        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1324        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1325        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1326        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1327        if expressions:
1328            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1329        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1331    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1332        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1334    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1335        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1336        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1337        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1338        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1339        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1340        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1341        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1342        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1343        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1344        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1345        null = expression.args.get("null")
1346        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1347        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint) -> str:
1349    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1350        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1352    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1353        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1354        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1355        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1356        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1358    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1359        table = ".".join(
1360            part
1361            for part in [
1362                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1363                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1364                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1365            ]
1366            if part
1367        )
1368
1369        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1370        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1371        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1372        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1373        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1374        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1375        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1376        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1377        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1378        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1379
1380        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1381        if file_format:
1382            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1383            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1384            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1385
1386        index = self.sql(expression, "index")
1387        index = f" AT {index}" if index else ""
1388
1389        return f"{table}{version}{file_format}{alias}{index}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = 'SEED', sep=' AS ') -> str:
1391    def tablesample_sql(
1392        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1393    ) -> str:
1394        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1395            table = expression.this.copy()
1396            table.set("alias", None)
1397            this = self.sql(table)
1398            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1399        else:
1400            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1401            alias = ""
1402
1403        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1404        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1405        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1406        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1407        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1408        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1409        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1410        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1411        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1412        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1413        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1414
1415        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1416        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1417            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1418
1419        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1420        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1421        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1422
1423        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}"
1424        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1425            expr = f"({expr})"
1426
1427        return f"{this} {kind} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1429    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1430        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1431
1432        if expression.this:
1433            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1434            if not expressions:
1435                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1436
1437            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1438            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1439            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1440            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1441            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1442
1443        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1444        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1445        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1446        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1447        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1448        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1449        if include_nulls is not None:
1450            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1451        else:
1452            nulls = ""
1453        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
def version_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Version) -> str:
1455    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1456        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1457        kind = expression.text("kind")
1458        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1459        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
1461    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1462        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
1464    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1465        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1466        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1467        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1468        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1469        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1470        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1471        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1472        if self.RETURNING_END:
1473            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1474        else:
1475            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1476        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1477        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values) -> str:
1479    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1480        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1481        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1482            args = self.expressions(expression)
1483            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1484            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1485            values = (
1486                f"({values})"
1487                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1488                else values
1489            )
1490            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1491
1492        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1493        expression = expression.copy()
1494        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1495        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1496
1497        selects: t.List[exp.Subqueryable] = []
1498
1499        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1500            row = tup.expressions
1501
1502            if i == 0 and column_names:
1503                row = [
1504                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1505                ]
1506
1507            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1508
1509        if self.pretty:
1510            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1511            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1512            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1513            subqueryable = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1514            return self.subquery_sql(
1515                subqueryable.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False)
1516            )
1517
1518        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1519        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1520        return f"({unions}){alias}"
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
1522    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1523        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
1525    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1526        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1527        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1528        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
1530    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1531        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
1533    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1534        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1535
1536        if expression.args.get("all"):
1537            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1538
1539        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1540        grouping_sets = (
1541            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1542        )
1543
1544        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1545        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1546            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1547        else:
1548            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1549            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1550
1551        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1552        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1553            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1554        else:
1555            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1556            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1557
1558        groupings = csv(
1559            grouping_sets,
1560            cube_sql,
1561            rollup_sql,
1562            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1563            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1564        )
1565
1566        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1567            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1568
1569        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
1571    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1572        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1573        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def connect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connect) -> str:
1575    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1576        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1577        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1578        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1579        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY {connect}")
1580        return start + connect
def prior_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Prior) -> str:
1582    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1583        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
1585    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1586        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1587            side = None
1588        else:
1589            side = expression.side
1590
1591        op_sql = " ".join(
1592            op
1593            for op in (
1594                expression.method,
1595                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1596                side,
1597                expression.kind,
1598                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1599            )
1600            if op
1601        )
1602        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1603        using = expression.args.get("using")
1604
1605        if not on_sql and using:
1606            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1607
1608        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1609
1610        if on_sql:
1611            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1612            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1613            if using:
1614                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1615            else:
1616                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1617        elif not op_sql:
1618            return f", {this_sql}"
1619
1620        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1621        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
1623    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1624        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1625        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1626        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
1628    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1629        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1630
1631        if expression.args.get("view"):
1632            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1633            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1634            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1635            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1636            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1637            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1638
1639        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1640        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1641        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1643    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1644        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1645        args = ", ".join(
1646            self.sql(self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e)
1647            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1648            if e
1649        )
1650        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
1652    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1653        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1654        expression = expression.expression
1655        expression = (
1656            self._simplify_unless_literal(expression) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else expression
1657        )
1658        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression)}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
1660    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1661        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1662        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1663        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1664        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1665        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1666        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1667        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1668        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
1670    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1671        expressions = (
1672            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1673        )
1674        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1675        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
1677    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1678        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
1680    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1681        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1682            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1683            return ""
1684
1685        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1686        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1687        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1688        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1689
1690        if wait is not None:
1691            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1692                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1693            else:
1694                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1695
1696        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
1698    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1699        text = expression.this or ""
1700        if expression.is_string:
1701            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1702        return text
def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1704    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1705        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1706        if self.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES:
1707            text = "".join(self.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES.get(ch, ch) for ch in text)
1708        elif self.pretty:
1709            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1710        return text
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
1712    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1713        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1714        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1715        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1716        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1717        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1718        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1719        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1720        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1721        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1722        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1723        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1725    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1726        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
1728    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1729        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1731    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1732        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1733        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1734        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
1736    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1737        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
1739    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1740        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
1742    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1743        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
1745    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1746        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1747        asc = not desc
1748
1749        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1750        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1751        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1752        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1753        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1754
1755        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
1756        nulls_sort_change = ""
1757        if nulls_first and (
1758            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1759        ):
1760            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1761        elif (
1762            nulls_last
1763            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1764            and not nulls_are_last
1765        ):
1766            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1767
1768        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1769            self.unsupported(
1770                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1771            )
1772            nulls_sort_change = ""
1773
1774        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1776    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1777        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1778        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1779        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1780        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1781        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1782        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1783        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1784        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1785        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1786        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1787        definition_sqls = [
1788            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1789            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1790        ]
1791        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1792        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1793        body = "".join(
1794            (
1795                partition,
1796                order,
1797                measures,
1798                rows,
1799                after,
1800                pattern,
1801                define,
1802            )
1803        )
1804        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1805        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1806        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1808    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1809        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1810
1811        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1812        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1813
1814        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1815            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1816        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1817            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1818
1819        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1820
1821        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1822            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1823            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1824            else []
1825        )
1826
1827        return csv(
1828            *sqls,
1829            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1830            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
1831            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1832            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1833            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1834            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1835            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1836            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1837            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1838            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1839            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1840            sep="",
1841        )
def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]:
1843    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1844        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1845    ) -> t.List[str]:
1846        return [
1847            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1848            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1849        ]
def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
1851    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1852        return [
1853            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1854            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1855            if expression.args.get("windows")
1856            else "",
1857            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1858            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1859            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1860        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
1862    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1863        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1864        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1865        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
1867    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1868        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1869        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1870        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1871        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1872        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1873        top = (
1874            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1875            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1876            else ""
1877        )
1878
1879        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1880
1881        if kind:
1882            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1883                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1884            else:
1885                if kind == "STRUCT":
1886                    expressions = self.expressions(
1887                        sqls=[
1888                            self.sql(
1889                                exp.Struct(
1890                                    expressions=[
1891                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1892                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1893                                        )
1894                                        for e in expression.expressions
1895                                    ]
1896                                )
1897                            )
1898                        ]
1899                    )
1900                kind = ""
1901
1902        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1903        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1904            expression,
1905            f"SELECT{top}{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1906            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1907            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1908        )
1909        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
1911    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1912        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1913        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1914        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
1916    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1917        if expression.expressions:
1918            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1919        return ""
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
1921    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1922        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1923        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1924        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1925        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1926        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
1928    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1929        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1930        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}" if self.SUPPORTS_PARAMETERS else this
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
1932    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1933        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1934        kind = expression.text("kind")
1935        if kind:
1936            kind = f"{kind}."
1937        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
1939    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1940        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1942    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1943        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1944        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1945
1946        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1947        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1948
1949        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1950        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
1952    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1953        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1954        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def union_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
1956    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1957        return self.prepend_ctes(
1958            expression,
1959            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1960        )
def union_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
1962    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1963        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1964        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1965        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1966        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
1968    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1969        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1970
1971        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1972        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1973
1974        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
1975            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
1976                alias = alias.copy()
1977                alias.append("columns", offset.copy())
1978
1979        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1980            columns = alias.columns
1981            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1982        else:
1983            alias = self.sql(alias)
1984
1985        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1986        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
1987            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
1988        else:
1989            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
1990                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
1991            elif offset:
1992                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
1993            else:
1994                suffix = alias
1995
1996        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
1998    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1999        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2000        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
2002    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2003        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2004        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2005        order = expression.args.get("order")
2006        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2007        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2008        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2009        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2010
2011        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2012
2013        first = expression.args.get("first")
2014        if first is None:
2015            first = ""
2016        else:
2017            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2018
2019        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2020            return f"{this} {alias}"
2021
2022        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2023        return f"{this} ({args})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2025    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2026        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2027        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
2029    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2030        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2031        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2032        end = (
2033            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2034            or "CURRENT ROW"
2035        )
2036        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
2038    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2039        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2040        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2041        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
2043    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2044        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2045        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2046        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2047        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
2049    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2050        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
2051        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2052
2053        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def safebracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeBracket) -> str:
2055    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
2056        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
2058    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2059        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
2061    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2062        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2063        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
2064            this = self.wrap(this)
2065        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
2067    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2068        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
2070    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2071        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2072        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2073
2074        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2075            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2076            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2077
2078        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2079
2080        if default:
2081            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2082
2083        statements.append("END")
2084
2085        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
2086            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2087
2088        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
2090    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2091        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2092        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2093        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
2095    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2096        order = expression.args.get("order")
2097        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2098        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
2100    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2101        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2102        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2103        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
2105    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2106        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2107
2108        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2109            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2110        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2111            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2112        else:
2113            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeConcat) -> str:
2115    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
2116        expressions = expression.expressions
2117        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2118            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
2119        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
2121    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2122        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2123        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2125    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2126        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2127        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2128        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2129        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2130        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2131        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2132        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2133        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2135    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2136        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2137        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2138        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2139        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
2141    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2142        expression = expression.copy()
2143        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2145    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2146        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2147        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2148        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2150    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2151        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def formatjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FormatJson) -> str:
2153    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2154        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject) -> str:
2156    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
2157        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2158        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2159        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2160        if unique_keys is not None:
2161            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2162        else:
2163            unique_keys = ""
2164        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2165        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2166        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2167        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2168        return self.func(
2169            "JSON_OBJECT",
2170            *expression.expressions,
2171            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2172        )
def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArray) -> str:
2174    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2175        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2176        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2177        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2178        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2179        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2180        return self.func(
2181            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2182        )
def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2184    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2185        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2186        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2187        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2188        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2189        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2190        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2191        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2192        return self.func(
2193            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2194            this,
2195            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2196        )
def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2198    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2199        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2200        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2201        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2202
2203        if nested_schema:
2204            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2205
2206        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2207        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2208        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2209        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONSchema) -> str:
2211    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2212        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
def jsontable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONTable) -> str:
2214    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2215        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2216        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2217        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2218        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2219        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2220        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2221        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2222        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2223        return self.func(
2224            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2225        )
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2227    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2228        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2229        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2230        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2231        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2232        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2233        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
2235    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2236        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2237        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2238        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2239        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2240        with_ = (
2241            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2242            if expressions
2243            else ""
2244        )
2245        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
2247    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2248        query = expression.args.get("query")
2249        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2250        field = expression.args.get("field")
2251        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2252
2253        if query:
2254            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2255        elif unnest:
2256            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2257        elif field:
2258            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2259        else:
2260            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2261
2262        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2264    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2265        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
2267    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2268        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2269        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2270            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
2271        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2272
2273        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2274            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2275            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2276
2277        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2278        if this:
2279            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2280            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2281
2282        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
2284    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2285        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
2287    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2288        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2289        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2290        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2291        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2292        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2293        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
2295    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2296        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
2298    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2299        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2300            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2301        else:
2302            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2303            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2304
2305        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
2307    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2308        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2309        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2310        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2311        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
2313    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2314        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
2316    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2317        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2318        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2319        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
2321    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2322        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2324    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2325        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2326        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2327        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
2329    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2330        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And) -> str:
2332    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2333        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
def xor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Xor) -> str:
2335    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2336        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
def connector_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2338    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2339        if not self.pretty:
2340            return self.binary(expression, op)
2341
2342        sqls = tuple(
2343            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2344            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2345        )
2346
2347        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2348        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2350    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2351        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2353    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2354        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2356    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2357        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2359    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2360        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2362    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2363        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2365    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2366        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2368    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2369        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2370        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2371        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')}{format_sql})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
2373    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2374        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2375        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
2377    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2378        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2379            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2380        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
2382    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2383        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
2385    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2386        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2387        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2388        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2389        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2390        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2392    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2393        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2394        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2395        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2396        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2397        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2398        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2399        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2400        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2401        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2403    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2404        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2405        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2406        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2407        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2408
2409        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2410            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2411
2412        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
2414    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2415        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
2417    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2418        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2419        if chain is not None:
2420            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2421
2422        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
2424    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2425        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2426        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2427        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
2429    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2430        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2431
2432        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2433        if dtype:
2434            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2435            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2436            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2437            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2438            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2439
2440        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2441        if default:
2442            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2443
2444        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2445            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2446
2447        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str:
2449    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2450        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2451            # Remove db from tables
2452            expression = expression.transform(
2453                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2454            )
2455        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2456        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def altertable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
2458    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2459        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2460
2461        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2462            if self.ALTER_TABLE_ADD_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
2463                actions = self.expressions(
2464                    expression,
2465                    key="actions",
2466                    prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
2467                )
2468            else:
2469                actions = f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions')}"
2470        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2471            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2472        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2473            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2474        else:
2475            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2476
2477        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2478        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2479        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
2481    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2482        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2483        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2484        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
2486    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2487        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2488        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2489        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2490
2491        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2492        if enforced is not None:
2493            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2494
2495        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
2497    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2498        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2499        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2500
2501        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2502        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2503        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2505    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2506        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
2508    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2509        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
2511    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2512        return self.sql(
2513            exp.Cast(
2514                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this.copy(), expression=expression.expression.copy()),
2515                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2516            )
2517        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
2519    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2520        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2522    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2523        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2524            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2525        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
2527    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2528        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
2530    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2531        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
2533    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2534        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
2536    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2537        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
2539    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2540        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
2542    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2543        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
2545    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2546        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
2548    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2549        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
2551    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2552        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
2554    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2555        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
2557    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2558        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
2560    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2561        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2562            return self.sql(
2563                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2564            )
2565        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
2567    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2568        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
2570    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2571        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
2573    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2574        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
2576    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2577        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
2579    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2580        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
2582    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2583        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
2585    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2586        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
2588    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2589        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2591    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2592        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2594    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2595        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def or_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or) -> str:
2597    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2598        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
2600    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2601        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
2603    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2604        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
2606    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2607        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
def log_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Log) -> str:
2609    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
2610        args = list(expression.args.values())
2611        if not self.LOG_BASE_FIRST:
2612            args.reverse()
2613        return self.func("LOG", *args)
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
2615    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2616        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2617        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2618        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2619        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2620        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2622    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2623        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2624        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
2626    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2627        args = []
2628
2629        for key in expression.arg_types:
2630            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2631
2632            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2633                for value in arg_value:
2634                    args.append(value)
2635            elif arg_value is not None:
2636                args.append(arg_value)
2637
2638        if self.normalize_functions:
2639            name = expression.sql_name()
2640        else:
2641            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2642
2643        return self.func(name, *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')') -> str:
2645    def func(
2646        self,
2647        name: str,
2648        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2649        prefix: str = "(",
2650        suffix: str = ")",
2651    ) -> str:
2652        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
2654    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2655        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2656        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2657            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2658        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
def text_width(self, args: Iterable) -> int:
2660    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2661        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
def format_time(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> Optional[str]:
2663    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2664        return format_time(
2665            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2666        )
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[Collection[Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression]]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, skip_first: bool = False, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '') -> str:
2668    def expressions(
2669        self,
2670        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2671        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2672        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2673        flat: bool = False,
2674        indent: bool = True,
2675        skip_first: bool = False,
2676        sep: str = ", ",
2677        prefix: str = "",
2678    ) -> str:
2679        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2680
2681        if not expressions:
2682            return ""
2683
2684        if flat:
2685            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2686
2687        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2688
2689        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2690        pad = " " * self.pad
2691        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2692
2693        result_sqls = []
2694        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2695            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2696            if not sql:
2697                continue
2698
2699            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2700
2701            if self.pretty:
2702                if self.leading_comma:
2703                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2704                else:
2705                    result_sqls.append(
2706                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2707                    )
2708            else:
2709                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2710
2711        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2712        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2714    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2715        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2716        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2717        if flat:
2718            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2719        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
2721    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2722        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2723        if not property_name:
2724            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2725        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def set_operation(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union, op: str) -> str:
2727    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Union, op: str) -> str:
2728        this = self.maybe_comment(self.sql(expression, "this"), comments=expression.comments)
2729        op = self.seg(op)
2730        return self.query_modifiers(
2731            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2732        )
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
2734    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2735        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
2737    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2738        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2740    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2741        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2742        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2743        expressions = (
2744            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2745        )
2746        return f"{this}{expressions}"
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
2748    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2749        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2750        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2751        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
2753    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2754        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
2756    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2757        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2758        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2759        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2760        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2761
2762        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2763        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2764            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2765            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2766                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2767        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2768            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2769                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2770            else:
2771                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2772        else:
2773            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2774        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
2776    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2777        table = expression.this
2778        table_alias = ""
2779
2780        hints = table.args.get("hints")
2781        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
2782            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
2783            table = table.copy()
2784            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
2785
2786        this = self.sql(table)
2787        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2788        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2789        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
2790
2791        return f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
2793    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2794        if expression.args.get("format"):
2795            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2796
2797        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str:
2799    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2800        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2801        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2802        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2803        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2804        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str:
2806    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2807        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2808        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2809        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2810        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2812    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2813        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str:
2815    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2816        return ""
def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2818    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2819        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2820        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2821        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2822        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2823        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue) -> str:
2825    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2826        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2827        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2828
2829        if having:
2830            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2831
2832        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
def querytransform_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryTransform) -> str:
2834    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2835        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2836        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2837        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2838        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2839        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2840        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2841        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2842        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2843        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2844        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2845        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2846        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
2847        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2849    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2850        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
2851        if key_block_size:
2852            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
2853
2854        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2855        if using:
2856            return f"USING {using}"
2857
2858        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
2859        if parser:
2860            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
2861
2862        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2863        if comment:
2864            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
2865
2866        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
2867        if visible is not None:
2868            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
2869
2870        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
2871        if engine_attr:
2872            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
2873
2874        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
2875        if secondary_engine_attr:
2876            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
2877
2878        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
2879        return ""
def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2881    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2882        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2883        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
2884        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2885        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2886        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
2887        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
2888        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2889        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
2890        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
2891        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2892        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{schema}{options}"
def nvl2_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Nvl2) -> str:
2894    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
2895        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
2896            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2897
2898        case = exp.Case().when(
2899            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
2900            expression.args["true"].copy(),
2901            copy=False,
2902        )
2903        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
2904        if else_cond:
2905            case.else_(else_cond.copy(), copy=False)
2906
2907        return self.sql(case)
def comprehension_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comprehension) -> str:
2909    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
2910        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2911        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2912        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
2913        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2914        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
2915        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
2917    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
2918        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def opclass_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Opclass) -> str:
2920    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
2921        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def predict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Predict) -> str:
2923    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
2924        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
2925        model = f"MODEL {model}"
2926        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2927        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
2928        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
2929        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
def cached_generator( cache: Optional[Dict[int, str]] = None) -> Callable[[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], str]:
2940def cached_generator(
2941    cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
2942) -> t.Callable[[exp.Expression], str]:
2943    """Returns a cached generator."""
2944    cache = {} if cache is None else cache
2945    generator = Generator(normalize=True, identify="safe")
2946    return lambda e: generator.generate(e, cache)

Returns a cached generator.