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sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import re
   5import typing as t
   6from collections import defaultdict
   7from functools import reduce
   8
   9from sqlglot import exp
  10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, name_sequence, seq_get
  12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
  13from sqlglot.time import format_time
  14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  15
  16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  17    from sqlglot._typing import E
  18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  19
  20logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  21
  22ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
  23
  24
  25class _Generator(type):
  26    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
  27        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
  28
  29        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
  30        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
  31            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
  32
  33        return klass
  34
  35
  36class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  37    """
  38    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  39
  40    Args:
  41        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  42            Default: False.
  43        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  44            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  45            True or 'always': Always quote.
  46            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  47        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  48            Default: False.
  49        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  50            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  51            Default: 2.
  52        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  53            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  54            Default: 2.
  55        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  56            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  57            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  58            False: Disables function name normalization.
  59        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  60            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  61        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  62            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  63            Default: 3
  64        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  65            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  66            Default: False
  67        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  68            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  69            line length.
  70            Default: 80
  71        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  72            Default: True
  73    """
  74
  75    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
  76        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
  77        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  78        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  79        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
  80        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  81        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  82        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
  83        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  84        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  85        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  86        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  87        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  88        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
  89        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  92        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  93        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
  94        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
  95        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  96        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
  97        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
  98        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
  99        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 100        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 101        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 102        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 103        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 104        exp.JSONExtract: lambda self, e: self.func(
 105            "JSON_EXTRACT", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 106        ),
 107        exp.JSONExtractScalar: lambda self, e: self.func(
 108            "JSON_EXTRACT_SCALAR", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 109        ),
 110        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 111        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 112        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 113        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 114        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 115        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 116        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 117        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 118        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 119        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 120        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 121        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 122        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 123        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 124        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 125        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 126        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 127        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 128        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 129        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 130        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 131        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 132        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 133        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 134        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 135        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 136        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 137        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 138        exp.Timestamp: lambda self, e: self.func("TIMESTAMP", e.this, e.expression),
 139        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 140        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 141        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 142        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 143        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 144        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 145        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 146        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 147        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 148        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 149        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 150    }
 151
 152    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 153    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
 154    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 155
 156    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 157    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 158    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 159
 160    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 161    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 162
 163    # Always do union distinct or union all
 164    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 165
 166    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 167    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 168
 169    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 170    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 171
 172    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 173    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 174
 175    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 176    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 177
 178    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 179    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 180
 181    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 182    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 183
 184    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 185    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 186
 187    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 188    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 189
 190    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 191    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 192
 193    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 194    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 195
 196    # Whether join hints should be generated
 197    JOIN_HINTS = True
 198
 199    # Whether table hints should be generated
 200    TABLE_HINTS = True
 201
 202    # Whether query hints should be generated
 203    QUERY_HINTS = True
 204
 205    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 206    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 207
 208    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 209    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 210
 211    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 212    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 213
 214    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 215    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 216
 217    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 218    RETURNING_END = True
 219
 220    # Whether to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 221    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 222
 223    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 224    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 225
 226    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 227    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 228
 229    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 230    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 231
 232    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 233    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 234
 235    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 236    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 237    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 238    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 239
 240    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 241    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 242
 243    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 244    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 245
 246    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 247    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 248
 249    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 250    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 251
 252    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 253    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 254
 255    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 256    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 257
 258    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 259    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 260
 261    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 262    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 263
 264    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 265    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 266
 267    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 268    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 269
 270    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 271    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 272
 273    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 274    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 275
 276    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 277    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 278
 279    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 280    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 281
 282    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 283    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 284
 285    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 286    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 287
 288    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 289    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 290
 291    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 292    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 293
 294    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 295    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 296
 297    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 298    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 299
 300    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 301    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 302
 303    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 304    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 305
 306    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 307    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 308
 309    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 310    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 311
 312    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 313    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 314
 315    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 316    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 317    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 318
 319    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 320    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 321
 322    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 323    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 324
 325    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 326    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 327
 328    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 329    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 330
 331    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 332    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 333
 334    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 335    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 336
 337    # Whether or not union modifiers apply to the outer union or select.
 338    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 339    # True means limit 1 happens after the union, False means it it happens on y.
 340    OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS = True
 341
 342    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 343    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 344
 345    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 346    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 347
 348    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 349    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 350
 351    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 352    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 353
 354    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 355        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 356        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 357        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 358        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 359        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 360        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 361        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 362        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 363        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 364        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 365    }
 366
 367    STAR_MAPPING = {
 368        "except": "EXCEPT",
 369        "replace": "REPLACE",
 370    }
 371
 372    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 373        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 374        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 375        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 376        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 377        "DAYS": "DAY",
 378        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 379        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 380        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 381        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 382    }
 383
 384    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 385        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 386        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 387        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 388        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 389        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 390            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 391            if e.args.get("windows")
 392            else ""
 393        ),
 394    }
 395
 396    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 397
 398    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 399
 400    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 401    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 402
 403    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 404        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 405        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 406        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 407        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 408        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 409        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 410        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 411        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 412        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 413        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 414        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 415        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 416        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 417        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 418        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 419        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 420        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 421        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 422        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 423        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 424        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 425        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 426        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 427        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 428        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 429        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 430        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 431        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 432        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 433        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 434        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 435        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 436        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 437        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 438        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 439        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 440        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 441        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 442        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 443        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 444        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 445        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 446        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 447        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 448        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 449        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 450        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 451        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 452        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 453        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 454        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 455        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 456        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 457        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 458        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 459        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 460        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 461        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 462        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 463        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 464        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 465        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 466        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 467        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 468        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 469        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 470        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 471        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 472        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 473        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 474        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 475        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 476        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 477        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 478        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 479        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 480    }
 481
 482    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 483    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 484
 485    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 486    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 487        exp.Create,
 488        exp.Delete,
 489        exp.Drop,
 490        exp.From,
 491        exp.Insert,
 492        exp.Join,
 493        exp.Select,
 494        exp.Union,
 495        exp.Update,
 496        exp.Where,
 497        exp.With,
 498    )
 499
 500    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 501    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 502        exp.Binary,
 503        exp.Union,
 504    )
 505
 506    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 507    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 508        exp.Column,
 509        exp.Literal,
 510        exp.Neg,
 511        exp.Paren,
 512    )
 513
 514    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 515        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 516        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 517        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 518        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 519    }
 520
 521    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 522    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 523
 524    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 525
 526    __slots__ = (
 527        "pretty",
 528        "identify",
 529        "normalize",
 530        "pad",
 531        "_indent",
 532        "normalize_functions",
 533        "unsupported_level",
 534        "max_unsupported",
 535        "leading_comma",
 536        "max_text_width",
 537        "comments",
 538        "dialect",
 539        "unsupported_messages",
 540        "_escaped_quote_end",
 541        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 542        "_next_name",
 543    )
 544
 545    def __init__(
 546        self,
 547        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 548        identify: str | bool = False,
 549        normalize: bool = False,
 550        pad: int = 2,
 551        indent: int = 2,
 552        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 553        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 554        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 555        leading_comma: bool = False,
 556        max_text_width: int = 80,
 557        comments: bool = True,
 558        dialect: DialectType = None,
 559    ):
 560        import sqlglot
 561        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 562
 563        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 564        self.identify = identify
 565        self.normalize = normalize
 566        self.pad = pad
 567        self._indent = indent
 568        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 569        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 570        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 571        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 572        self.comments = comments
 573        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 574
 575        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 576        self.normalize_functions = (
 577            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 578        )
 579
 580        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 581        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 582            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 583        )
 584        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 585            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 586        )
 587
 588        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 589
 590    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 591        """
 592        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 593
 594        Args:
 595            expression: The syntax tree.
 596            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 597                it is safer to copy.
 598
 599        Returns:
 600            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 601        """
 602        if copy:
 603            expression = expression.copy()
 604
 605        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 606
 607        self.unsupported_messages = []
 608        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 609
 610        if self.pretty:
 611            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 612
 613        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 614            return sql
 615
 616        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 617            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 618                logger.warning(msg)
 619        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 620            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 621
 622        return sql
 623
 624    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 625        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 626        if (
 627            not expression.parent
 628            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 629            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 630        ):
 631            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 632
 633            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 634
 635        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 636            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 637
 638            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 639
 640        return expression
 641
 642    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 643        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 644            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 645        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 646
 647    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 648        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 649
 650    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 651        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 652
 653    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 654        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 655        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 656        return comment
 657
 658    def maybe_comment(
 659        self,
 660        sql: str,
 661        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 662        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 663        separated: bool = False,
 664    ) -> str:
 665        comments = (
 666            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 667            if self.comments
 668            else None
 669        )
 670
 671        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 672            return sql
 673
 674        comments_sql = " ".join(
 675            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 676        )
 677
 678        if not comments_sql:
 679            return sql
 680
 681        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 682
 683        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 684            return (
 685                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 686                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 687                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 688            )
 689
 690        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 691
 692    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 693        this_sql = self.indent(
 694            (
 695                self.sql(expression)
 696                if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 697                else self.sql(expression, "this")
 698            ),
 699            level=1,
 700            pad=0,
 701        )
 702        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 703
 704    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 705        original = self.identify
 706        self.identify = False
 707        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 708        self.identify = original
 709        return result
 710
 711    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 712        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 713            return name.upper()
 714        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 715            return name.lower()
 716        return name
 717
 718    def indent(
 719        self,
 720        sql: str,
 721        level: int = 0,
 722        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 723        skip_first: bool = False,
 724        skip_last: bool = False,
 725    ) -> str:
 726        if not self.pretty:
 727            return sql
 728
 729        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 730        lines = sql.split("\n")
 731
 732        return "\n".join(
 733            (
 734                line
 735                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 736                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 737            )
 738            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 739        )
 740
 741    def sql(
 742        self,
 743        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 744        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 745        comment: bool = True,
 746    ) -> str:
 747        if not expression:
 748            return ""
 749
 750        if isinstance(expression, str):
 751            return expression
 752
 753        if key:
 754            value = expression.args.get(key)
 755            if value:
 756                return self.sql(value)
 757            return ""
 758
 759        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 760
 761        if callable(transform):
 762            sql = transform(self, expression)
 763        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 764            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 765
 766            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 767                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 768            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 769                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 770            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 771                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 772            else:
 773                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 774        else:
 775            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 776
 777        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 778
 779    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 780        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 781        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 782        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 783
 784    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 785        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 786        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 787        options = expression.args.get("options")
 788        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 789        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 790        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 791        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 792        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 793
 794    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 795        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 796            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 797        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 798        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 799
 800    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 801        return ".".join(
 802            self.sql(part)
 803            for part in (
 804                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 805                expression.args.get("db"),
 806                expression.args.get("table"),
 807                expression.args.get("this"),
 808            )
 809            if part
 810        )
 811
 812    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 813        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 814
 815        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 816            join_mark = ""
 817            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 818
 819        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 820
 821    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 822        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 823        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 824        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 825        return f"{position}{this}"
 826
 827    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 828        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 829        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 830        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 831        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 832        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 833        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 834        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 835        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 836
 837        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 838            kind = ""
 839
 840        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 841
 842    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 843        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 844        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 845        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 846
 847    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 848        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 849        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 850            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 851        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 852            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 853        else:
 854            persisted = ""
 855        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 856
 857    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 858        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 859
 860    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 861        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 862            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 863        else:
 864            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 865
 866        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 867
 868    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 869        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 870    ) -> str:
 871        this = ""
 872        if expression.this is not None:
 873            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 874            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 875
 876        start = expression.args.get("start")
 877        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 878        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 879        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 880        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 881        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 882        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 883        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 884        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 885        cycle_sql = ""
 886
 887        if cycle is not None:
 888            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 889            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 890
 891        sequence_opts = ""
 892        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 893            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 894            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 895
 896        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 897        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 898
 899        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 900
 901    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 902        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 903    ) -> str:
 904        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
 905        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 906        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 907
 908    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 909        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 910    ) -> str:
 911        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 912
 913    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 914        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 915
 916    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 917        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 918
 919    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 920        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 921        if desc is not None:
 922            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 923        return "PRIMARY KEY"
 924
 925    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 926        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 927        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 928        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 929        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 930        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
 931        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
 932        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
 933
 934    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 935        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 936
 937    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 938        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 939        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 940        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 941
 942        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 943
 944        properties_sql = ""
 945        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 946            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 947        ):
 948            properties_sql = self.sql(
 949                exp.Properties(
 950                    expressions=[
 951                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 952                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 953                    ]
 954                )
 955            )
 956
 957        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 958        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 959
 960        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 961        if expression_sql:
 962            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 963
 964            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 965                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 966                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 967                        exp.Properties(
 968                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 969                        ),
 970                        wrapped=False,
 971                    )
 972                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 973                else:
 974                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 975
 976        postindex_props_sql = ""
 977        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 978            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 979                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 980                wrapped=False,
 981                prefix=" ",
 982            )
 983
 984        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 985        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 986        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 987
 988        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 989        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 990
 991        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 992        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 993            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 994                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 995                sep=" ",
 996                prefix=" ",
 997                wrapped=False,
 998            )
 999
1000        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1001
1002        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1003        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1004            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1005                exp.Properties(
1006                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1007                ),
1008                sep=" ",
1009                prefix=" ",
1010                wrapped=False,
1011            )
1012
1013        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1014        no_schema_binding = (
1015            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1016        )
1017
1018        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1019        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1020
1021        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1022        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1023
1024    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1025        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1026        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1027        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1028        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1029        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1030        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1031        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1032        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1033        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1034        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1035
1036        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1037        if cache is None:
1038            cache_str = ""
1039        elif cache is True:
1040            cache_str = " CACHE"
1041        else:
1042            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1043
1044        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1045        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1046
1047        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1048
1049    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1050        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1051        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1052        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1053        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1054
1055    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1056        style = expression.args.get("style")
1057        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1058        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1059
1060    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1061        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1062        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1063
1064    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1065        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1066        if with_:
1067            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1068        return sql
1069
1070    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1071        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1072        recursive = (
1073            "RECURSIVE "
1074            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1075            else ""
1076        )
1077
1078        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1079
1080    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1081        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1082
1083        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1084        if materialized is False:
1085            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1086        elif materialized:
1087            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1088
1089        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1090
1091    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1092        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1093        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1094        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1095
1096        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1097            columns = ""
1098            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1099
1100        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1101            alias = self._next_name()
1102
1103        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1104
1105    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1106        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1107        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1108            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1109        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1110
1111    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1112        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1113        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1114            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1115        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1116
1117    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1118        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1119        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1120            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1121        return this
1122
1123    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1124        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1125        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1126
1127        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1128            escape = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if escape else ""
1129            return f"{self.dialect.UNICODE_START}{this}{self.dialect.UNICODE_END}{escape}"
1130
1131        if escape:
1132            pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1133        else:
1134            pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1135
1136        this = pattern.sub(r"\\u\1", this)
1137        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1138
1139    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1140        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1141        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1142
1143    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1144        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1145        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1146        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1147        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1148
1149    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1150        type_value = expression.this
1151
1152        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1153            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1154        else:
1155            type_sql = (
1156                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1157                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1158                else type_value
1159            )
1160
1161        nested = ""
1162        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1163        values = ""
1164
1165        if interior:
1166            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1167                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1168                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1169                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1170                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1171                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1172            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1173                nested = f" {interior}"
1174            else:
1175                nested = f"({interior})"
1176
1177        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1178        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1179            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1180            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1181        ):
1182            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1183
1184        return type_sql
1185
1186    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1187        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1188        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1189        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1190        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1191
1192    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1193        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1194        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1195        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1196        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1197        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1198        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1199        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1200        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1201        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1202        if self.RETURNING_END:
1203            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1204        else:
1205            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1206        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1207
1208    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1209        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1210        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1211        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1212        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1213        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1214        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1215        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1216        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1217        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1218        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1219        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1220        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1221        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1222
1223    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1224        return self.set_operations(expression)
1225
1226    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1227        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1228
1229    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1230        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1231        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1232        count = expression.args.get("count")
1233        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1234        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1235            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1236        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1237        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1238
1239    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1240        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1241            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1242            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1243            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1244
1245        agg = expression.this
1246        agg_arg = agg.this
1247        cond = expression.expression.this
1248        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1249        return self.sql(agg)
1250
1251    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1252        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1253            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1254            return ""
1255
1256        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1257
1258    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1259        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1260        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1261        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1262        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1263        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1264        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1265        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1266        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1267        if include:
1268            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1269        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1270        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1271        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1272        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1273
1274        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}"
1275
1276    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1277        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1278        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1279        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1280        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1281        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1282        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1283        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1284
1285        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1286
1287        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1288        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1289
1290    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1291        text = expression.name
1292        lower = text.lower()
1293        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1294        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1295        if (
1296            expression.quoted
1297            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1298            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1299            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1300        ):
1301            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1302        return text
1303
1304    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1305        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1306        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1307        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1308        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1309        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1310
1311    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1312        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1313        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1314
1315    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1316        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1317
1318    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1319        root_properties = []
1320        with_properties = []
1321
1322        for p in expression.expressions:
1323            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1324            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1325                with_properties.append(p)
1326            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1327                root_properties.append(p)
1328
1329        return self.root_properties(
1330            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1331        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1332
1333    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1334        if properties.expressions:
1335            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1336        return ""
1337
1338    def properties(
1339        self,
1340        properties: exp.Properties,
1341        prefix: str = "",
1342        sep: str = ", ",
1343        suffix: str = "",
1344        wrapped: bool = True,
1345    ) -> str:
1346        if properties.expressions:
1347            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1348            if expressions:
1349                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1350                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1351        return ""
1352
1353    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1354        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1355
1356    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1357        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1358        for p in properties.expressions:
1359            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1360            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1361                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1362            else:
1363                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1364
1365        return properties_locs
1366
1367    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1368        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1369            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1370        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1371
1372    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1373        property_cls = expression.__class__
1374        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1375            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1376
1377        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1378        if not property_name:
1379            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1380
1381        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1382
1383    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1384        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1385            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1386            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1387
1388            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1389            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1390                like = f"({like})"
1391
1392            return like
1393
1394        if expression.expressions:
1395            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1396
1397        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1398        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1399
1400    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1401        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1402        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1403        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1404
1405    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1406        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1407        local = expression.args.get("local")
1408        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1409        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1410        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1411        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1412        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1413
1414    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1415        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1416        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1417        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1418
1419    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1420        if expression.args.get("default"):
1421            property = "DEFAULT"
1422        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1423            property = "ON"
1424        else:
1425            property = "OFF"
1426        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1427
1428    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1429        if expression.args.get("no"):
1430            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1431        if expression.args.get("default"):
1432            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1433
1434        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1435        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1436
1437    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1438        default = expression.args.get("default")
1439        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1440        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1441        if default or minimum or maximum:
1442            if default:
1443                prop = "DEFAULT"
1444            elif minimum:
1445                prop = "MINIMUM"
1446            else:
1447                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1448            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1449        units = expression.args.get("units")
1450        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1451        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1452
1453    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1454        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1455        always = expression.args.get("always")
1456        default = expression.args.get("default")
1457        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1458        never = expression.args.get("never")
1459
1460        if autotemp is not None:
1461            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1462        elif always:
1463            prop = "ALWAYS"
1464        elif default:
1465            prop = "DEFAULT"
1466        elif manual:
1467            prop = "MANUAL"
1468        elif never:
1469            prop = "NEVER"
1470        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1471
1472    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1473        no = expression.args.get("no")
1474        no = " NO" if no else ""
1475        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1476        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1477        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1478        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1479        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1480
1481    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1482        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1483            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1484        if expression.this:
1485            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1486            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1487            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1488
1489        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1490        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1491        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1492
1493    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1494        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1495
1496        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1497        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1498            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1499        else:
1500            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1501
1502        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1503
1504    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1505        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1506        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1507        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1508        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1509        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1510        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1511        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1512
1513    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1514        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1515        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1516        statistics_sql = ""
1517        if statistics is not None:
1518            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1519        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1520
1521    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1522        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
1523
1524        if expression.this:
1525            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
1526            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
1527
1528            if expression.expression:
1529                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1530                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
1531
1532            sql = f"{sql})"
1533
1534        return f"{sql})"
1535
1536    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1537        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1538        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1539
1540        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1541            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1542        else:
1543            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1544
1545        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1546        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1547        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1548        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1549        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1550        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1551        if is_function:
1552            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1553        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1554
1555        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1556        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1557        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1558        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1559        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1560        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1561        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1562        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1563
1564        if self.RETURNING_END:
1565            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1566        else:
1567            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1568
1569        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{where}{expression_sql}"
1570        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1571
1572    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1573        return self.set_operations(expression)
1574
1575    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1576        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1577
1578    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1579        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1580
1581    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1582        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1583        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1584        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1585        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1586        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1587
1588    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1589        return expression.name
1590
1591    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1592        return expression.name
1593
1594    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1595        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1596
1597        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1598        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1599
1600        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1601        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1602        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1603
1604        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1605        if expressions:
1606            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1607            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1608
1609        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1610
1611    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1612        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1613
1614    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1615        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1616        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1617        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1618        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1619        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1620        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1621        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1622        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1623        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1624        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1625        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1626        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1627        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1628
1629    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1630        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1631
1632    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1633        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1634        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1635        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1636        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1637
1638    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1639        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1640        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1641        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1642        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1643
1644    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1645        return ".".join(
1646            self.sql(part)
1647            for part in (
1648                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1649                expression.args.get("db"),
1650                expression.args.get("this"),
1651            )
1652            if part is not None
1653        )
1654
1655    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1656        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1657        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1658        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1659        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1660        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1661        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1662        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1663        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1664        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1665        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1666        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1667        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1668        joins = self.indent(
1669            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1670        )
1671        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1672
1673        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1674        if file_format:
1675            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1676            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1677            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1678
1679        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1680        if ordinality:
1681            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1682            alias = ""
1683
1684        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1685        if when:
1686            table = f"{table} {when}"
1687
1688        return f"{only}{table}{partition}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1689
1690    def tablesample_sql(
1691        self,
1692        expression: exp.TableSample,
1693        sep: str = " AS ",
1694        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1695    ) -> str:
1696        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1697            table = expression.this.copy()
1698            table.set("alias", None)
1699            this = self.sql(table)
1700            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1701        else:
1702            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1703            alias = ""
1704
1705        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1706        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1707        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1708        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1709        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1710        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1711        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1712        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1713        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1714
1715        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1716        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1717            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1718
1719        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1720        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1721            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1722
1723        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1724        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1725            expr = f"({expr})"
1726
1727        return (
1728            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1729        )
1730
1731    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1732        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1733
1734        if expression.this:
1735            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1736            if not expressions:
1737                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1738
1739            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1740            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1741            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1742            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1743            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1744
1745        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1746        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1747        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1748        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1749        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1750        if include_nulls is not None:
1751            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1752        else:
1753            nulls = ""
1754        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1755
1756    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1757        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1758        kind = expression.text("kind")
1759        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1760        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1761
1762    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1763        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1764
1765    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1766        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1767        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1768        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1769        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1770        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1771        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1772        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1773        if self.RETURNING_END:
1774            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1775        else:
1776            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1777        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1778        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1779
1780    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1781        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1782
1783        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1784        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1785            args = self.expressions(expression)
1786            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1787            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1788            values = (
1789                f"({values})"
1790                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1791                else values
1792            )
1793            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1794
1795        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1796        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1797        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1798
1799        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1800
1801        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1802            row = tup.expressions
1803
1804            if i == 0 and column_names:
1805                row = [
1806                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1807                ]
1808
1809            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1810
1811        if self.pretty:
1812            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1813            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1814            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1815            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1816            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1817
1818        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1819        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1820        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1821
1822    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1823        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1824
1825    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1826        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1827        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1828        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1829
1830    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1831        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1832
1833    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1834        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1835        if group_by_all is True:
1836            modifier = " ALL"
1837        elif group_by_all is False:
1838            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1839        else:
1840            modifier = ""
1841
1842        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1843
1844        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1845        grouping_sets = (
1846            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1847        )
1848
1849        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1850        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1851            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1852        else:
1853            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1854            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1855
1856        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1857        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1858            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1859        else:
1860            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1861            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1862
1863        groupings = csv(
1864            grouping_sets,
1865            cube_sql,
1866            rollup_sql,
1867            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1868            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1869        )
1870
1871        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1872            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1873
1874        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1875
1876    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1877        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1878        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1879
1880    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1881        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1882        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1883        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1884        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1885        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1886        return start + connect
1887
1888    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1889        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1890
1891    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1892        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1893            side = None
1894        else:
1895            side = expression.side
1896
1897        op_sql = " ".join(
1898            op
1899            for op in (
1900                expression.method,
1901                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1902                side,
1903                expression.kind,
1904                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1905            )
1906            if op
1907        )
1908        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
1909        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
1910        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1911        using = expression.args.get("using")
1912
1913        if not on_sql and using:
1914            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1915
1916        this = expression.this
1917        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1918
1919        if on_sql:
1920            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1921            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1922            if using:
1923                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1924            else:
1925                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1926        elif not op_sql:
1927            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
1928                return f" {this_sql}"
1929
1930            return f", {this_sql}"
1931
1932        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1933        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
1934
1935    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1936        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1937        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1938        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1939
1940    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1941        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
1942
1943        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
1944        if cross_apply is True:
1945            op = "INNER JOIN "
1946        elif cross_apply is False:
1947            op = "LEFT JOIN "
1948        else:
1949            op = ""
1950
1951        return f"{op}LATERAL"
1952
1953    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1954        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1955
1956        if expression.args.get("view"):
1957            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1958            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1959            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1960            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1961            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1962            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1963
1964        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1965        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1966        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
1967
1968    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1969        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1970
1971        args = [
1972            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
1973            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1974            if e
1975        ]
1976
1977        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
1978        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
1979        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1980        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1981
1982        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
1983
1984    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1985        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1986        value = expression.expression
1987        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
1988        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1989        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1990        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
1991
1992    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1993        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1994        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1995        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1996        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1997        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1998        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1999        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2000        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2001
2002    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2003        expressions = (
2004            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2005        )
2006        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2007        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2008
2009    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2010        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2011
2012    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2013        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2014            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2015            return ""
2016
2017        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2018        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2019        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2020        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2021
2022        if wait is not None:
2023            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2024                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2025            else:
2026                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2027
2028        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2029
2030    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2031        text = expression.this or ""
2032        if expression.is_string:
2033            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2034        return text
2035
2036    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2037        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2038            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2039            text = "".join(
2040                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2041            )
2042
2043        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2044            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2045        )
2046
2047    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2048        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2049        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2050        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2051        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2052        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2053        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2054        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2055        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2056        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2057        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2058        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2059
2060    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2061        return "NULL"
2062
2063    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2064        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2065
2066    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2067        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2068        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2069        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2070        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2071        interpolated_values = [
2072            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2073            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2074        ]
2075        interpolate = (
2076            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2077        )
2078        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
2079
2080    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2081        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2082        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2083        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2084        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2085        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2086        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2087        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
2088
2089    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2090        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2091
2092    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2093        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2094
2095    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2096        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2097
2098    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2099        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2100        asc = not desc
2101
2102        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2103        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2104        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2105        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2106        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2107
2108        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2109
2110        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2111        nulls_sort_change = ""
2112        if nulls_first and (
2113            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2114        ):
2115            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2116        elif (
2117            nulls_last
2118            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2119            and not nulls_are_last
2120        ):
2121            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2122
2123        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2124        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2125            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2126            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2127                self.unsupported(
2128                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2129                )
2130                nulls_sort_change = ""
2131            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2132                if expression.this.is_int:
2133                    self.unsupported(
2134                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2135                    )
2136                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2137                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2138                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2139                nulls_sort_change = ""
2140
2141        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2142        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2143
2144        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2145
2146    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2147        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2148        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2149
2150        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2151
2152        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2153
2154    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2155        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2156        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2157        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2158        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2159        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2160        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2161        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2162        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2163        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2164        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2165        definition_sqls = [
2166            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2167            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2168        ]
2169        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2170        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2171        body = "".join(
2172            (
2173                partition,
2174                order,
2175                measures,
2176                rows,
2177                after,
2178                pattern,
2179                define,
2180            )
2181        )
2182        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2183        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2184        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2185
2186    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2187        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2188
2189        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2190            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2191        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2192            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2193
2194        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2195        if options:
2196            options = f" OPTION{self.wrap(options)}"
2197
2198        return csv(
2199            *sqls,
2200            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2201            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2202            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2203            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2204            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2205            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2206            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2207            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2208            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2209            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2210            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2211            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2212            options,
2213            sep="",
2214        )
2215
2216    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2217        return ""
2218
2219    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2220        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2221    ) -> t.List[str]:
2222        return [
2223            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2224            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2225        ]
2226
2227    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2228        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2229        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2230        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2231
2232    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2233        into = expression.args.get("into")
2234        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2235            into.pop()
2236
2237        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2238        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2239        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2240        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2241
2242        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2243        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2244            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2245            limit.pop()
2246        else:
2247            top = ""
2248
2249        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2250
2251        if kind:
2252            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2253                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2254            else:
2255                if kind == "STRUCT":
2256                    expressions = self.expressions(
2257                        sqls=[
2258                            self.sql(
2259                                exp.Struct(
2260                                    expressions=[
2261                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2262                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2263                                        else e
2264                                        for e in expression.expressions
2265                                    ]
2266                                )
2267                            )
2268                        ]
2269                    )
2270                kind = ""
2271
2272        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2273        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2274        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2275        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2276        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2277            expression,
2278            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2279            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2280            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2281        )
2282
2283        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2284
2285        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2286            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2287                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2288            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2289                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2290            else:
2291                table_kind = ""
2292            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2293
2294        return sql
2295
2296    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2297        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2298        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2299        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2300
2301    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2302        if expression.expressions:
2303            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2304        return ""
2305
2306    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2307        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2308        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2309        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2310        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2311        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
2312
2313    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2314        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2315        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2316
2317    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2318        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2319        kind = expression.text("kind")
2320        if kind:
2321            kind = f"{kind}."
2322        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2323
2324    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2325        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2326
2327    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2328        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2329        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2330
2331        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2332        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2333
2334        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2335        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2336
2337    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2338        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2339        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2340
2341    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2342        if not self.OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS:
2343            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2344            order = expression.args.get("order")
2345
2346            if limit or order:
2347                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
2348
2349                if limit:
2350                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
2351                if order:
2352                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
2353                return self.sql(select)
2354
2355        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2356        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2357
2358        while stack:
2359            node = stack.pop()
2360
2361            if isinstance(node, exp.Union):
2362                stack.append(node.expression)
2363                stack.append(
2364                    self.maybe_comment(
2365                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2366                        comments=node.comments,
2367                        separated=True,
2368                    )
2369                )
2370                stack.append(node.this)
2371            else:
2372                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2373
2374        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2375        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2376        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
2377
2378    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2379        return self.set_operations(expression)
2380
2381    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2382        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2383        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2384        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2385        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2386
2387    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2388        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2389
2390        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2391        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2392
2393        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2394            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2395                alias.append("columns", offset)
2396
2397        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2398            columns = alias.columns
2399            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2400        else:
2401            alias = self.sql(alias)
2402
2403        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2404        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2405            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2406        else:
2407            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2408                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2409            elif offset:
2410                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2411            else:
2412                suffix = alias
2413
2414        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2415
2416    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2417        return ""
2418
2419    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2420        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2421        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2422
2423    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2424        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2425        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2426        order = expression.args.get("order")
2427        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2428        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2429        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2430        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2431
2432        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2433
2434        first = expression.args.get("first")
2435        if first is None:
2436            first = ""
2437        else:
2438            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2439
2440        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2441            return f"{this} {alias}"
2442
2443        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2444        return f"{this} ({args})"
2445
2446    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2447        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2448        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2449
2450    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2451        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2452        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2453        end = (
2454            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2455            or "CURRENT ROW"
2456        )
2457        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2458
2459    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2460        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2461        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2462        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2463
2464    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2465        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2466        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2467        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2468        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2469
2470    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2471        return apply_index_offset(
2472            expression.this,
2473            expression.expressions,
2474            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2475        )
2476
2477    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2478        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2479        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2480        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2481
2482    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2483        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2484
2485    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2486        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2487        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2488            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2489                this = self.wrap(this)
2490            return f"ANY{this}"
2491        return f"ANY {this}"
2492
2493    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2494        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2495
2496    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2497        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2498        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2499
2500        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2501            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2502            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2503
2504        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2505
2506        if default:
2507            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2508
2509        statements.append("END")
2510
2511        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2512            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2513
2514        return " ".join(statements)
2515
2516    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2517        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2518        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2519        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2520
2521    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2522        order = expression.args.get("order")
2523        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2524        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2525
2526    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2527        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2528        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2529        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2530
2531    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2532        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2533
2534        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2535            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2536        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2537            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2538        else:
2539            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2540
2541    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2542        args = expression.expressions
2543        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2544            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2545
2546        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2547            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2548
2549        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2550            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2551
2552        return args
2553
2554    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2555        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2556
2557        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2558        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2559            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2560
2561        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2562
2563    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2564        return self.func(
2565            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2566        )
2567
2568    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2569        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2570        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2571
2572    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2573        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2574        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2575        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2576        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2577        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2578        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2579        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2580        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2581
2582    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2583        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2584        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2585        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2586        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2587
2588    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2589        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2590
2591    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2592        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2593        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2594        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2595
2596    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2597        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2598
2599    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2600        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2601        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2602
2603    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2604        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2605            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2606            if not callable(transform):
2607                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2608                return ""
2609
2610            return transform(self, expression)
2611
2612        if isinstance(expression, int):
2613            return str(expression)
2614
2615        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2616            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2617            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2618        else:
2619            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2620            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2621
2622        return escaped
2623
2624    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2625        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2626
2627    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2628        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2629        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2630
2631        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2632        if unique_keys is not None:
2633            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2634        else:
2635            unique_keys = ""
2636
2637        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2638        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2639        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2640        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2641
2642        return self.func(
2643            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2644            *expression.expressions,
2645            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2646        )
2647
2648    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2649        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2650
2651    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2652        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2653        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2654        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2655        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2656        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2657        return self.func(
2658            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2659        )
2660
2661    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2662        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2663        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2664        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2665        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2666        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2667        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2668        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2669        return self.func(
2670            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2671            this,
2672            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2673        )
2674
2675    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2676        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2677        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2678        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2679
2680        if nested_schema:
2681            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2682
2683        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2684        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2685        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2686        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2687
2688    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2689        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2690
2691    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2692        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2693        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2694        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2695        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2696        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2697        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2698        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2699        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2700        return self.func(
2701            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2702        )
2703
2704    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2705        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2706        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2707        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2708        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2709        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2710        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2711
2712    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2713        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2714        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2715        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2716        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2717        with_ = (
2718            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2719            if expressions
2720            else ""
2721        )
2722        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2723
2724    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2725        query = expression.args.get("query")
2726        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2727        field = expression.args.get("field")
2728        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2729
2730        if query:
2731            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2732        elif unnest:
2733            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2734        elif field:
2735            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2736        else:
2737            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2738
2739        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2740
2741    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2742        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2743
2744    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2745        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2746        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2747            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2748        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2749
2750        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2751            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2752            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2753
2754        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2755        if this:
2756            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2757            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2758
2759        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2760
2761    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2762        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2763
2764    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2765        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2766        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2767        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2768        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2769        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2770        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2771
2772    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2773        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
2774
2775    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2776        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2777        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2778
2779    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2780        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2781        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2782        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2783        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2784
2785    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2786        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2787
2788    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2789        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2790        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2791        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2792
2793    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2794        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2795        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2796
2797        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2798            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2799        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2800            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2801
2802        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2803
2804    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2805        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2806
2807    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2808        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2809        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2810        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2811
2812    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2813        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2814        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2815        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2816
2817    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2818        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2819        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2820        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
2821
2822    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2823        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2824
2825    def and_sql(
2826        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2827    ) -> str:
2828        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
2829
2830    def or_sql(
2831        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2832    ) -> str:
2833        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
2834
2835    def xor_sql(
2836        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2837    ) -> str:
2838        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
2839
2840    def connector_sql(
2841        self,
2842        expression: exp.Connector,
2843        op: str,
2844        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2845    ) -> str:
2846        if stack is not None:
2847            if expression.expressions:
2848                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2849            else:
2850                stack.append(expression.right)
2851                if expression.comments and self.comments:
2852                    for comment in expression.comments:
2853                        if comment:
2854                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2855                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2856            return op
2857
2858        stack = [expression]
2859        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2860        ops = set()
2861
2862        while stack:
2863            node = stack.pop()
2864            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2865                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2866            else:
2867                sql = self.sql(node)
2868                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2869                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2870                else:
2871                    sqls.append(sql)
2872
2873        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
2874        return sep.join(sqls)
2875
2876    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2877        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2878
2879    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2880        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2881
2882    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2883        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2884
2885    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2886        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2887
2888    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2889        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2890
2891    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2892        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2893
2894    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2895        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2896        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2897        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2898        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2899        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
2900        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
2901        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
2902
2903    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2904        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2905        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2906
2907    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2908        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)
2909
2910    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2911        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2912            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2913        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2914
2915    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2916        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2917
2918    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2919        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2920        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2921        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
2922        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2923        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2924        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2925
2926    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2927        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2928        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2929        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2930        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2931        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2932        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2933        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2934        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2935        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2936
2937    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2938        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2939        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2940        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2941        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2942
2943        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2944            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2945
2946        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2947
2948    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2949        return "BEGIN"
2950
2951    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2952        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2953        if chain is not None:
2954            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2955
2956        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2957
2958    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2959        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2960        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2961        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2962
2963    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2964        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2965
2966        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2967        if dtype:
2968            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2969            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2970            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2971            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2972            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2973
2974        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2975        if default:
2976            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2977
2978        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2979        if comment:
2980            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
2981
2982        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2983            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2984
2985        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2986
2987    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
2988        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2989        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
2990            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
2991        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
2992
2993    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
2994        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
2995        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2996        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2997        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2998        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
2999
3000    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3001        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3002            # Remove db from tables
3003            expression = expression.transform(
3004                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3005            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3006        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3007        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3008
3009    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3010        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3011        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3012        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3013        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3014
3015    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3016        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3017
3018        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3019            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3020        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3021            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3022        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3023            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3024        else:
3025            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3026
3027        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3028        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3029        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3030        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3031        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3032        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3033        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{options}"
3034
3035    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3036        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3037            return self.expressions(
3038                expression,
3039                key="actions",
3040                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3041            )
3042        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3043
3044    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3045        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3046        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3047        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3048
3049    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3050        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3051
3052    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3053        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3054
3055        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3056            case = exp.case()
3057            for arg in expression.expressions:
3058                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3059            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3060
3061        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3062
3063        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3064        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3065        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3066
3067    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3068        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3069
3070    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3071        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3072
3073    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3074        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3075        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3076        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3077        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3078
3079    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3080        return self.sql(
3081            exp.Cast(
3082                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3083                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3084            )
3085        )
3086
3087    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3088        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3089            return self.func(
3090                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3091            )
3092        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3093
3094    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3095        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3096
3097        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3098            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3099
3100        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3101            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3102                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3103
3104        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3105            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3106                return self.sql(
3107                    exp.cast(
3108                        l / r,
3109                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3110                    )
3111                )
3112
3113        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3114
3115    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3116        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3117
3118    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3119        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3120
3121    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3122        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3123
3124    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3125        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3126
3127    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3128        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3129
3130    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3131        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3132
3133    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3134        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3135
3136    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3137        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3138
3139    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3140        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3141
3142    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3143        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3144
3145    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3146        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3147
3148    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3149        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3150            return self.sql(
3151                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3152            )
3153        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3154
3155    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3156        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3157
3158    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3159        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3160
3161    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3162        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3163
3164    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3165        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3166
3167    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3168        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3169
3170    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3171        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3172
3173    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3174        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3175
3176    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3177        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3178
3179    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3180        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3181
3182    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3183        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3184
3185    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3186        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3187
3188    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3189        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3190
3191    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3192        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3193
3194    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3195        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3196            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3197            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3198
3199        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3200
3201    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3202        this = expression.this
3203        expr = expression.expression
3204
3205        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3206            this, expr = expr, this
3207        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3208            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3209                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3210
3211            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3212
3213        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3214
3215    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3216        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3217        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3218        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3219        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3220        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3221
3222    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3223        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3224        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3225
3226    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3227        args = []
3228
3229        for key in expression.arg_types:
3230            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3231
3232            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3233                for value in arg_value:
3234                    args.append(value)
3235            elif arg_value is not None:
3236                args.append(arg_value)
3237
3238        if self.normalize_functions:
3239            name = expression.sql_name()
3240        else:
3241            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3242
3243        return self.func(name, *args)
3244
3245    def func(
3246        self,
3247        name: str,
3248        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3249        prefix: str = "(",
3250        suffix: str = ")",
3251    ) -> str:
3252        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3253
3254    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3255        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
3256        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3257            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3258        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3259
3260    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3261        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3262
3263    def format_time(
3264        self,
3265        expression: exp.Expression,
3266        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3267        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3268    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3269        return format_time(
3270            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3271            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3272            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3273        )
3274
3275    def expressions(
3276        self,
3277        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3278        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3279        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3280        flat: bool = False,
3281        indent: bool = True,
3282        skip_first: bool = False,
3283        skip_last: bool = False,
3284        sep: str = ", ",
3285        prefix: str = "",
3286        dynamic: bool = False,
3287        new_line: bool = False,
3288    ) -> str:
3289        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3290
3291        if not expressions:
3292            return ""
3293
3294        if flat:
3295            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3296
3297        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3298
3299        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
3300        if self.pretty and not self.leading_comma:
3301            stripped_sep = sep.strip()
3302
3303        result_sqls = []
3304        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3305            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3306            if not sql:
3307                continue
3308
3309            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3310
3311            if self.pretty:
3312                if self.leading_comma:
3313                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3314                else:
3315                    result_sqls.append(
3316                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3317                    )
3318            else:
3319                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3320
3321        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3322            if new_line:
3323                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3324                result_sqls.append("")
3325            result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls)
3326        else:
3327            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3328        return (
3329            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3330            if indent
3331            else result_sql
3332        )
3333
3334    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3335        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3336        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3337        if flat:
3338            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3339        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3340
3341    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3342        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3343        if not property_name:
3344            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3345        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3346
3347    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3348        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3349
3350    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3351        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3352
3353    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3354        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3355        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3356        expressions = (
3357            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3358        )
3359        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3360
3361    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3362        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3363        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3364        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3365
3366    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3367        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3368
3369    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3370        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3371        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3372        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3373        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3374
3375        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3376        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3377            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3378            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3379            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3380            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3381        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3382            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3383                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3384            else:
3385                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3386        else:
3387            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3388        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3389
3390    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3391        table = expression.this
3392        table_alias = ""
3393
3394        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3395        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3396            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3397            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3398
3399        this = self.sql(table)
3400        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3401        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3402        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3403        sep = self.sep()
3404
3405        return self.prepend_ctes(
3406            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}"
3407        )
3408
3409    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3410        if expression.args.get("format"):
3411            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3412
3413        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3414
3415    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3416        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3417            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3418            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3419
3420        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3421        if not fmt:
3422            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3423            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3424
3425        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3426
3427    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3428        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3429        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3430        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3431        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3432        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3433
3434    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3435        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3436        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3437        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3438        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3439
3440    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3441        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3442
3443    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3444        return ""
3445
3446    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3447        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3448        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3449        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3450        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3451        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3452
3453    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3454        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3455        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3456
3457        if having:
3458            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3459
3460        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3461
3462    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3463        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3464        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3465        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3466        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3467        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3468        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3469        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3470        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3471        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3472        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3473        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3474        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3475        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3476
3477    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3478        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3479        if key_block_size:
3480            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3481
3482        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3483        if using:
3484            return f"USING {using}"
3485
3486        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3487        if parser:
3488            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3489
3490        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3491        if comment:
3492            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3493
3494        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3495        if visible is not None:
3496            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3497
3498        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3499        if engine_attr:
3500            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3501
3502        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3503        if secondary_engine_attr:
3504            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3505
3506        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3507        return ""
3508
3509    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3510        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3511        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3512
3513    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3514        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3515        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3516        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3517        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3518        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3519        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3520        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3521        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3522        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3523        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3524        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3525
3526    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3527        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3528            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3529
3530        case = exp.Case().when(
3531            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3532            expression.args["true"],
3533            copy=False,
3534        )
3535        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3536        if else_cond:
3537            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3538
3539        return self.sql(case)
3540
3541    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3542        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3543        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3544        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3545        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3546        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3547        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3548
3549    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3550        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3551
3552    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3553        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3554
3555    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3556        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3557        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3558        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3559        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3560        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3561        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3562
3563    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3564        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3565        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3566        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3567
3568    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3569        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3570        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3571        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3572
3573    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3574        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3575
3576    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3577        arg = expression.this
3578        if not arg.type:
3579            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3580
3581            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3582
3583        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3584            return self.sql(arg)
3585
3586        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3587        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3588
3589    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3590        this = expression.this
3591        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3592            return self.sql(this)
3593
3594        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3595
3596    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3597        this = expression.this
3598        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3599            return self.sql(this)
3600
3601        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
3602
3603    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3604        this = expression.this
3605        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3606
3607        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3608            return self.sql(
3609                exp.cast(
3610                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3611                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3612                )
3613            )
3614
3615        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3616            return self.sql(this)
3617
3618        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3619
3620    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3621        return self.sql(
3622            exp.func(
3623                "DATEDIFF",
3624                expression.this,
3625                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3626                "day",
3627            )
3628        )
3629
3630    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3631        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3632            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3633
3634        unit = expression.text("unit")
3635        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3636            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3637
3638        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3639
3640    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3641        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3642
3643        return self.func(
3644            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3645        )
3646
3647    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3648        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3649            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3650            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3651            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3652            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3653
3654        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3655
3656        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3657        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3658            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3659
3660        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3661
3662    def generateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3663        expression.set("is_end_exclusive", None)
3664        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3665
3666    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3667        expression.set(
3668            "expressions",
3669            [
3670                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3671                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3672                else e
3673                for e in expression.expressions
3674            ],
3675        )
3676
3677        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3678
3679    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3680        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3681        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3682
3683        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3684
3685    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3686        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3687        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3688
3689        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3690
3691        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3692        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3693
3694        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3695        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3696
3697        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3698        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3699
3700        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3701        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3702
3703        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3704
3705    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3706    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3707    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3708        to = expression.this
3709        value = expression.expression
3710        style = expression.args.get("style")
3711        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3712        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3713
3714        if not to or not value:
3715            return ""
3716
3717        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3718        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3719            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3720
3721        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3722        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3723
3724        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3725        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3726            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3727
3728            style_value = style.name
3729            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3730            if not converted_style:
3731                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3732
3733            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3734
3735            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3736                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3737            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3738                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3739            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3740                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3741            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3742                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3743
3744        if not transformed:
3745            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3746
3747        return self.sql(transformed)
3748
3749    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
3750        this = expression.this
3751        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
3752            this = self.json_path_part(this)
3753            return f".{this}" if this else ""
3754
3755        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
3756            return f".{this}"
3757
3758        this = self.json_path_part(this)
3759        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
3760
3761    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
3762        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
3763        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
3764
3765    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3766        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3767            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3768
3769            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3770
3771        return expression
3772
3773    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
3774        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
3775            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
3776            mods = sorted(
3777                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
3778                key=lambda x: 0
3779                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
3780                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
3781            )
3782
3783            if mods:
3784                mod = mods[0]
3785                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
3786                this.meta["inline"] = True
3787                mod.this.replace(this)
3788                return self.sql(expression.this)
3789
3790            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
3791
3792            if agg_func:
3793                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
3794
3795        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
3796
3797    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
3798        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
3799        if self.pretty:
3800            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
3801        return string
3802
3803    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
3804        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
3805        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3806
3807        if not value:
3808            return option
3809
3810        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
3811
3812        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
3813
3814    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
3815        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
3816        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
3817            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
3818            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3819            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
3820        else:
3821            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
3822            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
3823            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if credentials else ""
3824
3825        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
3826        storage = f" {storage}" if storage else ""
3827
3828        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
3829        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
3830
3831        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
3832        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
3833
3834        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
3835        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
3836
3837        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
3838
3839    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
3840        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3841        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
3842
3843        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3844        credentials = f" {credentials}" if credentials else ""
3845        kind = " FROM " if expression.args.get("kind") else " TO "
3846        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
3847
3848        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
3849        params = self.expressions(expression, key="params", flat=True, sep=sep)
3850        if params:
3851            params = f" WITH ({params})" if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED else f" {params}"
3852
3853        return f"COPY{this}{kind}{files}{credentials}{params}"
3854
3855    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
3856        return ""
logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile('\\\\(\\d+)')
class Generator:
  37class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  38    """
  39    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  40
  41    Args:
  42        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  43            Default: False.
  44        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  45            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  46            True or 'always': Always quote.
  47            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  48        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  49            Default: False.
  50        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  51            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  52            Default: 2.
  53        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  54            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  55            Default: 2.
  56        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  57            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  58            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  59            False: Disables function name normalization.
  60        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  61            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  62        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  63            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  64            Default: 3
  65        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  66            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  67            Default: False
  68        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  69            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  70            line length.
  71            Default: 80
  72        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  73            Default: True
  74    """
  75
  76    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
  77        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
  78        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  79        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  80        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
  81        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  82        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  83        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
  84        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  85        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  86        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  87        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  88        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  89        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
  90        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  92        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  94        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
  95        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
  96        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  97        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
  98        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
  99        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 100        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 101        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 102        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 103        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 104        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 105        exp.JSONExtract: lambda self, e: self.func(
 106            "JSON_EXTRACT", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 107        ),
 108        exp.JSONExtractScalar: lambda self, e: self.func(
 109            "JSON_EXTRACT_SCALAR", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 110        ),
 111        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 112        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 113        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 114        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 115        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 116        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 117        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 118        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 119        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 120        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 121        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 122        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 123        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 124        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 125        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 126        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 127        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 128        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 129        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 130        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 131        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 132        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 133        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 134        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 135        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 136        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 137        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 138        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 139        exp.Timestamp: lambda self, e: self.func("TIMESTAMP", e.this, e.expression),
 140        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 141        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 142        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 143        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 144        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 145        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 146        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 147        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 148        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 149        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 150        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 151    }
 152
 153    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 154    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
 155    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 156
 157    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 158    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 159    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 160
 161    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 162    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 163
 164    # Always do union distinct or union all
 165    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 166
 167    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 168    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 169
 170    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 171    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 172
 173    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 174    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 175
 176    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 177    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 178
 179    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 180    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 181
 182    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 183    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 184
 185    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 186    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 187
 188    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 189    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 190
 191    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 192    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 193
 194    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 195    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 196
 197    # Whether join hints should be generated
 198    JOIN_HINTS = True
 199
 200    # Whether table hints should be generated
 201    TABLE_HINTS = True
 202
 203    # Whether query hints should be generated
 204    QUERY_HINTS = True
 205
 206    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 207    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 208
 209    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 210    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 211
 212    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 213    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 214
 215    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 216    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 217
 218    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 219    RETURNING_END = True
 220
 221    # Whether to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 222    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 223
 224    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 225    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 226
 227    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 228    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 229
 230    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 231    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 232
 233    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 234    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 235
 236    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 237    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 238    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 239    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 240
 241    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 242    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 243
 244    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 245    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 246
 247    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 248    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 249
 250    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 251    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 252
 253    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 254    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 255
 256    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 257    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 258
 259    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 260    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 261
 262    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 263    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 264
 265    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 266    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 267
 268    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 269    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 270
 271    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 272    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 273
 274    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 275    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 276
 277    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 278    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 279
 280    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 281    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 282
 283    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 284    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 285
 286    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 287    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 288
 289    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 290    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 291
 292    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 293    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 294
 295    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 296    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 297
 298    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 299    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 300
 301    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 302    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 303
 304    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 305    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 306
 307    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 308    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 309
 310    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 311    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 312
 313    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 314    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 315
 316    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 317    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 318    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 319
 320    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 321    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 322
 323    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 324    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 325
 326    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 327    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 328
 329    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 330    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 331
 332    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 333    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 334
 335    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 336    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 337
 338    # Whether or not union modifiers apply to the outer union or select.
 339    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 340    # True means limit 1 happens after the union, False means it it happens on y.
 341    OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS = True
 342
 343    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 344    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 345
 346    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 347    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 348
 349    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 350    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 351
 352    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 353    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 354
 355    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 356        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 357        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 358        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 359        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 360        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 361        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 362        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 363        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 364        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 365        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 366    }
 367
 368    STAR_MAPPING = {
 369        "except": "EXCEPT",
 370        "replace": "REPLACE",
 371    }
 372
 373    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 374        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 375        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 376        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 377        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 378        "DAYS": "DAY",
 379        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 380        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 381        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 382        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 383    }
 384
 385    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 386        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 387        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 388        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 389        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 390        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 391            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 392            if e.args.get("windows")
 393            else ""
 394        ),
 395    }
 396
 397    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 398
 399    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 400
 401    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 402    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 403
 404    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 405        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 406        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 407        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 408        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 409        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 410        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 411        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 412        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 413        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 414        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 415        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 416        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 417        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 418        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 419        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 420        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 421        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 422        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 423        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 424        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 425        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 426        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 427        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 428        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 429        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 430        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 431        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 432        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 433        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 434        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 435        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 436        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 437        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 438        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 439        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 440        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 441        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 442        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 443        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 444        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 445        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 446        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 447        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 448        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 449        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 450        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 451        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 452        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 453        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 454        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 455        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 456        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 457        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 458        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 459        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 460        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 461        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 462        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 463        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 464        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 465        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 466        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 467        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 468        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 469        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 470        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 471        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 472        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 473        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 474        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 475        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 476        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 477        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 478        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 479        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 480        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 481    }
 482
 483    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 484    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 485
 486    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 487    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 488        exp.Create,
 489        exp.Delete,
 490        exp.Drop,
 491        exp.From,
 492        exp.Insert,
 493        exp.Join,
 494        exp.Select,
 495        exp.Union,
 496        exp.Update,
 497        exp.Where,
 498        exp.With,
 499    )
 500
 501    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 502    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 503        exp.Binary,
 504        exp.Union,
 505    )
 506
 507    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 508    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 509        exp.Column,
 510        exp.Literal,
 511        exp.Neg,
 512        exp.Paren,
 513    )
 514
 515    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 516        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 517        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 518        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 519        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 520    }
 521
 522    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 523    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 524
 525    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 526
 527    __slots__ = (
 528        "pretty",
 529        "identify",
 530        "normalize",
 531        "pad",
 532        "_indent",
 533        "normalize_functions",
 534        "unsupported_level",
 535        "max_unsupported",
 536        "leading_comma",
 537        "max_text_width",
 538        "comments",
 539        "dialect",
 540        "unsupported_messages",
 541        "_escaped_quote_end",
 542        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 543        "_next_name",
 544    )
 545
 546    def __init__(
 547        self,
 548        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 549        identify: str | bool = False,
 550        normalize: bool = False,
 551        pad: int = 2,
 552        indent: int = 2,
 553        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 554        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 555        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 556        leading_comma: bool = False,
 557        max_text_width: int = 80,
 558        comments: bool = True,
 559        dialect: DialectType = None,
 560    ):
 561        import sqlglot
 562        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 563
 564        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 565        self.identify = identify
 566        self.normalize = normalize
 567        self.pad = pad
 568        self._indent = indent
 569        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 570        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 571        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 572        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 573        self.comments = comments
 574        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 575
 576        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 577        self.normalize_functions = (
 578            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 579        )
 580
 581        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 582        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 583            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 584        )
 585        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 586            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 587        )
 588
 589        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 590
 591    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 592        """
 593        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 594
 595        Args:
 596            expression: The syntax tree.
 597            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 598                it is safer to copy.
 599
 600        Returns:
 601            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 602        """
 603        if copy:
 604            expression = expression.copy()
 605
 606        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 607
 608        self.unsupported_messages = []
 609        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 610
 611        if self.pretty:
 612            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 613
 614        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 615            return sql
 616
 617        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 618            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 619                logger.warning(msg)
 620        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 621            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 622
 623        return sql
 624
 625    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 626        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 627        if (
 628            not expression.parent
 629            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 630            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 631        ):
 632            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 633
 634            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 635
 636        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 637            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 638
 639            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 640
 641        return expression
 642
 643    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 644        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 645            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 646        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 647
 648    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 649        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 650
 651    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 652        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 653
 654    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 655        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 656        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 657        return comment
 658
 659    def maybe_comment(
 660        self,
 661        sql: str,
 662        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 663        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 664        separated: bool = False,
 665    ) -> str:
 666        comments = (
 667            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 668            if self.comments
 669            else None
 670        )
 671
 672        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 673            return sql
 674
 675        comments_sql = " ".join(
 676            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 677        )
 678
 679        if not comments_sql:
 680            return sql
 681
 682        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 683
 684        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 685            return (
 686                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 687                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 688                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 689            )
 690
 691        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 692
 693    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 694        this_sql = self.indent(
 695            (
 696                self.sql(expression)
 697                if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 698                else self.sql(expression, "this")
 699            ),
 700            level=1,
 701            pad=0,
 702        )
 703        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 704
 705    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 706        original = self.identify
 707        self.identify = False
 708        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 709        self.identify = original
 710        return result
 711
 712    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 713        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 714            return name.upper()
 715        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 716            return name.lower()
 717        return name
 718
 719    def indent(
 720        self,
 721        sql: str,
 722        level: int = 0,
 723        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 724        skip_first: bool = False,
 725        skip_last: bool = False,
 726    ) -> str:
 727        if not self.pretty:
 728            return sql
 729
 730        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 731        lines = sql.split("\n")
 732
 733        return "\n".join(
 734            (
 735                line
 736                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 737                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 738            )
 739            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 740        )
 741
 742    def sql(
 743        self,
 744        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 745        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 746        comment: bool = True,
 747    ) -> str:
 748        if not expression:
 749            return ""
 750
 751        if isinstance(expression, str):
 752            return expression
 753
 754        if key:
 755            value = expression.args.get(key)
 756            if value:
 757                return self.sql(value)
 758            return ""
 759
 760        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 761
 762        if callable(transform):
 763            sql = transform(self, expression)
 764        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 765            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 766
 767            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 768                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 769            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 770                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 771            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 772                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 773            else:
 774                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 775        else:
 776            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 777
 778        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 779
 780    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 781        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 782        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 783        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 784
 785    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 786        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 787        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 788        options = expression.args.get("options")
 789        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 790        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 791        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 792        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 793        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 794
 795    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 796        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 797            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 798        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 799        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 800
 801    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 802        return ".".join(
 803            self.sql(part)
 804            for part in (
 805                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 806                expression.args.get("db"),
 807                expression.args.get("table"),
 808                expression.args.get("this"),
 809            )
 810            if part
 811        )
 812
 813    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 814        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 815
 816        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 817            join_mark = ""
 818            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 819
 820        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 821
 822    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 823        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 824        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 825        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 826        return f"{position}{this}"
 827
 828    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 829        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 830        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 831        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 832        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 833        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 834        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 835        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 836        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 837
 838        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 839            kind = ""
 840
 841        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 842
 843    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 844        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 845        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 846        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 847
 848    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 849        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 850        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 851            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 852        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 853            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 854        else:
 855            persisted = ""
 856        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 857
 858    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 859        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 860
 861    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 862        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 863            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 864        else:
 865            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 866
 867        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 868
 869    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 870        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 871    ) -> str:
 872        this = ""
 873        if expression.this is not None:
 874            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 875            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 876
 877        start = expression.args.get("start")
 878        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 879        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 880        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 881        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 882        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 883        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 884        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 885        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 886        cycle_sql = ""
 887
 888        if cycle is not None:
 889            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 890            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 891
 892        sequence_opts = ""
 893        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 894            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 895            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 896
 897        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 898        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 899
 900        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 901
 902    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 903        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 904    ) -> str:
 905        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
 906        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 907        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 908
 909    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 910        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 911    ) -> str:
 912        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 913
 914    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 915        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 916
 917    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 918        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 919
 920    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 921        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 922        if desc is not None:
 923            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 924        return "PRIMARY KEY"
 925
 926    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 927        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 928        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 929        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 930        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 931        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
 932        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
 933        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
 934
 935    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 936        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 937
 938    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 939        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 940        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 941        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 942
 943        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 944
 945        properties_sql = ""
 946        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 947            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 948        ):
 949            properties_sql = self.sql(
 950                exp.Properties(
 951                    expressions=[
 952                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 953                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 954                    ]
 955                )
 956            )
 957
 958        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 959        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 960
 961        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 962        if expression_sql:
 963            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 964
 965            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 966                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 967                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 968                        exp.Properties(
 969                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 970                        ),
 971                        wrapped=False,
 972                    )
 973                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 974                else:
 975                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 976
 977        postindex_props_sql = ""
 978        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 979            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 980                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 981                wrapped=False,
 982                prefix=" ",
 983            )
 984
 985        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 986        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 987        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 988
 989        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 990        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 991
 992        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 993        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 994            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 995                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 996                sep=" ",
 997                prefix=" ",
 998                wrapped=False,
 999            )
1000
1001        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1002
1003        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1004        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1005            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1006                exp.Properties(
1007                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1008                ),
1009                sep=" ",
1010                prefix=" ",
1011                wrapped=False,
1012            )
1013
1014        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1015        no_schema_binding = (
1016            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1017        )
1018
1019        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1020        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1021
1022        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1023        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1024
1025    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1026        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1027        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1028        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1029        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1030        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1031        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1032        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1033        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1034        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1035        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1036
1037        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1038        if cache is None:
1039            cache_str = ""
1040        elif cache is True:
1041            cache_str = " CACHE"
1042        else:
1043            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1044
1045        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1046        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1047
1048        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1049
1050    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1051        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1052        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1053        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1054        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1055
1056    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1057        style = expression.args.get("style")
1058        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1059        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1060
1061    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1062        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1063        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1064
1065    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1066        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1067        if with_:
1068            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1069        return sql
1070
1071    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1072        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1073        recursive = (
1074            "RECURSIVE "
1075            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1076            else ""
1077        )
1078
1079        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1080
1081    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1082        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1083
1084        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1085        if materialized is False:
1086            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1087        elif materialized:
1088            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1089
1090        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1091
1092    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1093        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1094        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1095        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1096
1097        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1098            columns = ""
1099            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1100
1101        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1102            alias = self._next_name()
1103
1104        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1105
1106    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1107        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1108        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1109            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1110        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1111
1112    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1113        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1114        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1115            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1116        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1117
1118    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1119        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1120        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1121            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1122        return this
1123
1124    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1125        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1126        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1127
1128        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1129            escape = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if escape else ""
1130            return f"{self.dialect.UNICODE_START}{this}{self.dialect.UNICODE_END}{escape}"
1131
1132        if escape:
1133            pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1134        else:
1135            pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1136
1137        this = pattern.sub(r"\\u\1", this)
1138        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1139
1140    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1141        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1142        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1143
1144    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1145        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1146        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1147        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1148        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1149
1150    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1151        type_value = expression.this
1152
1153        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1154            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1155        else:
1156            type_sql = (
1157                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1158                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1159                else type_value
1160            )
1161
1162        nested = ""
1163        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1164        values = ""
1165
1166        if interior:
1167            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1168                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1169                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1170                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1171                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1172                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1173            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1174                nested = f" {interior}"
1175            else:
1176                nested = f"({interior})"
1177
1178        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1179        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1180            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1181            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1182        ):
1183            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1184
1185        return type_sql
1186
1187    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1188        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1189        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1190        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1191        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1192
1193    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1194        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1195        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1196        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1197        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1198        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1199        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1200        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1201        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1202        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1203        if self.RETURNING_END:
1204            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1205        else:
1206            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1207        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1208
1209    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1210        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1211        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1212        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1213        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1214        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1215        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1216        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1217        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1218        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1219        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1220        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1221        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1222        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1223
1224    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1225        return self.set_operations(expression)
1226
1227    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1228        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1229
1230    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1231        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1232        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1233        count = expression.args.get("count")
1234        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1235        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1236            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1237        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1238        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1239
1240    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1241        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1242            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1243            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1244            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1245
1246        agg = expression.this
1247        agg_arg = agg.this
1248        cond = expression.expression.this
1249        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1250        return self.sql(agg)
1251
1252    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1253        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1254            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1255            return ""
1256
1257        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1258
1259    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1260        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1261        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1262        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1263        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1264        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1265        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1266        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1267        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1268        if include:
1269            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1270        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1271        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1272        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1273        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1274
1275        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}"
1276
1277    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1278        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1279        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1280        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1281        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1282        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1283        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1284        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1285
1286        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1287
1288        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1289        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1290
1291    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1292        text = expression.name
1293        lower = text.lower()
1294        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1295        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1296        if (
1297            expression.quoted
1298            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1299            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1300            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1301        ):
1302            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1303        return text
1304
1305    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1306        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1307        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1308        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1309        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1310        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1311
1312    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1313        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1314        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1315
1316    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1317        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1318
1319    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1320        root_properties = []
1321        with_properties = []
1322
1323        for p in expression.expressions:
1324            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1325            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1326                with_properties.append(p)
1327            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1328                root_properties.append(p)
1329
1330        return self.root_properties(
1331            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1332        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1333
1334    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1335        if properties.expressions:
1336            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1337        return ""
1338
1339    def properties(
1340        self,
1341        properties: exp.Properties,
1342        prefix: str = "",
1343        sep: str = ", ",
1344        suffix: str = "",
1345        wrapped: bool = True,
1346    ) -> str:
1347        if properties.expressions:
1348            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1349            if expressions:
1350                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1351                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1352        return ""
1353
1354    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1355        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1356
1357    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1358        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1359        for p in properties.expressions:
1360            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1361            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1362                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1363            else:
1364                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1365
1366        return properties_locs
1367
1368    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1369        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1370            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1371        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1372
1373    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1374        property_cls = expression.__class__
1375        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1376            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1377
1378        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1379        if not property_name:
1380            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1381
1382        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1383
1384    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1385        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1386            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1387            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1388
1389            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1390            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1391                like = f"({like})"
1392
1393            return like
1394
1395        if expression.expressions:
1396            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1397
1398        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1399        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1400
1401    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1402        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1403        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1404        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1405
1406    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1407        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1408        local = expression.args.get("local")
1409        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1410        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1411        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1412        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1413        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1414
1415    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1416        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1417        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1418        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1419
1420    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1421        if expression.args.get("default"):
1422            property = "DEFAULT"
1423        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1424            property = "ON"
1425        else:
1426            property = "OFF"
1427        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1428
1429    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1430        if expression.args.get("no"):
1431            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1432        if expression.args.get("default"):
1433            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1434
1435        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1436        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1437
1438    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1439        default = expression.args.get("default")
1440        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1441        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1442        if default or minimum or maximum:
1443            if default:
1444                prop = "DEFAULT"
1445            elif minimum:
1446                prop = "MINIMUM"
1447            else:
1448                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1449            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1450        units = expression.args.get("units")
1451        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1452        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1453
1454    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1455        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1456        always = expression.args.get("always")
1457        default = expression.args.get("default")
1458        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1459        never = expression.args.get("never")
1460
1461        if autotemp is not None:
1462            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1463        elif always:
1464            prop = "ALWAYS"
1465        elif default:
1466            prop = "DEFAULT"
1467        elif manual:
1468            prop = "MANUAL"
1469        elif never:
1470            prop = "NEVER"
1471        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1472
1473    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1474        no = expression.args.get("no")
1475        no = " NO" if no else ""
1476        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1477        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1478        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1479        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1480        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1481
1482    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1483        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1484            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1485        if expression.this:
1486            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1487            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1488            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1489
1490        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1491        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1492        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1493
1494    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1495        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1496
1497        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1498        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1499            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1500        else:
1501            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1502
1503        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1504
1505    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1506        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1507        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1508        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1509        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1510        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1511        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1512        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1513
1514    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1515        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1516        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1517        statistics_sql = ""
1518        if statistics is not None:
1519            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1520        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1521
1522    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1523        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
1524
1525        if expression.this:
1526            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
1527            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
1528
1529            if expression.expression:
1530                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1531                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
1532
1533            sql = f"{sql})"
1534
1535        return f"{sql})"
1536
1537    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1538        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1539        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1540
1541        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1542            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1543        else:
1544            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1545
1546        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1547        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1548        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1549        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1550        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1551        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1552        if is_function:
1553            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1554        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1555
1556        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1557        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1558        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1559        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1560        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1561        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1562        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1563        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1564
1565        if self.RETURNING_END:
1566            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1567        else:
1568            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1569
1570        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{where}{expression_sql}"
1571        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1572
1573    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1574        return self.set_operations(expression)
1575
1576    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1577        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1578
1579    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1580        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1581
1582    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1583        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1584        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1585        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1586        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1587        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1588
1589    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1590        return expression.name
1591
1592    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1593        return expression.name
1594
1595    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1596        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1597
1598        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1599        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1600
1601        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1602        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1603        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1604
1605        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1606        if expressions:
1607            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1608            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1609
1610        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1611
1612    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1613        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1614
1615    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1616        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1617        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1618        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1619        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1620        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1621        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1622        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1623        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1624        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1625        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1626        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1627        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1628        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1629
1630    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1631        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1632
1633    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1634        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1635        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1636        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1637        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1638
1639    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1640        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1641        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1642        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1643        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1644
1645    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1646        return ".".join(
1647            self.sql(part)
1648            for part in (
1649                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1650                expression.args.get("db"),
1651                expression.args.get("this"),
1652            )
1653            if part is not None
1654        )
1655
1656    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1657        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1658        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1659        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1660        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1661        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1662        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1663        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1664        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1665        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1666        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1667        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1668        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1669        joins = self.indent(
1670            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1671        )
1672        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1673
1674        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1675        if file_format:
1676            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1677            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1678            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1679
1680        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1681        if ordinality:
1682            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1683            alias = ""
1684
1685        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1686        if when:
1687            table = f"{table} {when}"
1688
1689        return f"{only}{table}{partition}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1690
1691    def tablesample_sql(
1692        self,
1693        expression: exp.TableSample,
1694        sep: str = " AS ",
1695        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1696    ) -> str:
1697        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1698            table = expression.this.copy()
1699            table.set("alias", None)
1700            this = self.sql(table)
1701            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1702        else:
1703            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1704            alias = ""
1705
1706        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1707        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1708        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1709        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1710        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1711        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1712        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1713        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1714        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1715
1716        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1717        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1718            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1719
1720        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1721        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1722            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1723
1724        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1725        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1726            expr = f"({expr})"
1727
1728        return (
1729            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1730        )
1731
1732    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1733        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1734
1735        if expression.this:
1736            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1737            if not expressions:
1738                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1739
1740            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1741            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1742            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1743            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1744            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1745
1746        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1747        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1748        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1749        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1750        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1751        if include_nulls is not None:
1752            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1753        else:
1754            nulls = ""
1755        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1756
1757    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1758        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1759        kind = expression.text("kind")
1760        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1761        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1762
1763    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1764        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1765
1766    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1767        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1768        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1769        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1770        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1771        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1772        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1773        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1774        if self.RETURNING_END:
1775            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1776        else:
1777            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1778        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1779        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1780
1781    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1782        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1783
1784        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1785        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1786            args = self.expressions(expression)
1787            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1788            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1789            values = (
1790                f"({values})"
1791                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1792                else values
1793            )
1794            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1795
1796        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1797        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1798        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1799
1800        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1801
1802        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1803            row = tup.expressions
1804
1805            if i == 0 and column_names:
1806                row = [
1807                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1808                ]
1809
1810            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1811
1812        if self.pretty:
1813            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1814            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1815            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1816            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1817            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1818
1819        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1820        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1821        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1822
1823    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1824        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1825
1826    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1827        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1828        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1829        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1830
1831    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1832        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1833
1834    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1835        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1836        if group_by_all is True:
1837            modifier = " ALL"
1838        elif group_by_all is False:
1839            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1840        else:
1841            modifier = ""
1842
1843        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1844
1845        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1846        grouping_sets = (
1847            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1848        )
1849
1850        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1851        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1852            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1853        else:
1854            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1855            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1856
1857        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1858        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1859            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1860        else:
1861            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1862            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1863
1864        groupings = csv(
1865            grouping_sets,
1866            cube_sql,
1867            rollup_sql,
1868            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1869            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1870        )
1871
1872        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1873            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1874
1875        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1876
1877    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1878        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1879        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1880
1881    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1882        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1883        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1884        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1885        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1886        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1887        return start + connect
1888
1889    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1890        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1891
1892    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1893        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1894            side = None
1895        else:
1896            side = expression.side
1897
1898        op_sql = " ".join(
1899            op
1900            for op in (
1901                expression.method,
1902                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1903                side,
1904                expression.kind,
1905                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1906            )
1907            if op
1908        )
1909        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
1910        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
1911        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1912        using = expression.args.get("using")
1913
1914        if not on_sql and using:
1915            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1916
1917        this = expression.this
1918        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1919
1920        if on_sql:
1921            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1922            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1923            if using:
1924                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1925            else:
1926                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1927        elif not op_sql:
1928            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
1929                return f" {this_sql}"
1930
1931            return f", {this_sql}"
1932
1933        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1934        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
1935
1936    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1937        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1938        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1939        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1940
1941    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1942        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
1943
1944        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
1945        if cross_apply is True:
1946            op = "INNER JOIN "
1947        elif cross_apply is False:
1948            op = "LEFT JOIN "
1949        else:
1950            op = ""
1951
1952        return f"{op}LATERAL"
1953
1954    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1955        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1956
1957        if expression.args.get("view"):
1958            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1959            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1960            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1961            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1962            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1963            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1964
1965        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1966        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1967        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
1968
1969    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1970        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1971
1972        args = [
1973            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
1974            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1975            if e
1976        ]
1977
1978        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
1979        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
1980        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1981        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1982
1983        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
1984
1985    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1986        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1987        value = expression.expression
1988        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
1989        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1990        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1991        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
1992
1993    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1994        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1995        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1996        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1997        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1998        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1999        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2000        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2001        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2002
2003    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2004        expressions = (
2005            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2006        )
2007        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2008        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2009
2010    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2011        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2012
2013    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2014        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2015            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2016            return ""
2017
2018        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2019        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2020        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2021        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2022
2023        if wait is not None:
2024            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2025                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2026            else:
2027                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2028
2029        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2030
2031    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2032        text = expression.this or ""
2033        if expression.is_string:
2034            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2035        return text
2036
2037    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2038        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2039            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2040            text = "".join(
2041                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2042            )
2043
2044        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2045            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2046        )
2047
2048    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2049        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2050        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2051        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2052        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2053        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2054        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2055        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2056        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2057        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2058        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2059        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2060
2061    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2062        return "NULL"
2063
2064    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2065        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2066
2067    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2068        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2069        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2070        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2071        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2072        interpolated_values = [
2073            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2074            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2075        ]
2076        interpolate = (
2077            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2078        )
2079        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
2080
2081    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2082        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2083        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2084        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2085        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2086        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2087        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2088        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
2089
2090    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2091        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2092
2093    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2094        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2095
2096    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2097        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2098
2099    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2100        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2101        asc = not desc
2102
2103        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2104        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2105        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2106        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2107        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2108
2109        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2110
2111        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2112        nulls_sort_change = ""
2113        if nulls_first and (
2114            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2115        ):
2116            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2117        elif (
2118            nulls_last
2119            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2120            and not nulls_are_last
2121        ):
2122            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2123
2124        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2125        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2126            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2127            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2128                self.unsupported(
2129                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2130                )
2131                nulls_sort_change = ""
2132            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2133                if expression.this.is_int:
2134                    self.unsupported(
2135                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2136                    )
2137                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2138                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2139                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2140                nulls_sort_change = ""
2141
2142        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2143        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2144
2145        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2146
2147    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2148        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2149        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2150
2151        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2152
2153        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2154
2155    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2156        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2157        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2158        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2159        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2160        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2161        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2162        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2163        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2164        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2165        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2166        definition_sqls = [
2167            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2168            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2169        ]
2170        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2171        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2172        body = "".join(
2173            (
2174                partition,
2175                order,
2176                measures,
2177                rows,
2178                after,
2179                pattern,
2180                define,
2181            )
2182        )
2183        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2184        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2185        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2186
2187    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2188        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2189
2190        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2191            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2192        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2193            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2194
2195        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2196        if options:
2197            options = f" OPTION{self.wrap(options)}"
2198
2199        return csv(
2200            *sqls,
2201            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2202            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2203            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2204            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2205            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2206            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2207            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2208            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2209            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2210            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2211            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2212            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2213            options,
2214            sep="",
2215        )
2216
2217    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2218        return ""
2219
2220    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2221        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2222    ) -> t.List[str]:
2223        return [
2224            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2225            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2226        ]
2227
2228    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2229        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2230        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2231        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2232
2233    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2234        into = expression.args.get("into")
2235        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2236            into.pop()
2237
2238        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2239        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2240        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2241        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2242
2243        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2244        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2245            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2246            limit.pop()
2247        else:
2248            top = ""
2249
2250        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2251
2252        if kind:
2253            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2254                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2255            else:
2256                if kind == "STRUCT":
2257                    expressions = self.expressions(
2258                        sqls=[
2259                            self.sql(
2260                                exp.Struct(
2261                                    expressions=[
2262                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2263                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2264                                        else e
2265                                        for e in expression.expressions
2266                                    ]
2267                                )
2268                            )
2269                        ]
2270                    )
2271                kind = ""
2272
2273        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2274        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2275        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2276        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2277        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2278            expression,
2279            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2280            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2281            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2282        )
2283
2284        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2285
2286        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2287            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2288                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2289            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2290                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2291            else:
2292                table_kind = ""
2293            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2294
2295        return sql
2296
2297    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2298        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2299        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2300        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2301
2302    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2303        if expression.expressions:
2304            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2305        return ""
2306
2307    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2308        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2309        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2310        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2311        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2312        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
2313
2314    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2315        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2316        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2317
2318    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2319        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2320        kind = expression.text("kind")
2321        if kind:
2322            kind = f"{kind}."
2323        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2324
2325    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2326        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2327
2328    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2329        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2330        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2331
2332        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2333        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2334
2335        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2336        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2337
2338    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2339        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2340        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2341
2342    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2343        if not self.OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS:
2344            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2345            order = expression.args.get("order")
2346
2347            if limit or order:
2348                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
2349
2350                if limit:
2351                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
2352                if order:
2353                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
2354                return self.sql(select)
2355
2356        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2357        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2358
2359        while stack:
2360            node = stack.pop()
2361
2362            if isinstance(node, exp.Union):
2363                stack.append(node.expression)
2364                stack.append(
2365                    self.maybe_comment(
2366                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2367                        comments=node.comments,
2368                        separated=True,
2369                    )
2370                )
2371                stack.append(node.this)
2372            else:
2373                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2374
2375        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2376        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2377        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
2378
2379    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2380        return self.set_operations(expression)
2381
2382    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2383        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2384        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2385        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2386        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2387
2388    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2389        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2390
2391        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2392        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2393
2394        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2395            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2396                alias.append("columns", offset)
2397
2398        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2399            columns = alias.columns
2400            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2401        else:
2402            alias = self.sql(alias)
2403
2404        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2405        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2406            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2407        else:
2408            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2409                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2410            elif offset:
2411                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2412            else:
2413                suffix = alias
2414
2415        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2416
2417    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2418        return ""
2419
2420    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2421        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2422        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2423
2424    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2425        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2426        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2427        order = expression.args.get("order")
2428        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2429        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2430        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2431        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2432
2433        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2434
2435        first = expression.args.get("first")
2436        if first is None:
2437            first = ""
2438        else:
2439            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2440
2441        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2442            return f"{this} {alias}"
2443
2444        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2445        return f"{this} ({args})"
2446
2447    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2448        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2449        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2450
2451    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2452        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2453        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2454        end = (
2455            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2456            or "CURRENT ROW"
2457        )
2458        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2459
2460    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2461        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2462        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2463        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2464
2465    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2466        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2467        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2468        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2469        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2470
2471    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2472        return apply_index_offset(
2473            expression.this,
2474            expression.expressions,
2475            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2476        )
2477
2478    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2479        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2480        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2481        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2482
2483    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2484        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2485
2486    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2487        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2488        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2489            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2490                this = self.wrap(this)
2491            return f"ANY{this}"
2492        return f"ANY {this}"
2493
2494    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2495        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2496
2497    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2498        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2499        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2500
2501        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2502            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2503            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2504
2505        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2506
2507        if default:
2508            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2509
2510        statements.append("END")
2511
2512        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2513            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2514
2515        return " ".join(statements)
2516
2517    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2518        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2519        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2520        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2521
2522    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2523        order = expression.args.get("order")
2524        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2525        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2526
2527    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2528        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2529        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2530        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2531
2532    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2533        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2534
2535        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2536            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2537        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2538            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2539        else:
2540            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2541
2542    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2543        args = expression.expressions
2544        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2545            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2546
2547        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2548            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2549
2550        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2551            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2552
2553        return args
2554
2555    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2556        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2557
2558        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2559        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2560            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2561
2562        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2563
2564    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2565        return self.func(
2566            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2567        )
2568
2569    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2570        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2571        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2572
2573    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2574        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2575        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2576        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2577        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2578        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2579        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2580        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2581        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2582
2583    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2584        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2585        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2586        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2587        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2588
2589    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2590        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2591
2592    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2593        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2594        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2595        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2596
2597    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2598        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2599
2600    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2601        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2602        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2603
2604    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2605        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2606            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2607            if not callable(transform):
2608                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2609                return ""
2610
2611            return transform(self, expression)
2612
2613        if isinstance(expression, int):
2614            return str(expression)
2615
2616        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2617            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2618            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2619        else:
2620            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2621            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2622
2623        return escaped
2624
2625    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2626        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2627
2628    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2629        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2630        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2631
2632        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2633        if unique_keys is not None:
2634            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2635        else:
2636            unique_keys = ""
2637
2638        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2639        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2640        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2641        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2642
2643        return self.func(
2644            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2645            *expression.expressions,
2646            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2647        )
2648
2649    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2650        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2651
2652    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2653        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2654        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2655        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2656        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2657        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2658        return self.func(
2659            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2660        )
2661
2662    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2663        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2664        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2665        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2666        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2667        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2668        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2669        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2670        return self.func(
2671            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2672            this,
2673            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2674        )
2675
2676    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2677        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2678        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2679        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2680
2681        if nested_schema:
2682            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2683
2684        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2685        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2686        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2687        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2688
2689    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2690        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2691
2692    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2693        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2694        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2695        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2696        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2697        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2698        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2699        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2700        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2701        return self.func(
2702            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2703        )
2704
2705    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2706        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2707        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2708        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2709        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2710        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2711        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2712
2713    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2714        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2715        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2716        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2717        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2718        with_ = (
2719            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2720            if expressions
2721            else ""
2722        )
2723        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2724
2725    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2726        query = expression.args.get("query")
2727        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2728        field = expression.args.get("field")
2729        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2730
2731        if query:
2732            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2733        elif unnest:
2734            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2735        elif field:
2736            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2737        else:
2738            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2739
2740        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2741
2742    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2743        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2744
2745    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2746        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2747        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2748            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2749        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2750
2751        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2752            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2753            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2754
2755        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2756        if this:
2757            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2758            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2759
2760        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2761
2762    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2763        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2764
2765    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2766        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2767        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2768        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2769        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2770        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2771        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2772
2773    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2774        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
2775
2776    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2777        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2778        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2779
2780    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2781        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2782        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2783        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2784        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2785
2786    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2787        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2788
2789    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2790        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2791        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2792        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2793
2794    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2795        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2796        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2797
2798        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2799            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2800        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2801            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2802
2803        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2804
2805    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2806        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2807
2808    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2809        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2810        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2811        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2812
2813    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2814        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2815        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2816        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2817
2818    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2819        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2820        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2821        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
2822
2823    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2824        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2825
2826    def and_sql(
2827        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2828    ) -> str:
2829        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
2830
2831    def or_sql(
2832        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2833    ) -> str:
2834        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
2835
2836    def xor_sql(
2837        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2838    ) -> str:
2839        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
2840
2841    def connector_sql(
2842        self,
2843        expression: exp.Connector,
2844        op: str,
2845        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2846    ) -> str:
2847        if stack is not None:
2848            if expression.expressions:
2849                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2850            else:
2851                stack.append(expression.right)
2852                if expression.comments and self.comments:
2853                    for comment in expression.comments:
2854                        if comment:
2855                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2856                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2857            return op
2858
2859        stack = [expression]
2860        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2861        ops = set()
2862
2863        while stack:
2864            node = stack.pop()
2865            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2866                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2867            else:
2868                sql = self.sql(node)
2869                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2870                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2871                else:
2872                    sqls.append(sql)
2873
2874        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
2875        return sep.join(sqls)
2876
2877    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2878        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2879
2880    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2881        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2882
2883    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2884        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2885
2886    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2887        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2888
2889    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2890        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2891
2892    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2893        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2894
2895    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2896        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2897        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2898        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2899        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2900        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
2901        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
2902        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
2903
2904    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2905        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2906        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2907
2908    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2909        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)
2910
2911    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2912        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2913            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2914        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2915
2916    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2917        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2918
2919    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2920        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2921        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2922        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
2923        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2924        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2925        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2926
2927    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2928        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2929        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2930        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2931        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2932        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2933        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2934        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2935        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2936        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2937
2938    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2939        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2940        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2941        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2942        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2943
2944        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2945            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2946
2947        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2948
2949    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2950        return "BEGIN"
2951
2952    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2953        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2954        if chain is not None:
2955            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2956
2957        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2958
2959    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2960        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2961        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2962        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2963
2964    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2965        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2966
2967        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2968        if dtype:
2969            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2970            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2971            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2972            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2973            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2974
2975        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2976        if default:
2977            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2978
2979        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2980        if comment:
2981            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
2982
2983        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2984            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2985
2986        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2987
2988    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
2989        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2990        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
2991            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
2992        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
2993
2994    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
2995        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
2996        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2997        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2998        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2999        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3000
3001    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3002        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3003            # Remove db from tables
3004            expression = expression.transform(
3005                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3006            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3007        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3008        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3009
3010    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3011        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3012        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3013        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3014        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3015
3016    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3017        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3018
3019        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3020            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3021        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3022            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3023        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3024            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3025        else:
3026            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3027
3028        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3029        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3030        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3031        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3032        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3033        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3034        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{options}"
3035
3036    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3037        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3038            return self.expressions(
3039                expression,
3040                key="actions",
3041                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3042            )
3043        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3044
3045    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3046        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3047        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3048        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3049
3050    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3051        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3052
3053    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3054        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3055
3056        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3057            case = exp.case()
3058            for arg in expression.expressions:
3059                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3060            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3061
3062        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3063
3064        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3065        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3066        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3067
3068    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3069        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3070
3071    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3072        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3073
3074    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3075        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3076        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3077        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3078        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3079
3080    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3081        return self.sql(
3082            exp.Cast(
3083                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3084                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3085            )
3086        )
3087
3088    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3089        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3090            return self.func(
3091                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3092            )
3093        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3094
3095    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3096        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3097
3098        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3099            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3100
3101        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3102            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3103                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3104
3105        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3106            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3107                return self.sql(
3108                    exp.cast(
3109                        l / r,
3110                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3111                    )
3112                )
3113
3114        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3115
3116    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3117        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3118
3119    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3120        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3121
3122    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3123        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3124
3125    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3126        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3127
3128    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3129        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3130
3131    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3132        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3133
3134    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3135        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3136
3137    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3138        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3139
3140    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3141        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3142
3143    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3144        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3145
3146    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3147        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3148
3149    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3150        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3151            return self.sql(
3152                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3153            )
3154        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3155
3156    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3157        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3158
3159    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3160        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3161
3162    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3163        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3164
3165    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3166        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3167
3168    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3169        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3170
3171    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3172        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3173
3174    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3175        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3176
3177    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3178        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3179
3180    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3181        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3182
3183    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3184        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3185
3186    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3187        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3188
3189    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3190        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3191
3192    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3193        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3194
3195    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3196        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3197            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3198            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3199
3200        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3201
3202    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3203        this = expression.this
3204        expr = expression.expression
3205
3206        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3207            this, expr = expr, this
3208        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3209            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3210                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3211
3212            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3213
3214        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3215
3216    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3217        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3218        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3219        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3220        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3221        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3222
3223    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3224        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3225        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3226
3227    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3228        args = []
3229
3230        for key in expression.arg_types:
3231            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3232
3233            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3234                for value in arg_value:
3235                    args.append(value)
3236            elif arg_value is not None:
3237                args.append(arg_value)
3238
3239        if self.normalize_functions:
3240            name = expression.sql_name()
3241        else:
3242            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3243
3244        return self.func(name, *args)
3245
3246    def func(
3247        self,
3248        name: str,
3249        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3250        prefix: str = "(",
3251        suffix: str = ")",
3252    ) -> str:
3253        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3254
3255    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3256        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
3257        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3258            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3259        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3260
3261    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3262        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3263
3264    def format_time(
3265        self,
3266        expression: exp.Expression,
3267        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3268        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3269    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3270        return format_time(
3271            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3272            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3273            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3274        )
3275
3276    def expressions(
3277        self,
3278        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3279        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3280        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3281        flat: bool = False,
3282        indent: bool = True,
3283        skip_first: bool = False,
3284        skip_last: bool = False,
3285        sep: str = ", ",
3286        prefix: str = "",
3287        dynamic: bool = False,
3288        new_line: bool = False,
3289    ) -> str:
3290        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3291
3292        if not expressions:
3293            return ""
3294
3295        if flat:
3296            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3297
3298        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3299
3300        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
3301        if self.pretty and not self.leading_comma:
3302            stripped_sep = sep.strip()
3303
3304        result_sqls = []
3305        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3306            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3307            if not sql:
3308                continue
3309
3310            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3311
3312            if self.pretty:
3313                if self.leading_comma:
3314                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3315                else:
3316                    result_sqls.append(
3317                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3318                    )
3319            else:
3320                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3321
3322        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3323            if new_line:
3324                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3325                result_sqls.append("")
3326            result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls)
3327        else:
3328            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3329        return (
3330            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3331            if indent
3332            else result_sql
3333        )
3334
3335    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3336        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3337        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3338        if flat:
3339            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3340        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3341
3342    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3343        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3344        if not property_name:
3345            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3346        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3347
3348    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3349        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3350
3351    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3352        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3353
3354    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3355        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3356        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3357        expressions = (
3358            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3359        )
3360        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3361
3362    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3363        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3364        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3365        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3366
3367    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3368        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3369
3370    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3371        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3372        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3373        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3374        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3375
3376        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3377        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3378            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3379            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3380            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3381            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3382        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3383            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3384                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3385            else:
3386                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3387        else:
3388            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3389        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3390
3391    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3392        table = expression.this
3393        table_alias = ""
3394
3395        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3396        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3397            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3398            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3399
3400        this = self.sql(table)
3401        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3402        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3403        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3404        sep = self.sep()
3405
3406        return self.prepend_ctes(
3407            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}"
3408        )
3409
3410    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3411        if expression.args.get("format"):
3412            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3413
3414        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3415
3416    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3417        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3418            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3419            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3420
3421        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3422        if not fmt:
3423            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3424            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3425
3426        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3427
3428    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3429        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3430        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3431        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3432        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3433        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3434
3435    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3436        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3437        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3438        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3439        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3440
3441    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3442        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3443
3444    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3445        return ""
3446
3447    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3448        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3449        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3450        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3451        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3452        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3453
3454    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3455        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3456        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3457
3458        if having:
3459            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3460
3461        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3462
3463    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3464        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3465        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3466        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3467        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3468        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3469        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3470        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3471        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3472        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3473        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3474        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3475        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3476        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3477
3478    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3479        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3480        if key_block_size:
3481            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3482
3483        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3484        if using:
3485            return f"USING {using}"
3486
3487        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3488        if parser:
3489            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3490
3491        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3492        if comment:
3493            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3494
3495        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3496        if visible is not None:
3497            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3498
3499        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3500        if engine_attr:
3501            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3502
3503        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3504        if secondary_engine_attr:
3505            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3506
3507        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3508        return ""
3509
3510    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3511        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3512        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3513
3514    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3515        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3516        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3517        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3518        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3519        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3520        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3521        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3522        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3523        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3524        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3525        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3526
3527    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3528        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3529            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3530
3531        case = exp.Case().when(
3532            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3533            expression.args["true"],
3534            copy=False,
3535        )
3536        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3537        if else_cond:
3538            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3539
3540        return self.sql(case)
3541
3542    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3543        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3544        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3545        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3546        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3547        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3548        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3549
3550    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3551        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3552
3553    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3554        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3555
3556    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3557        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3558        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3559        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3560        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3561        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3562        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3563
3564    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3565        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3566        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3567        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3568
3569    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3570        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3571        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3572        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3573
3574    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3575        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3576
3577    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3578        arg = expression.this
3579        if not arg.type:
3580            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3581
3582            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3583
3584        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3585            return self.sql(arg)
3586
3587        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3588        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3589
3590    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3591        this = expression.this
3592        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3593            return self.sql(this)
3594
3595        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3596
3597    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3598        this = expression.this
3599        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3600            return self.sql(this)
3601
3602        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
3603
3604    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3605        this = expression.this
3606        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3607
3608        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3609            return self.sql(
3610                exp.cast(
3611                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3612                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3613                )
3614            )
3615
3616        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3617            return self.sql(this)
3618
3619        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3620
3621    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3622        return self.sql(
3623            exp.func(
3624                "DATEDIFF",
3625                expression.this,
3626                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3627                "day",
3628            )
3629        )
3630
3631    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3632        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3633            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3634
3635        unit = expression.text("unit")
3636        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3637            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3638
3639        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3640
3641    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3642        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3643
3644        return self.func(
3645            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3646        )
3647
3648    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3649        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3650            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3651            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3652            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3653            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3654
3655        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3656
3657        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3658        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3659            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3660
3661        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3662
3663    def generateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3664        expression.set("is_end_exclusive", None)
3665        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3666
3667    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3668        expression.set(
3669            "expressions",
3670            [
3671                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3672                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3673                else e
3674                for e in expression.expressions
3675            ],
3676        )
3677
3678        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3679
3680    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3681        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3682        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3683
3684        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3685
3686    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3687        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3688        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3689
3690        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3691
3692        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3693        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3694
3695        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3696        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3697
3698        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3699        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3700
3701        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3702        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3703
3704        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3705
3706    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3707    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3708    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3709        to = expression.this
3710        value = expression.expression
3711        style = expression.args.get("style")
3712        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3713        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3714
3715        if not to or not value:
3716            return ""
3717
3718        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3719        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3720            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3721
3722        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3723        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3724
3725        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3726        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3727            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3728
3729            style_value = style.name
3730            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3731            if not converted_style:
3732                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3733
3734            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3735
3736            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3737                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3738            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3739                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3740            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3741                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3742            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3743                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3744
3745        if not transformed:
3746            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3747
3748        return self.sql(transformed)
3749
3750    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
3751        this = expression.this
3752        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
3753            this = self.json_path_part(this)
3754            return f".{this}" if this else ""
3755
3756        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
3757            return f".{this}"
3758
3759        this = self.json_path_part(this)
3760        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
3761
3762    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
3763        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
3764        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
3765
3766    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3767        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3768            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3769
3770            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3771
3772        return expression
3773
3774    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
3775        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
3776            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
3777            mods = sorted(
3778                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
3779                key=lambda x: 0
3780                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
3781                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
3782            )
3783
3784            if mods:
3785                mod = mods[0]
3786                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
3787                this.meta["inline"] = True
3788                mod.this.replace(this)
3789                return self.sql(expression.this)
3790
3791            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
3792
3793            if agg_func:
3794                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
3795
3796        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
3797
3798    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
3799        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
3800        if self.pretty:
3801            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
3802        return string
3803
3804    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
3805        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
3806        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3807
3808        if not value:
3809            return option
3810
3811        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
3812
3813        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
3814
3815    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
3816        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
3817        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
3818            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
3819            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3820            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
3821        else:
3822            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
3823            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
3824            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if credentials else ""
3825
3826        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
3827        storage = f" {storage}" if storage else ""
3828
3829        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
3830        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
3831
3832        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
3833        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
3834
3835        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
3836        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
3837
3838        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
3839
3840    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
3841        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3842        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
3843
3844        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3845        credentials = f" {credentials}" if credentials else ""
3846        kind = " FROM " if expression.args.get("kind") else " TO "
3847        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
3848
3849        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
3850        params = self.expressions(expression, key="params", flat=True, sep=sep)
3851        if params:
3852            params = f" WITH ({params})" if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED else f" {params}"
3853
3854        return f"COPY{this}{kind}{files}{credentials}{params}"
3855
3856    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
3857        return ""

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

Arguments:
  • pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
  • identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  • normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
  • pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level. Default: 2.
  • indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of subqueries and filters under a WHERE clause. Default: 2.
  • normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
  • unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True, dialect: Union[str, sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect, Type[sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect], NoneType] = None)
546    def __init__(
547        self,
548        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
549        identify: str | bool = False,
550        normalize: bool = False,
551        pad: int = 2,
552        indent: int = 2,
553        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
554        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
555        max_unsupported: int = 3,
556        leading_comma: bool = False,
557        max_text_width: int = 80,
558        comments: bool = True,
559        dialect: DialectType = None,
560    ):
561        import sqlglot
562        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
563
564        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
565        self.identify = identify
566        self.normalize = normalize
567        self.pad = pad
568        self._indent = indent
569        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
570        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
571        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
572        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
573        self.comments = comments
574        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
575
576        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
577        self.normalize_functions = (
578            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
579        )
580
581        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
582        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
583            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
584        )
585        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
586            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
587        )
588
589        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
TRANSFORMS: Dict[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], Callable[..., str]] = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathFilter'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathKey'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRecursive'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRoot'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathScript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSelector'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSlice'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSubscript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathUnion'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathWildcard'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EphemeralColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExcludeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalSpan'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONExtract'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONExtractScalar'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NonClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Timestamp'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithOperator'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: Optional[bool] = True
IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXPLICIT_UNION = False
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINT_SEP = ', '
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
RETURNING_END = True
COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = 'TABLESAMPLE'
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = 'SEED'
COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
ENSURE_BOOLS = False
CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ':'
INSERT_OVERWRITE = ' OVERWRITE TABLE'
SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS = True
COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
TRY_SUPPORTED = True
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.TINYTEXT: 'TINYTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.TINYBLOB: 'TINYBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET', <Type.ROWVERSION: 'ROWVERSION'>: 'VARBINARY'}
STAR_MAPPING = {'except': 'EXCEPT', 'replace': 'REPLACE'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'MICROSECONDS': 'MICROSECOND', 'SECONDS': 'SECOND', 'MINUTES': 'MINUTE', 'HOURS': 'HOUR', 'DAYS': 'DAY', 'WEEKS': 'WEEK', 'MONTHS': 'MONTH', 'QUARTERS': 'QUARTER', 'YEARS': 'YEAR'}
AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {'cluster': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'distribute': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'qualify': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'sort': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'windows': <function Generator.<lambda>>}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ':'
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Binary'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Union'>)
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>, <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>, <Type.VARCHAR: 'VARCHAR'>, <Type.CHAR: 'CHAR'>}
EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: Set[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = set()
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
dialect
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
591    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
592        """
593        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
594
595        Args:
596            expression: The syntax tree.
597            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
598                it is safer to copy.
599
600        Returns:
601            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
602        """
603        if copy:
604            expression = expression.copy()
605
606        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
607
608        self.unsupported_messages = []
609        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
610
611        if self.pretty:
612            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
613
614        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
615            return sql
616
617        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
618            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
619                logger.warning(msg)
620        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
621            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
622
623        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

Arguments:
  • expression: The syntax tree.
  • copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so it is safer to copy.
Returns:

The SQL string corresponding to expression.

def preprocess( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> sqlglot.expressions.Expression:
625    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
626        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
627        if (
628            not expression.parent
629            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
630            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
631        ):
632            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
633
634            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
635
636        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
637            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
638
639            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
640
641        return expression

Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
643    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
644        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
645            raise UnsupportedError(message)
646        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
648    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
649        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
651    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
652        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
654    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
655        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
656        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
657        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None, separated: bool = False) -> str:
659    def maybe_comment(
660        self,
661        sql: str,
662        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
663        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
664        separated: bool = False,
665    ) -> str:
666        comments = (
667            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
668            if self.comments
669            else None
670        )
671
672        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
673            return sql
674
675        comments_sql = " ".join(
676            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
677        )
678
679        if not comments_sql:
680            return sql
681
682        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
683
684        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
685            return (
686                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
687                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
688                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
689            )
690
691        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
693    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
694        this_sql = self.indent(
695            (
696                self.sql(expression)
697                if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
698                else self.sql(expression, "this")
699            ),
700            level=1,
701            pad=0,
702        )
703        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
705    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
706        original = self.identify
707        self.identify = False
708        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
709        self.identify = original
710        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
712    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
713        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
714            return name.upper()
715        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
716            return name.lower()
717        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
719    def indent(
720        self,
721        sql: str,
722        level: int = 0,
723        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
724        skip_first: bool = False,
725        skip_last: bool = False,
726    ) -> str:
727        if not self.pretty:
728            return sql
729
730        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
731        lines = sql.split("\n")
732
733        return "\n".join(
734            (
735                line
736                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
737                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
738            )
739            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
740        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
742    def sql(
743        self,
744        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
745        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
746        comment: bool = True,
747    ) -> str:
748        if not expression:
749            return ""
750
751        if isinstance(expression, str):
752            return expression
753
754        if key:
755            value = expression.args.get(key)
756            if value:
757                return self.sql(value)
758            return ""
759
760        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
761
762        if callable(transform):
763            sql = transform(self, expression)
764        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
765            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
766
767            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
768                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
769            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
770                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
771            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
772                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
773            else:
774                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
775        else:
776            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
777
778        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
780    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
781        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
782        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
783        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
785    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
786        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
787        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
788        options = expression.args.get("options")
789        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
790        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
791        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
792        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
793        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
795    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
796        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
797            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
798        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
799        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
801    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
802        return ".".join(
803            self.sql(part)
804            for part in (
805                expression.args.get("catalog"),
806                expression.args.get("db"),
807                expression.args.get("table"),
808                expression.args.get("this"),
809            )
810            if part
811        )
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
813    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
814        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
815
816        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
817            join_mark = ""
818            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
819
820        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
822    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
823        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
824        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
825        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
826        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
828    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
829        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
830        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
831        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
832        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
833        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
834        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
835        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
836        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
837
838        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
839            kind = ""
840
841        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
843    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
844        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
845        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
846        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
848    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
849        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
850        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
851            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
852        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
853            persisted = " PERSISTED"
854        else:
855            persisted = ""
856        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
858    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
859        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
861    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
862        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
863            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
864        else:
865            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
866
867        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
869    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
870        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
871    ) -> str:
872        this = ""
873        if expression.this is not None:
874            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
875            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
876
877        start = expression.args.get("start")
878        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
879        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
880        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
881        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
882        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
883        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
884        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
885        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
886        cycle_sql = ""
887
888        if cycle is not None:
889            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
890            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
891
892        sequence_opts = ""
893        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
894            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
895            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
896
897        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
898        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
899
900        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint) -> str:
902    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
903        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
904    ) -> str:
905        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
906        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
907        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint) -> str:
909    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
910        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
911    ) -> str:
912        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
914    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
915        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
917    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
918        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
920    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
921        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
922        if desc is not None:
923            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
924        return "PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
926    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
927        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
928        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
929        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
930        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
931        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
932        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
933        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: DefaultDict) -> str:
935    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
936        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
 938    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 939        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 940        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 941        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 942
 943        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 944
 945        properties_sql = ""
 946        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 947            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 948        ):
 949            properties_sql = self.sql(
 950                exp.Properties(
 951                    expressions=[
 952                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 953                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 954                    ]
 955                )
 956            )
 957
 958        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 959        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 960
 961        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 962        if expression_sql:
 963            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 964
 965            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 966                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 967                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 968                        exp.Properties(
 969                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 970                        ),
 971                        wrapped=False,
 972                    )
 973                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 974                else:
 975                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 976
 977        postindex_props_sql = ""
 978        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 979            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 980                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 981                wrapped=False,
 982                prefix=" ",
 983            )
 984
 985        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 986        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 987        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 988
 989        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 990        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 991
 992        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 993        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 994            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 995                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 996                sep=" ",
 997                prefix=" ",
 998                wrapped=False,
 999            )
1000
1001        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1002
1003        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1004        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1005            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1006                exp.Properties(
1007                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1008                ),
1009                sep=" ",
1010                prefix=" ",
1011                wrapped=False,
1012            )
1013
1014        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1015        no_schema_binding = (
1016            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1017        )
1018
1019        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1020        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1021
1022        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1023        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1025    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1026        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1027        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1028        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1029        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1030        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1031        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1032        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1033        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1034        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1035        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1036
1037        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1038        if cache is None:
1039            cache_str = ""
1040        elif cache is True:
1041            cache_str = " CACHE"
1042        else:
1043            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1044
1045        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1046        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1047
1048        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
1050    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1051        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1052        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1053        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1054        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
1056    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1057        style = expression.args.get("style")
1058        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1059        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def heredoc_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Heredoc) -> str:
1061    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1062        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1063        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1065    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1066        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1067        if with_:
1068            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1069        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
1071    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1072        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1073        recursive = (
1074            "RECURSIVE "
1075            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1076            else ""
1077        )
1078
1079        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
1081    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1082        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1083
1084        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1085        if materialized is False:
1086            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1087        elif materialized:
1088            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1089
1090        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
1092    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1093        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1094        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1095        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1096
1097        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1098            columns = ""
1099            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1100
1101        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1102            alias = self._next_name()
1103
1104        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
1106    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1107        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1108        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1109            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1110        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
1112    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1113        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1114        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1115            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1116        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
1118    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1119        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1120        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1121            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1122        return this
def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnicodeString) -> str:
1124    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1125        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1126        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1127
1128        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1129            escape = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if escape else ""
1130            return f"{self.dialect.UNICODE_START}{this}{self.dialect.UNICODE_END}{escape}"
1131
1132        if escape:
1133            pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1134        else:
1135            pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1136
1137        this = pattern.sub(r"\\u\1", this)
1138        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str:
1140    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1141        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1142        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1144    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1145        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1146        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1147        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1148        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
1150    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1151        type_value = expression.this
1152
1153        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1154            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1155        else:
1156            type_sql = (
1157                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1158                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1159                else type_value
1160            )
1161
1162        nested = ""
1163        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1164        values = ""
1165
1166        if interior:
1167            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1168                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1169                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1170                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1171                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1172                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1173            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1174                nested = f" {interior}"
1175            else:
1176                nested = f"({interior})"
1177
1178        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1179        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1180            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1181            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1182        ):
1183            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1184
1185        return type_sql
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
1187    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1188        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1189        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1190        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1191        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
1193    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1194        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1195        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1196        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1197        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1198        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1199        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1200        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1201        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1202        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1203        if self.RETURNING_END:
1204            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1205        else:
1206            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1207        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
1209    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1210        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1211        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1212        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1213        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1214        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1215        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1216        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1217        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1218        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1219        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1220        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1221        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1222        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
def except_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1224    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1225        return self.set_operations(expression)
def except_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1227    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1228        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
1230    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1231        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1232        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1233        count = expression.args.get("count")
1234        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1235        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1236            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1237        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1238        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
1240    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1241        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1242            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1243            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1244            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1245
1246        agg = expression.this
1247        agg_arg = agg.this
1248        cond = expression.expression.this
1249        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1250        return self.sql(agg)
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
1252    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1253        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1254            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1255            return ""
1256
1257        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexParameters) -> str:
1259    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1260        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1261        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1262        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1263        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1264        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1265        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1266        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1267        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1268        if include:
1269            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1270        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1271        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1272        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1273        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1274
1275        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}"
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
1277    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1278        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1279        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1280        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1281        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1282        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1283        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1284        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1285
1286        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1287
1288        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1289        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
1291    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1292        text = expression.name
1293        lower = text.lower()
1294        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1295        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1296        if (
1297            expression.quoted
1298            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1299            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1300            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1301        ):
1302            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1303        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1305    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1306        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1307        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1308        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1309        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1310        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str:
1312    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1313        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1314        return f"{prefix}{string}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
1316    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1317        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1319    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1320        root_properties = []
1321        with_properties = []
1322
1323        for p in expression.expressions:
1324            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1325            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1326                with_properties.append(p)
1327            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1328                root_properties.append(p)
1329
1330        return self.root_properties(
1331            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1332        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1334    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1335        if properties.expressions:
1336            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1337        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
1339    def properties(
1340        self,
1341        properties: exp.Properties,
1342        prefix: str = "",
1343        sep: str = ", ",
1344        suffix: str = "",
1345        wrapped: bool = True,
1346    ) -> str:
1347        if properties.expressions:
1348            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1349            if expressions:
1350                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1351                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1352        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1354    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1355        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
def locate_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> DefaultDict:
1357    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1358        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1359        for p in properties.expressions:
1360            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1361            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1362                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1363            else:
1364                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1365
1366        return properties_locs
def property_name( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1368    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1369        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1370            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1371        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
1373    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1374        property_cls = expression.__class__
1375        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1376            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1377
1378        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1379        if not property_name:
1380            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1381
1382        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
1384    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1385        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1386            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1387            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1388
1389            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1390            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1391                like = f"({like})"
1392
1393            return like
1394
1395        if expression.expressions:
1396            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1397
1398        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1399        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1401    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1402        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1403        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1404        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
1406    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1407        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1408        local = expression.args.get("local")
1409        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1410        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1411        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1412        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1413        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1415    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1416        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1417        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1418        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1420    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1421        if expression.args.get("default"):
1422            property = "DEFAULT"
1423        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1424            property = "ON"
1425        else:
1426            property = "OFF"
1427        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1429    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1430        if expression.args.get("no"):
1431            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1432        if expression.args.get("default"):
1433            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1434
1435        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1436        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1438    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1439        default = expression.args.get("default")
1440        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1441        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1442        if default or minimum or maximum:
1443            if default:
1444                prop = "DEFAULT"
1445            elif minimum:
1446                prop = "MINIMUM"
1447            else:
1448                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1449            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1450        units = expression.args.get("units")
1451        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1452        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1454    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1455        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1456        always = expression.args.get("always")
1457        default = expression.args.get("default")
1458        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1459        never = expression.args.get("never")
1460
1461        if autotemp is not None:
1462            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1463        elif always:
1464            prop = "ALWAYS"
1465        elif default:
1466            prop = "DEFAULT"
1467        elif manual:
1468            prop = "MANUAL"
1469        elif never:
1470            prop = "NEVER"
1471        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1473    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1474        no = expression.args.get("no")
1475        no = " NO" if no else ""
1476        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1477        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1478        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1479        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1480        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1482    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1483        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1484            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1485        if expression.this:
1486            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1487            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1488            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1489
1490        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1491        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1492        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1494    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1495        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1496
1497        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1498        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1499            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1500        else:
1501            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1502
1503        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1505    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1506        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1507        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1508        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1509        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1510        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1511        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1512        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1514    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1515        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1516        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1517        statistics_sql = ""
1518        if statistics is not None:
1519            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1520        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def withsystemversioningproperty_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1522    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1523        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
1524
1525        if expression.this:
1526            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
1527            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
1528
1529            if expression.expression:
1530                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1531                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
1532
1533            sql = f"{sql})"
1534
1535        return f"{sql})"
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1537    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1538        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1539        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1540
1541        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1542            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1543        else:
1544            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1545
1546        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1547        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1548        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1549        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1550        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1551        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1552        if is_function:
1553            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1554        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1555
1556        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1557        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1558        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1559        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1560        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1561        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1562        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1563        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1564
1565        if self.RETURNING_END:
1566            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1567        else:
1568            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1569
1570        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{where}{expression_sql}"
1571        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def intersect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1573    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1574        return self.set_operations(expression)
def intersect_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1576    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1577        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1579    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1580        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def kill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kill) -> str:
1582    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1583        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1584        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1585        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1586        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1587        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1589    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1590        return expression.name
def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1592    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1593        return expression.name
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1595    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1596        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1597
1598        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1599        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1600
1601        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1602        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1603        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1604
1605        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1606        if expressions:
1607            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1608            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1609
1610        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1612    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1613        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1615    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1616        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1617        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1618        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1619        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1620        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1621        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1622        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1623        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1624        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1625        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1626        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1627        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1628        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint) -> str:
1630    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1631        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1633    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1634        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1635        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1636        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1637        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HistoricalData) -> str:
1639    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1640        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1641        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1642        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1643        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
def table_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table) -> str:
1645    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1646        return ".".join(
1647            self.sql(part)
1648            for part in (
1649                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1650                expression.args.get("db"),
1651                expression.args.get("this"),
1652            )
1653            if part is not None
1654        )
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1656    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1657        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1658        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1659        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1660        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1661        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1662        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1663        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1664        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1665        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1666        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1667        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1668        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1669        joins = self.indent(
1670            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1671        )
1672        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1673
1674        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1675        if file_format:
1676            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1677            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1678            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1679
1680        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1681        if ordinality:
1682            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1683            alias = ""
1684
1685        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1686        if when:
1687            table = f"{table} {when}"
1688
1689        return f"{only}{table}{partition}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, sep: str = ' AS ', tablesample_keyword: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
1691    def tablesample_sql(
1692        self,
1693        expression: exp.TableSample,
1694        sep: str = " AS ",
1695        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1696    ) -> str:
1697        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1698            table = expression.this.copy()
1699            table.set("alias", None)
1700            this = self.sql(table)
1701            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1702        else:
1703            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1704            alias = ""
1705
1706        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1707        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1708        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1709        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1710        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1711        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1712        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1713        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1714        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1715
1716        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1717        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1718            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1719
1720        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1721        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1722            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1723
1724        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1725        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1726            expr = f"({expr})"
1727
1728        return (
1729            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1730        )
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1732    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1733        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1734
1735        if expression.this:
1736            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1737            if not expressions:
1738                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1739
1740            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1741            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1742            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1743            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1744            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1745
1746        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1747        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1748        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1749        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1750        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1751        if include_nulls is not None:
1752            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1753        else:
1754            nulls = ""
1755        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
def version_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Version) -> str:
1757    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1758        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1759        kind = expression.text("kind")
1760        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1761        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
1763    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1764        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
1766    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1767        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1768        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1769        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1770        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1771        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1772        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1773        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1774        if self.RETURNING_END:
1775            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1776        else:
1777            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1778        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1779        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1781    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1782        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1783
1784        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1785        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1786            args = self.expressions(expression)
1787            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1788            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1789            values = (
1790                f"({values})"
1791                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1792                else values
1793            )
1794            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1795
1796        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1797        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1798        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1799
1800        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1801
1802        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1803            row = tup.expressions
1804
1805            if i == 0 and column_names:
1806                row = [
1807                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1808                ]
1809
1810            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1811
1812        if self.pretty:
1813            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1814            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1815            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1816            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1817            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1818
1819        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1820        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1821        return f"({unions}){alias}"
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
1823    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1824        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
1826    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1827        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1828        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1829        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
1831    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1832        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
1834    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1835        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1836        if group_by_all is True:
1837            modifier = " ALL"
1838        elif group_by_all is False:
1839            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1840        else:
1841            modifier = ""
1842
1843        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1844
1845        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1846        grouping_sets = (
1847            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1848        )
1849
1850        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1851        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1852            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1853        else:
1854            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1855            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1856
1857        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1858        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1859            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1860        else:
1861            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1862            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1863
1864        groupings = csv(
1865            grouping_sets,
1866            cube_sql,
1867            rollup_sql,
1868            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1869            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1870        )
1871
1872        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1873            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1874
1875        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
1877    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1878        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1879        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def connect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connect) -> str:
1881    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1882        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1883        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1884        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1885        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1886        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1887        return start + connect
def prior_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Prior) -> str:
1889    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1890        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
1892    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1893        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1894            side = None
1895        else:
1896            side = expression.side
1897
1898        op_sql = " ".join(
1899            op
1900            for op in (
1901                expression.method,
1902                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1903                side,
1904                expression.kind,
1905                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1906            )
1907            if op
1908        )
1909        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
1910        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
1911        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1912        using = expression.args.get("using")
1913
1914        if not on_sql and using:
1915            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1916
1917        this = expression.this
1918        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1919
1920        if on_sql:
1921            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1922            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1923            if using:
1924                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1925            else:
1926                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1927        elif not op_sql:
1928            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
1929                return f" {this_sql}"
1930
1931            return f", {this_sql}"
1932
1933        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1934        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
1936    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1937        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1938        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1939        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
1941    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1942        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
1943
1944        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
1945        if cross_apply is True:
1946            op = "INNER JOIN "
1947        elif cross_apply is False:
1948            op = "LEFT JOIN "
1949        else:
1950            op = ""
1951
1952        return f"{op}LATERAL"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
1954    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1955        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1956
1957        if expression.args.get("view"):
1958            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1959            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1960            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1961            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1962            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1963            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1964
1965        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1966        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1967        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1969    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1970        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1971
1972        args = [
1973            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
1974            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1975            if e
1976        ]
1977
1978        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
1979        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
1980        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1981        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1982
1983        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
1985    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1986        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1987        value = expression.expression
1988        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
1989        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1990        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1991        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
1993    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1994        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1995        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1996        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1997        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1998        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1999        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2000        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2001        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
2003    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2004        expressions = (
2005            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2006        )
2007        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2008        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
2010    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2011        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
2013    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2014        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2015            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2016            return ""
2017
2018        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2019        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2020        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2021        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2022
2023        if wait is not None:
2024            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2025                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2026            else:
2027                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2028
2029        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
2031    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2032        text = expression.this or ""
2033        if expression.is_string:
2034            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2035        return text
def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2037    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2038        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2039            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2040            text = "".join(
2041                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2042            )
2043
2044        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2045            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2046        )
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
2048    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2049        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2050        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2051        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2052        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2053        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2054        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2055        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2056        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2057        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2058        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2059        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2061    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2062        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
2064    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2065        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2067    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2068        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2069        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2070        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2071        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2072        interpolated_values = [
2073            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2074            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2075        ]
2076        interpolate = (
2077            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2078        )
2079        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
def withfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithFill) -> str:
2081    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2082        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2083        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2084        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2085        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2086        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2087        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2088        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
2090    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2091        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
2093    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2094        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
2096    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2097        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
2099    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2100        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2101        asc = not desc
2102
2103        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2104        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2105        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2106        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2107        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2108
2109        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2110
2111        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2112        nulls_sort_change = ""
2113        if nulls_first and (
2114            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2115        ):
2116            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2117        elif (
2118            nulls_last
2119            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2120            and not nulls_are_last
2121        ):
2122            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2123
2124        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2125        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2126            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2127            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2128                self.unsupported(
2129                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2130                )
2131                nulls_sort_change = ""
2132            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2133                if expression.this.is_int:
2134                    self.unsupported(
2135                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2136                    )
2137                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2138                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2139                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2140                nulls_sort_change = ""
2141
2142        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2143        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2144
2145        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2147    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2148        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2149        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2150
2151        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2152
2153        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2155    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2156        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2157        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2158        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2159        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2160        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2161        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2162        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2163        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2164        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2165        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2166        definition_sqls = [
2167            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2168            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2169        ]
2170        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2171        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2172        body = "".join(
2173            (
2174                partition,
2175                order,
2176                measures,
2177                rows,
2178                after,
2179                pattern,
2180                define,
2181            )
2182        )
2183        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2184        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2185        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2187    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2188        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2189
2190        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2191            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2192        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2193            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2194
2195        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2196        if options:
2197            options = f" OPTION{self.wrap(options)}"
2198
2199        return csv(
2200            *sqls,
2201            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2202            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2203            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2204            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2205            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2206            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2207            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2208            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2209            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2210            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2211            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2212            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2213            options,
2214            sep="",
2215        )
def queryoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryOption) -> str:
2217    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2218        return ""
def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]:
2220    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2221        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2222    ) -> t.List[str]:
2223        return [
2224            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2225            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2226        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
2228    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2229        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2230        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2231        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
2233    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2234        into = expression.args.get("into")
2235        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2236            into.pop()
2237
2238        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2239        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2240        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2241        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2242
2243        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2244        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2245            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2246            limit.pop()
2247        else:
2248            top = ""
2249
2250        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2251
2252        if kind:
2253            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2254                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2255            else:
2256                if kind == "STRUCT":
2257                    expressions = self.expressions(
2258                        sqls=[
2259                            self.sql(
2260                                exp.Struct(
2261                                    expressions=[
2262                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2263                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2264                                        else e
2265                                        for e in expression.expressions
2266                                    ]
2267                                )
2268                            )
2269                        ]
2270                    )
2271                kind = ""
2272
2273        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2274        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2275        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2276        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2277        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2278            expression,
2279            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2280            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2281            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2282        )
2283
2284        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2285
2286        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2287            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2288                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2289            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2290                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2291            else:
2292                table_kind = ""
2293            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2294
2295        return sql
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2297    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2298        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2299        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2300        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2302    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2303        if expression.expressions:
2304            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2305        return ""
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
2307    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2308        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2309        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2310        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2311        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2312        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
2314    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2315        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2316        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
2318    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2319        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2320        kind = expression.text("kind")
2321        if kind:
2322            kind = f"{kind}."
2323        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
2325    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2326        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
2328    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2329        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2330        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2331
2332        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2333        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2334
2335        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2336        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
2338    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2339        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2340        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def set_operations(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
2342    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2343        if not self.OUTER_UNION_MODIFIERS:
2344            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2345            order = expression.args.get("order")
2346
2347            if limit or order:
2348                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
2349
2350                if limit:
2351                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
2352                if order:
2353                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
2354                return self.sql(select)
2355
2356        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2357        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2358
2359        while stack:
2360            node = stack.pop()
2361
2362            if isinstance(node, exp.Union):
2363                stack.append(node.expression)
2364                stack.append(
2365                    self.maybe_comment(
2366                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2367                        comments=node.comments,
2368                        separated=True,
2369                    )
2370                )
2371                stack.append(node.this)
2372            else:
2373                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2374
2375        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2376        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2377        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
def union_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
2379    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2380        return self.set_operations(expression)
def union_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
2382    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2383        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2384        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2385        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2386        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2388    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2389        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2390
2391        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2392        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2393
2394        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2395            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2396                alias.append("columns", offset)
2397
2398        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2399            columns = alias.columns
2400            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2401        else:
2402            alias = self.sql(alias)
2403
2404        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2405        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2406            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2407        else:
2408            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2409                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2410            elif offset:
2411                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2412            else:
2413                suffix = alias
2414
2415        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
def prewhere_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PreWhere) -> str:
2417    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2418        return ""
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
2420    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2421        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2422        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
2424    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2425        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2426        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2427        order = expression.args.get("order")
2428        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2429        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2430        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2431        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2432
2433        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2434
2435        first = expression.args.get("first")
2436        if first is None:
2437            first = ""
2438        else:
2439            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2440
2441        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2442            return f"{this} {alias}"
2443
2444        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2445        return f"{this} ({args})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2447    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2448        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2449        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
2451    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2452        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2453        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2454        end = (
2455            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2456            or "CURRENT ROW"
2457        )
2458        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
2460    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2461        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2462        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2463        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
2465    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2466        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2467        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2468        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2469        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_offset_expressions( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]:
2471    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2472        return apply_index_offset(
2473            expression.this,
2474            expression.expressions,
2475            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2476        )
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
2478    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2479        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2480        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2481        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
2483    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2484        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
2486    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2487        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2488        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2489            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2490                this = self.wrap(this)
2491            return f"ANY{this}"
2492        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
2494    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2495        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
2497    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2498        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2499        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2500
2501        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2502            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2503            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2504
2505        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2506
2507        if default:
2508            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2509
2510        statements.append("END")
2511
2512        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2513            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2514
2515        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
2517    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2518        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2519        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2520        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
2522    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2523        order = expression.args.get("order")
2524        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2525        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
2527    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2528        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2529        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2530        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
2532    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2533        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2534
2535        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2536            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2537        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2538            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2539        else:
2540            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
def convert_concat_args( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat | sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]:
2542    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2543        args = expression.expressions
2544        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2545            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2546
2547        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2548            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2549
2550        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2551            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2552
2553        return args
def concat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat) -> str:
2555    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2556        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2557
2558        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2559        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2560            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2561
2562        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
def concatws_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> str:
2564    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2565        return self.func(
2566            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2567        )
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
2569    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2570        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2571        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2573    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2574        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2575        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2576        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2577        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2578        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2579        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2580        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2581        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2583    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2584        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2585        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2586        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2587        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
2589    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2590        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2592    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2593        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2594        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2595        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2597    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2598        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONPath) -> str:
2600    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2601        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2602        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2604    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2605        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2606            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2607            if not callable(transform):
2608                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2609                return ""
2610
2611            return transform(self, expression)
2612
2613        if isinstance(expression, int):
2614            return str(expression)
2615
2616        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2617            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2618            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2619        else:
2620            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2621            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2622
2623        return escaped
def formatjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FormatJson) -> str:
2625    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2626        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
def jsonobject_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject | sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2628    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2629        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2630        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2631
2632        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2633        if unique_keys is not None:
2634            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2635        else:
2636            unique_keys = ""
2637
2638        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2639        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2640        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2641        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2642
2643        return self.func(
2644            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2645            *expression.expressions,
2646            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2647        )
def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2649    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2650        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArray) -> str:
2652    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2653        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2654        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2655        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2656        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2657        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2658        return self.func(
2659            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2660        )
def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2662    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2663        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2664        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2665        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2666        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2667        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2668        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2669        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2670        return self.func(
2671            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2672            this,
2673            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2674        )
def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2676    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2677        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2678        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2679        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2680
2681        if nested_schema:
2682            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2683
2684        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2685        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2686        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2687        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONSchema) -> str:
2689    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2690        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
def jsontable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONTable) -> str:
2692    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2693        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2694        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2695        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2696        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2697        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2698        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2699        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2700        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2701        return self.func(
2702            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2703        )
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2705    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2706        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2707        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2708        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2709        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2710        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2711        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
2713    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2714        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2715        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2716        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2717        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2718        with_ = (
2719            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2720            if expressions
2721            else ""
2722        )
2723        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
2725    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2726        query = expression.args.get("query")
2727        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2728        field = expression.args.get("field")
2729        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2730
2731        if query:
2732            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2733        elif unnest:
2734            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2735        elif field:
2736            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2737        else:
2738            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2739
2740        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2742    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2743        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
2745    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2746        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2747        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2748            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2749        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2750
2751        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2752            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2753            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2754
2755        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2756        if this:
2757            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2758            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2759
2760        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
2762    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2763        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
2765    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2766        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2767        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2768        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2769        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2770        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2771        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
2773    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2774        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
2776    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2777        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2778        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
2780    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2781        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2782        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2783        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2784        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
2786    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2787        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
2789    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2790        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2791        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2792        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PivotAlias) -> str:
2794    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2795        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2796        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2797
2798        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2799            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2800        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2801            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2802
2803        return self.alias_sql(expression)
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
2805    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2806        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def atindex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2808    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2809        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2810        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2811        return f"{this} AT {index}"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2813    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2814        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2815        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2816        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2818    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2819        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2820        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2821        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
2823    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2824        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2826    def and_sql(
2827        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2828    ) -> str:
2829        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
def or_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2831    def or_sql(
2832        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2833    ) -> str:
2834        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
def xor_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Xor, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2836    def xor_sql(
2837        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2838    ) -> str:
2839        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
def connector_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2841    def connector_sql(
2842        self,
2843        expression: exp.Connector,
2844        op: str,
2845        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2846    ) -> str:
2847        if stack is not None:
2848            if expression.expressions:
2849                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2850            else:
2851                stack.append(expression.right)
2852                if expression.comments and self.comments:
2853                    for comment in expression.comments:
2854                        if comment:
2855                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2856                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2857            return op
2858
2859        stack = [expression]
2860        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2861        ops = set()
2862
2863        while stack:
2864            node = stack.pop()
2865            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2866                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2867            else:
2868                sql = self.sql(node)
2869                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2870                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2871                else:
2872                    sqls.append(sql)
2873
2874        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
2875        return sep.join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2877    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2878        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2880    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2881        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2883    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2884        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2886    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2887        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2889    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2890        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2892    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2893        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2895    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2896        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2897        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2898        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2899        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2900        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
2901        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
2902        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
2904    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2905        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2906        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2908    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2909        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
2911    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2912        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2913            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2914        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
2916    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2917        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
2919    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2920        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2921        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2922        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
2923        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2924        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2925        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2927    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2928        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2929        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2930        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2931        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2932        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2933        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2934        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2935        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2936        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2938    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2939        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2940        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2941        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2942        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2943
2944        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2945            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2946
2947        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
2949    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2950        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
2952    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2953        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2954        if chain is not None:
2955            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2956
2957        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
2959    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2960        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2961        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2962        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
2964    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2965        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2966
2967        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2968        if dtype:
2969            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2970            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2971            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2972            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2973            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2974
2975        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2976        if default:
2977            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2978
2979        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2980        if comment:
2981            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
2982
2983        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2984            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2985
2986        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
2988    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
2989        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2990        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
2991            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
2992        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterSortKey) -> str:
2994    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
2995        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
2996        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2997        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2998        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2999        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str:
3001    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3002        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3003            # Remove db from tables
3004            expression = expression.transform(
3005                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3006            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3007        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3008        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameColumn) -> str:
3010    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3011        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3012        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3013        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3014        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
def altertable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
3016    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3017        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3018
3019        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3020            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3021        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3022            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3023        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3024            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3025        else:
3026            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3027
3028        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3029        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3030        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3031        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3032        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3033        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3034        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{options}"
def add_column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
3036    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3037        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3038            return self.expressions(
3039                expression,
3040                key="actions",
3041                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3042            )
3043        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
3045    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3046        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3047        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3048        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
3050    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3051        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
3053    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3054        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3055
3056        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3057            case = exp.case()
3058            for arg in expression.expressions:
3059                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3060            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3061
3062        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3063
3064        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3065        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3066        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3068    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3069        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
3071    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3072        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
def havingmax_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HavingMax) -> str:
3074    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3075        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3076        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3077        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3078        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
3080    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3081        return self.sql(
3082            exp.Cast(
3083                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3084                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3085            )
3086        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
3088    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3089        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3090            return self.func(
3091                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3092            )
3093        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
3095    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3096        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3097
3098        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3099            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3100
3101        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3102            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3103                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3104
3105        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3106            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3107                return self.sql(
3108                    exp.cast(
3109                        l / r,
3110                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3111                    )
3112                )
3113
3114        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
3116    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3117        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
3119    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3120        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
3122    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3123        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
3125    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3126        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3128    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3129        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
3131    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3132        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
3134    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3135        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
3137    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3138        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
3140    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3141        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
3143    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3144        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
3146    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3147        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
3149    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3150        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3151            return self.sql(
3152                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3153            )
3154        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
3156    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3157        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
3159    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3160        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
3162    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3163        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
3165    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3166        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
3168    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3169        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
3171    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3172        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
3174    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3175        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
3177    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3178        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3180    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3181        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3183    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3184        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
3186    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3187        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
3189    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3190        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
3192    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3193        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
def try_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Try) -> str:
3195    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3196        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3197            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3198            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3199
3200        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
def log_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Log) -> str:
3202    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3203        this = expression.this
3204        expr = expression.expression
3205
3206        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3207            this, expr = expr, this
3208        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3209            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3210                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3211
3212            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3213
3214        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
3216    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3217        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3218        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3219        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3220        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3221        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3223    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3224        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3225        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
3227    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3228        args = []
3229
3230        for key in expression.arg_types:
3231            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3232
3233            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3234                for value in arg_value:
3235                    args.append(value)
3236            elif arg_value is not None:
3237                args.append(arg_value)
3238
3239        if self.normalize_functions:
3240            name = expression.sql_name()
3241        else:
3242            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3243
3244        return self.func(name, *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')') -> str:
3246    def func(
3247        self,
3248        name: str,
3249        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3250        prefix: str = "(",
3251        suffix: str = ")",
3252    ) -> str:
3253        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
3255    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3256        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
3257        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3258            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3259        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
def too_wide(self, args: Iterable) -> bool:
3261    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3262        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
def format_time( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, inverse_time_mapping: Optional[Dict[str, str]] = None, inverse_time_trie: Optional[Dict] = None) -> Optional[str]:
3264    def format_time(
3265        self,
3266        expression: exp.Expression,
3267        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3268        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3269    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3270        return format_time(
3271            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3272            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3273            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3274        )
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[Collection[Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression]]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '', dynamic: bool = False, new_line: bool = False) -> str:
3276    def expressions(
3277        self,
3278        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3279        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3280        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3281        flat: bool = False,
3282        indent: bool = True,
3283        skip_first: bool = False,
3284        skip_last: bool = False,
3285        sep: str = ", ",
3286        prefix: str = "",
3287        dynamic: bool = False,
3288        new_line: bool = False,
3289    ) -> str:
3290        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3291
3292        if not expressions:
3293            return ""
3294
3295        if flat:
3296            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3297
3298        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3299
3300        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
3301        if self.pretty and not self.leading_comma:
3302            stripped_sep = sep.strip()
3303
3304        result_sqls = []
3305        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3306            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3307            if not sql:
3308                continue
3309
3310            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3311
3312            if self.pretty:
3313                if self.leading_comma:
3314                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3315                else:
3316                    result_sqls.append(
3317                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3318                    )
3319            else:
3320                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3321
3322        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3323            if new_line:
3324                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3325                result_sqls.append("")
3326            result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls)
3327        else:
3328            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3329        return (
3330            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3331            if indent
3332            else result_sql
3333        )
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3335    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3336        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3337        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3338        if flat:
3339            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3340        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
3342    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3343        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3344        if not property_name:
3345            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3346        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
3348    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3349        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
3351    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3352        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3354    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3355        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3356        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3357        expressions = (
3358            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3359        )
3360        return f"{this}{expressions}"
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
3362    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3363        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3364        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3365        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
3367    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3368        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
3370    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3371        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3372        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3373        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3374        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3375
3376        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3377        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3378            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3379            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3380            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3381            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3382        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3383            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3384                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3385            else:
3386                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3387        else:
3388            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3389        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
3391    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3392        table = expression.this
3393        table_alias = ""
3394
3395        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3396        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3397            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3398            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3399
3400        this = self.sql(table)
3401        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3402        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3403        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3404        sep = self.sep()
3405
3406        return self.prepend_ctes(
3407            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}"
3408        )
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
3410    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3411        if expression.args.get("format"):
3412            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3413
3414        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
def tonumber_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToNumber) -> str:
3416    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3417        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3418            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3419            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3420
3421        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3422        if not fmt:
3423            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3424            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3425
3426        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str:
3428    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3429        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3430        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3431        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3432        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3433        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str:
3435    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3436        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3437        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3438        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3439        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3441    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3442        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str:
3444    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3445        return ""
def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3447    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3448        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3449        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3450        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3451        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3452        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue) -> str:
3454    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3455        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3456        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3457
3458        if having:
3459            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3460
3461        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
def querytransform_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryTransform) -> str:
3463    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3464        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3465        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3466        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3467        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3468        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3469        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3470        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3471        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3472        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3473        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3474        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3475        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3476        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3478    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3479        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3480        if key_block_size:
3481            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3482
3483        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3484        if using:
3485            return f"USING {using}"
3486
3487        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3488        if parser:
3489            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3490
3491        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3492        if comment:
3493            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3494
3495        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3496        if visible is not None:
3497            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3498
3499        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3500        if engine_attr:
3501            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3502
3503        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3504        if secondary_engine_attr:
3505            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3506
3507        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3508        return ""
def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3510    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3511        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3512        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3514    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3515        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3516        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3517        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3518        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3519        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3520        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3521        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3522        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3523        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3524        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3525        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
def nvl2_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Nvl2) -> str:
3527    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3528        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3529            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3530
3531        case = exp.Case().when(
3532            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3533            expression.args["true"],
3534            copy=False,
3535        )
3536        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3537        if else_cond:
3538            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3539
3540        return self.sql(case)
def comprehension_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comprehension) -> str:
3542    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3543        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3544        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3545        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3546        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3547        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3548        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3550    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3551        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def opclass_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Opclass) -> str:
3553    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3554        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def predict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Predict) -> str:
3556    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3557        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3558        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3559        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3560        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3561        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3562        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
def forin_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForIn) -> str:
3564    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3565        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3566        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3567        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
def refresh_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Refresh) -> str:
3569    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3570        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3571        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3572        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
def operator_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Operator) -> str:
3574    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3575        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
def toarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToArray) -> str:
3577    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3578        arg = expression.this
3579        if not arg.type:
3580            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3581
3582            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3583
3584        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3585            return self.sql(arg)
3586
3587        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3588        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3590    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3591        this = expression.this
3592        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3593            return self.sql(this)
3594
3595        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3597    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3598        this = expression.this
3599        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3600            return self.sql(this)
3601
3602        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3604    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3605        this = expression.this
3606        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3607
3608        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3609            return self.sql(
3610                exp.cast(
3611                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3612                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3613                )
3614            )
3615
3616        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3617            return self.sql(this)
3618
3619        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
def unixdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnixDate) -> str:
3621    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3622        return self.sql(
3623            exp.func(
3624                "DATEDIFF",
3625                expression.this,
3626                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3627                "day",
3628            )
3629        )
def lastday_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LastDay) -> str:
3631    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3632        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3633            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3634
3635        unit = expression.text("unit")
3636        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3637            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3638
3639        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
def dateadd_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd) -> str:
3641    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3642        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3643
3644        return self.func(
3645            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3646        )
def arrayany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayAny) -> str:
3648    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3649        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3650            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3651            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3652            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3653            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3654
3655        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3656
3657        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3658        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3659            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3660
3661        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def generateseries_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3663    def generateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3664        expression.set("is_end_exclusive", None)
3665        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def struct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Struct) -> str:
3667    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3668        expression.set(
3669            "expressions",
3670            [
3671                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3672                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3673                else e
3674                for e in expression.expressions
3675            ],
3676        )
3677
3678        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionRange) -> str:
3680    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3681        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3682        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3683
3684        return f"{low} TO {high}"
def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TruncateTable) -> str:
3686    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3687        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3688        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3689
3690        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3691
3692        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3693        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3694
3695        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3696        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3697
3698        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3699        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3700
3701        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3702        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3703
3704        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
def convert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Convert) -> str:
3708    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3709        to = expression.this
3710        value = expression.expression
3711        style = expression.args.get("style")
3712        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3713        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3714
3715        if not to or not value:
3716            return ""
3717
3718        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3719        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3720            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3721
3722        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3723        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3724
3725        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3726        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3727            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3728
3729            style_value = style.name
3730            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3731            if not converted_style:
3732                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3733
3734            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3735
3736            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3737                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3738            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3739                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3740            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3741                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3742            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3743                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3744
3745        if not transformed:
3746            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3747
3748        return self.sql(transformed)
def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CopyParameter) -> str:
3804    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
3805        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
3806        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3807
3808        if not value:
3809            return option
3810
3811        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
3812
3813        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
def credentials_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Credentials) -> str:
3815    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
3816        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
3817        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
3818            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
3819            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3820            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
3821        else:
3822            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
3823            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
3824            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if credentials else ""
3825
3826        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
3827        storage = f" {storage}" if storage else ""
3828
3829        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
3830        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
3831
3832        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
3833        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
3834
3835        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
3836        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
3837
3838        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
def copy_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Copy) -> str:
3840    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
3841        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3842        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
3843
3844        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3845        credentials = f" {credentials}" if credentials else ""
3846        kind = " FROM " if expression.args.get("kind") else " TO "
3847        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
3848
3849        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
3850        params = self.expressions(expression, key="params", flat=True, sep=sep)
3851        if params:
3852            params = f" WITH ({params})" if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED else f" {params}"
3853
3854        return f"COPY{this}{kind}{files}{credentials}{params}"
def semicolon_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Semicolon) -> str:
3856    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
3857        return ""