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sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import re
   5import typing as t
   6from collections import defaultdict
   7from functools import reduce
   8
   9from sqlglot import exp
  10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, name_sequence, seq_get
  12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
  13from sqlglot.time import format_time
  14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  15
  16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  17    from sqlglot._typing import E
  18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  19
  20logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  21
  22ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
  23
  24
  25class _Generator(type):
  26    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
  27        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
  28
  29        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
  30        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
  31            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
  32
  33        return klass
  34
  35
  36class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  37    """
  38    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  39
  40    Args:
  41        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  42            Default: False.
  43        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  44            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  45            True or 'always': Always quote.
  46            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  47        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  48            Default: False.
  49        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  50            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  51            Default: 2.
  52        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  53            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  54            Default: 2.
  55        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  56            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  57            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  58            False: Disables function name normalization.
  59        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  60            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  61        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  62            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  63            Default: 3
  64        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  65            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  66            Default: False
  67        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  68            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  69            line length.
  70            Default: 80
  71        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  72            Default: True
  73    """
  74
  75    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
  76        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
  77        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
  78        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
  79        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  80        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  81        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
  82        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  83        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  84        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
  85        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  86        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  87        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  88        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  89        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.ConnectByRoot: lambda self, e: f"CONNECT_BY_ROOT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
  92        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
  95        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  96        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  97        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
  98        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
  99        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 100        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
 101        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 102        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 103        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 104        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 105        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 106        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 107        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 108        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 109        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 110        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 111        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 112        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 113        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 114        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 115        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 116        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 117        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 118        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 119        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 120        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 121        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 122        exp.PivotAny: lambda self, e: f"ANY{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 123        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 124        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 125        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 126        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 127        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
 128            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
 129        ),
 130        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 131        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
 132        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 133        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 134        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 135        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 136        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 137        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 138        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 139        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 140        exp.Stream: lambda self, e: f"STREAM {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 141        exp.StreamingTableProperty: lambda *_: "STREAMING",
 142        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
 143        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 144        exp.TagColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 145        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 146        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 147        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 148        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 149        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 150        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 151        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 152        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 153        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 154        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 155        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 156        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH SCHEMA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 157        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 158    }
 159
 160    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 161    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
 162    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 163
 164    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 165    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 166    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 167
 168    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 169    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 170
 171    # Always do <set op> distinct or <set op> all
 172    EXPLICIT_SET_OP = False
 173
 174    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 175    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 176
 177    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 178    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 179
 180    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 181    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 182
 183    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 184    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 185
 186    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 187    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 188
 189    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 190    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 191
 192    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 193    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 194
 195    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 196    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 197
 198    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 199    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 200
 201    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 202    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 203
 204    # Whether join hints should be generated
 205    JOIN_HINTS = True
 206
 207    # Whether table hints should be generated
 208    TABLE_HINTS = True
 209
 210    # Whether query hints should be generated
 211    QUERY_HINTS = True
 212
 213    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 214    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 215
 216    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 217    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 218
 219    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 220    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 221
 222    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 223    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 224
 225    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 226    RETURNING_END = True
 227
 228    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 229    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 230
 231    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 232    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 233
 234    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 235    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 236
 237    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 238    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 239
 240    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 241    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 242    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 243    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 244
 245    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 246    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 247
 248    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 249    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 250
 251    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 252    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 253
 254    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 255    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 256
 257    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 258    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 259
 260    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 261    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 262
 263    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 264    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 265
 266    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 267    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 268
 269    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 270    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 271
 272    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 273    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 274
 275    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 276    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 277
 278    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 279    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 280
 281    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 282    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 283
 284    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 285    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 286
 287    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 288    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 289
 290    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 291    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 292
 293    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 294    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 295
 296    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 297    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 298
 299    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 300    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 301
 302    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 303    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 304
 305    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 306    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 307
 308    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 309    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 310
 311    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 312    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 313
 314    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 315    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 316
 317    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 318    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 319
 320    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 321    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 322    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 323
 324    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 325    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 326
 327    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 328    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 329
 330    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 331    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 332
 333    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 334    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 335
 336    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 337    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 338
 339    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 340    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 341
 342    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
 343    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 344    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
 345    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
 346
 347    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 348    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 349
 350    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 351    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 352
 353    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 354    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 355
 356    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 357    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 358
 359    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
 360    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
 361
 362    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 363    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 364
 365    # The HEX function name
 366    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 367
 368    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
 369    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
 370
 371    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
 372    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
 373
 374    # Whether the text pattern/fill (3rd) parameter of RPAD()/LPAD() is optional (defaults to space)
 375    PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
 376
 377    # Whether a projection can explode into multiple rows, e.g. by unnesting an array.
 378    SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
 379
 380    # Whether ARRAY_CONCAT can be generated with varlen args or if it should be reduced to 2-arg version
 381    ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
 382
 383    # Whether CONVERT_TIMEZONE() is supported; if not, it will be generated as exp.AtTimeZone
 384    SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
 385
 386    # The name to generate for the JSONPath expression. If `None`, only `this` will be generated
 387    PARSE_JSON_NAME: t.Optional[str] = "PARSE_JSON"
 388
 389    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 390        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 391        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 392        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 393        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 394        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 395        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 396        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 397        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 398        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 399        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 400    }
 401
 402    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 403        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 404        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 405        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 406        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 407        "DAYS": "DAY",
 408        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 409        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 410        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 411        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 412    }
 413
 414    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 415        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 416        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 417        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 418        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 419            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 420            if e.args.get("windows")
 421            else ""
 422        ),
 423        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 424    }
 425
 426    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 427
 428    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 429
 430    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 431    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 432
 433    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 434        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 435        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 436        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 437        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 438        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 439        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 440        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 441        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 442        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 443        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 444        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 445        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 446        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 447        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 448        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 449        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 450        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 451        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 452        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 453        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 454        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 455        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 456        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 457        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 458        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 459        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 460        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 461        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 462        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 463        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 464        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 465        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 466        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 467        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 468        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 469        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 470        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 471        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 472        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 473        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 474        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 475        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 476        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 477        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 478        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 479        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 480        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 481        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 482        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 483        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 484        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 485        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 486        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 487        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 488        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 489        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 490        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 491        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 492        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 493        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 494        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 495        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 496        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 497        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 498        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 499        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 500        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 501        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 502        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 503        exp.StreamingTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 504        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 505        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 506        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 507        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 508        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 509        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 510        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 511        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 512        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 513        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 514        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 515        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 516        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 517    }
 518
 519    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 520    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 521
 522    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 523    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 524        exp.Command,
 525        exp.Create,
 526        exp.Delete,
 527        exp.Drop,
 528        exp.From,
 529        exp.Insert,
 530        exp.Join,
 531        exp.Select,
 532        exp.SetOperation,
 533        exp.Update,
 534        exp.Where,
 535        exp.With,
 536    )
 537
 538    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 539    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 540        exp.Binary,
 541        exp.SetOperation,
 542    )
 543
 544    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 545    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 546        exp.Column,
 547        exp.Literal,
 548        exp.Neg,
 549        exp.Paren,
 550    )
 551
 552    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 553        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 554        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 555        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 556        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 557    }
 558
 559    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 560    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 561
 562    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 563
 564    __slots__ = (
 565        "pretty",
 566        "identify",
 567        "normalize",
 568        "pad",
 569        "_indent",
 570        "normalize_functions",
 571        "unsupported_level",
 572        "max_unsupported",
 573        "leading_comma",
 574        "max_text_width",
 575        "comments",
 576        "dialect",
 577        "unsupported_messages",
 578        "_escaped_quote_end",
 579        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 580        "_next_name",
 581    )
 582
 583    def __init__(
 584        self,
 585        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 586        identify: str | bool = False,
 587        normalize: bool = False,
 588        pad: int = 2,
 589        indent: int = 2,
 590        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 591        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 592        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 593        leading_comma: bool = False,
 594        max_text_width: int = 80,
 595        comments: bool = True,
 596        dialect: DialectType = None,
 597    ):
 598        import sqlglot
 599        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 600
 601        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 602        self.identify = identify
 603        self.normalize = normalize
 604        self.pad = pad
 605        self._indent = indent
 606        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 607        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 608        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 609        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 610        self.comments = comments
 611        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 612
 613        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 614        self.normalize_functions = (
 615            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 616        )
 617
 618        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 619        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 620            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 621        )
 622        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 623            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 624        )
 625
 626        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 627
 628    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 629        """
 630        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 631
 632        Args:
 633            expression: The syntax tree.
 634            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 635                it is safer to copy.
 636
 637        Returns:
 638            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 639        """
 640        if copy:
 641            expression = expression.copy()
 642
 643        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 644
 645        self.unsupported_messages = []
 646        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 647
 648        if self.pretty:
 649            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 650
 651        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 652            return sql
 653
 654        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 655            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 656                logger.warning(msg)
 657        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 658            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 659
 660        return sql
 661
 662    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 663        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 664        if (
 665            not expression.parent
 666            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 667            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 668        ):
 669            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 670
 671            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 672
 673        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 674            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 675
 676            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 677
 678        return expression
 679
 680    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 681        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 682            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 683        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 684
 685    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 686        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 687
 688    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 689        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 690
 691    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 692        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 693        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 694        return comment
 695
 696    def maybe_comment(
 697        self,
 698        sql: str,
 699        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 700        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 701        separated: bool = False,
 702    ) -> str:
 703        comments = (
 704            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 705            if self.comments
 706            else None
 707        )
 708
 709        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 710            return sql
 711
 712        comments_sql = " ".join(
 713            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 714        )
 715
 716        if not comments_sql:
 717            return sql
 718
 719        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 720
 721        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 722            return (
 723                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 724                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 725                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 726            )
 727
 728        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 729
 730    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 731        this_sql = (
 732            self.sql(expression)
 733            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 734            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 735        )
 736        if not this_sql:
 737            return "()"
 738
 739        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 740        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 741
 742    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 743        original = self.identify
 744        self.identify = False
 745        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 746        self.identify = original
 747        return result
 748
 749    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 750        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 751            return name.upper()
 752        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 753            return name.lower()
 754        return name
 755
 756    def indent(
 757        self,
 758        sql: str,
 759        level: int = 0,
 760        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 761        skip_first: bool = False,
 762        skip_last: bool = False,
 763    ) -> str:
 764        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 765            return sql
 766
 767        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 768        lines = sql.split("\n")
 769
 770        return "\n".join(
 771            (
 772                line
 773                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 774                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 775            )
 776            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 777        )
 778
 779    def sql(
 780        self,
 781        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 782        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 783        comment: bool = True,
 784    ) -> str:
 785        if not expression:
 786            return ""
 787
 788        if isinstance(expression, str):
 789            return expression
 790
 791        if key:
 792            value = expression.args.get(key)
 793            if value:
 794                return self.sql(value)
 795            return ""
 796
 797        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 798
 799        if callable(transform):
 800            sql = transform(self, expression)
 801        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 802            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 803
 804            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 805                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 806            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 807                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 808            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 809                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 810            else:
 811                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 812        else:
 813            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 814
 815        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 816
 817    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 818        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 819        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 820        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 821
 822    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 823        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 824        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 825        options = expression.args.get("options")
 826        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 827        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 828        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 829        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 830        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 831
 832    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 833        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 834            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 835        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 836        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 837
 838    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 839        return ".".join(
 840            self.sql(part)
 841            for part in (
 842                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 843                expression.args.get("db"),
 844                expression.args.get("table"),
 845                expression.args.get("this"),
 846            )
 847            if part
 848        )
 849
 850    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 851        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 852
 853        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
 854            join_mark = ""
 855            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 856
 857        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 858
 859    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 860        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 861        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 862        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 863        return f"{position}{this}"
 864
 865    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 866        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 867        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 868        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 869        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 870        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 871        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 872        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 873        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 874
 875        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 876            kind = ""
 877
 878        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 879
 880    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 881        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 882        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 883        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 884
 885    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 886        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 887        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 888            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 889        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 890            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 891        else:
 892            persisted = ""
 893        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 894
 895    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 896        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 897
 898    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 899        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 900            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 901        else:
 902            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 903
 904        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 905
 906    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 907        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 908    ) -> str:
 909        this = ""
 910        if expression.this is not None:
 911            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 912            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 913
 914        start = expression.args.get("start")
 915        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 916        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 917        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 918        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 919        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 920        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 921        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 922        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 923        cycle_sql = ""
 924
 925        if cycle is not None:
 926            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 927            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 928
 929        sequence_opts = ""
 930        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 931            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 932            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 933
 934        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 935        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 936
 937        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 938
 939    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 940        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 941    ) -> str:
 942        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
 943        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 944        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 945
 946    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 947        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 948    ) -> str:
 949        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 950
 951    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 952        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 953
 954    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 955        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 956
 957    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 958        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 959        if desc is not None:
 960            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 961        return "PRIMARY KEY"
 962
 963    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 964        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 965        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 966        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 967        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 968        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
 969        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
 970        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
 971        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
 972
 973    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 974        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 975
 976    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 977        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 978        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 979        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 980
 981        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 982
 983        properties_sql = ""
 984        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 985            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 986        ):
 987            properties_sql = self.sql(
 988                exp.Properties(
 989                    expressions=[
 990                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 991                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 992                    ]
 993                )
 994            )
 995
 996            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
 997                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
 998            elif not self.pretty:
 999                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
1000                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
1001
1002        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
1003        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
1004
1005        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1006        if expression_sql:
1007            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
1008
1009            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
1010                postalias_props_sql = ""
1011                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1012                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1013                        exp.Properties(
1014                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1015                        ),
1016                        wrapped=False,
1017                    )
1018                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1019                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1020
1021        postindex_props_sql = ""
1022        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1023            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1024                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1025                wrapped=False,
1026                prefix=" ",
1027            )
1028
1029        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1030        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1031        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1032
1033        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1034        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
1035        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1036
1037        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
1038        if clustered is None:
1039            clustered_sql = ""
1040        elif clustered:
1041            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1042        else:
1043            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1044
1045        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1046        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1047            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1048                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1049                sep=" ",
1050                prefix=" ",
1051                wrapped=False,
1052            )
1053
1054        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1055
1056        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1057        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1058            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1059                exp.Properties(
1060                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1061                ),
1062                sep=" ",
1063                prefix=" ",
1064                wrapped=False,
1065            )
1066
1067        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1068        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1069        no_schema_binding = (
1070            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1071        )
1072
1073        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1074        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1075
1076        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1077        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1078
1079    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1080        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1081        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1082        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1083        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1084        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1085        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1086        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1087        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1088        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1089        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1090
1091        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1092        if cache is None:
1093            cache_str = ""
1094        elif cache is True:
1095            cache_str = " CACHE"
1096        else:
1097            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1098
1099        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1100        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1101
1102        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1103
1104    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1105        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1106        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1107        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1108        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1109
1110    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1111        style = expression.args.get("style")
1112        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1113        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1114
1115    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1116        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1117        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1118
1119    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1120        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1121        if with_:
1122            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1123        return sql
1124
1125    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1126        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1127        recursive = (
1128            "RECURSIVE "
1129            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1130            else ""
1131        )
1132
1133        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1134
1135    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1136        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1137
1138        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1139        if materialized is False:
1140            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1141        elif materialized:
1142            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1143
1144        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1145
1146    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1147        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1148        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1149        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1150
1151        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1152            columns = ""
1153            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1154
1155        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1156            alias = self._next_name()
1157
1158        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1159
1160    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1161        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1162        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1163            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1164        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1165
1166    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1167        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1168        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1169            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1170        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1171
1172    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1173        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1174        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1175            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1176        return this
1177
1178    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1179        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1180        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1181
1182        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1183            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1184            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1185        else:
1186            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1187            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1188
1189        if escape:
1190            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1191            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1192        else:
1193            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1194            escape_sql = ""
1195
1196        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1197            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1198
1199        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
1200
1201    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1202        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1203        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1204
1205    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1206        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1207        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1208        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1209        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1210
1211    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1212        type_value = expression.this
1213
1214        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1215            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1216        else:
1217            type_sql = (
1218                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1219                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1220                else type_value
1221            )
1222
1223        nested = ""
1224        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1225        values = ""
1226
1227        if interior:
1228            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1229                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1230                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1231                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1232                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1233                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1234            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1235                nested = f" {interior}"
1236            else:
1237                nested = f"({interior})"
1238
1239        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1240        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1241            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1242            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1243        ):
1244            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1245
1246        return type_sql
1247
1248    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1249        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1250        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1251        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1252        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1253
1254    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1255        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1256        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1257        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1258        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1259        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1260        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1261        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1262        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1263        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1264        if self.RETURNING_END:
1265            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1266        else:
1267            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1268        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1269
1270    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1271        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1272        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1273        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1274        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1275        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1276        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1277        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1278        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1279        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1280        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1281        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1282        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1283        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1284
1285    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1286        return self.set_operations(expression)
1287
1288    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1289        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1290
1291    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1292        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1293        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1294        count = expression.args.get("count")
1295        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1296        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1297            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1298        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1299        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1300
1301    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1302        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1303            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1304            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1305            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1306
1307        agg = expression.this
1308        agg_arg = agg.this
1309        cond = expression.expression.this
1310        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1311        return self.sql(agg)
1312
1313    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1314        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1315            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1316            return ""
1317
1318        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1319
1320    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1321        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1322        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1323        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1324        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1325        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1326        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1327        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1328        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1329        if include:
1330            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1331        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1332        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1333        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1334        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1335        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1336        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1337
1338        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
1339
1340    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1341        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1342        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1343        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1344        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1345        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1346        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1347        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1348
1349        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1350
1351        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1352        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1353
1354    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1355        text = expression.name
1356        lower = text.lower()
1357        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1358        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1359        if (
1360            expression.quoted
1361            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1362            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1363            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1364        ):
1365            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1366        return text
1367
1368    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1369        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1370        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1371            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1372
1373        return text
1374
1375    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1376        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1377        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1378            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1379        return text
1380
1381    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1382        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1383        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1384        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1385        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1386        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1387
1388    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1389        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1390        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1391
1392    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1393        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1394
1395    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1396        root_properties = []
1397        with_properties = []
1398
1399        for p in expression.expressions:
1400            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1401            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1402                with_properties.append(p)
1403            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1404                root_properties.append(p)
1405
1406        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1407        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1408
1409        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1410            with_props = " " + with_props
1411
1412        return root_props + with_props
1413
1414    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1415        if properties.expressions:
1416            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1417        return ""
1418
1419    def properties(
1420        self,
1421        properties: exp.Properties,
1422        prefix: str = "",
1423        sep: str = ", ",
1424        suffix: str = "",
1425        wrapped: bool = True,
1426    ) -> str:
1427        if properties.expressions:
1428            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1429            if expressions:
1430                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1431                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1432        return ""
1433
1434    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1435        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
1436
1437    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1438        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1439        for p in properties.expressions:
1440            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1441            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1442                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1443            else:
1444                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1445
1446        return properties_locs
1447
1448    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1449        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1450            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1451        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1452
1453    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1454        property_cls = expression.__class__
1455        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1456            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1457
1458        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1459        if not property_name:
1460            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1461
1462        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1463
1464    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1465        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1466            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1467            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1468
1469            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1470            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1471                like = f"({like})"
1472
1473            return like
1474
1475        if expression.expressions:
1476            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1477
1478        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1479        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1480
1481    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1482        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1483        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1484        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1485
1486    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1487        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1488        local = expression.args.get("local")
1489        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1490        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1491        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1492        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1493        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1494
1495    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1496        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1497        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1498        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1499
1500    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1501        if expression.args.get("default"):
1502            property = "DEFAULT"
1503        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1504            property = "ON"
1505        else:
1506            property = "OFF"
1507        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1508
1509    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1510        if expression.args.get("no"):
1511            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1512        if expression.args.get("default"):
1513            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1514
1515        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1516        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1517
1518    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1519        default = expression.args.get("default")
1520        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1521        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1522        if default or minimum or maximum:
1523            if default:
1524                prop = "DEFAULT"
1525            elif minimum:
1526                prop = "MINIMUM"
1527            else:
1528                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1529            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1530        units = expression.args.get("units")
1531        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1532        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1533
1534    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1535        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1536        always = expression.args.get("always")
1537        default = expression.args.get("default")
1538        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1539        never = expression.args.get("never")
1540
1541        if autotemp is not None:
1542            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1543        elif always:
1544            prop = "ALWAYS"
1545        elif default:
1546            prop = "DEFAULT"
1547        elif manual:
1548            prop = "MANUAL"
1549        elif never:
1550            prop = "NEVER"
1551        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1552
1553    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1554        no = expression.args.get("no")
1555        no = " NO" if no else ""
1556        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1557        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1558        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1559        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1560        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1561
1562    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1563        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1564            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1565        if expression.this:
1566            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1567            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1568            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1569
1570        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1571        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1572        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1573
1574    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1575        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1576
1577        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1578        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1579            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1580        else:
1581            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1582
1583        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1584
1585    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1586        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1587        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1588        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1589        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1590        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1591        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1592        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1593
1594    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1595        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1596        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1597        statistics_sql = ""
1598        if statistics is not None:
1599            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1600        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1601
1602    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1603        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1604        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1605        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1606        data_consistency = (
1607            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1608        )
1609        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1610        retention_period = (
1611            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1612        )
1613
1614        if this:
1615            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1616        else:
1617            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1618
1619        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1620
1621        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
1622
1623    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1624        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1625        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1626
1627        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1628            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1629        else:
1630            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1631
1632        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1633        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1634        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1635        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1636        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1637        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1638        if is_function:
1639            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1640        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1641
1642        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1643        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1644        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1645        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1646        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1647        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1648        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1649        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1650
1651        if self.RETURNING_END:
1652            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1653        else:
1654            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1655
1656        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{where}{expression_sql}"
1657        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1658
1659    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1660        return self.set_operations(expression)
1661
1662    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1663        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1664
1665    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1666        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1667
1668    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1669        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1670        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1671        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1672        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1673        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1674
1675    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1676        return expression.name
1677
1678    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1679        return expression.name
1680
1681    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1682        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1683
1684        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1685        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1686
1687        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1688        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1689        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1690
1691        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1692        if expressions:
1693            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1694            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1695
1696        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1697
1698    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1699        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1700
1701    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1702        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1703        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1704        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1705        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1706        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1707        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1708        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1709        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1710        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1711        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1712        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1713        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1714        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1715
1716    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1717        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1718
1719    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1720        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1721        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1722        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1723        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1724
1725    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1726        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1727        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1728        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1729        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1730
1731    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1732        return ".".join(
1733            self.sql(part)
1734            for part in (
1735                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1736                expression.args.get("db"),
1737                expression.args.get("this"),
1738            )
1739            if part is not None
1740        )
1741
1742    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1743        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1744        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1745        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1746        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1747        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1748        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1749        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1750        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1751        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1752        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1753        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
1754        joins = self.indent(
1755            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1756        )
1757        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1758
1759        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1760        if file_format:
1761            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1762            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1763            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1764
1765        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1766        if ordinality:
1767            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1768            alias = ""
1769
1770        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1771        if when:
1772            table = f"{table} {when}"
1773
1774        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
1775        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
1776
1777        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
1778        if rows_from:
1779            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
1780
1781        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1782
1783    def tablesample_sql(
1784        self,
1785        expression: exp.TableSample,
1786        sep: str = " AS ",
1787        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1788    ) -> str:
1789        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1790            table = expression.this.copy()
1791            table.set("alias", None)
1792            this = self.sql(table)
1793            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1794        else:
1795            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1796            alias = ""
1797
1798        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1799        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1800        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1801        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1802        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1803        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1804        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1805        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1806        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1807
1808        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1809        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1810            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1811
1812        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1813        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1814            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1815
1816        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1817        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1818            expr = f"({expr})"
1819
1820        return (
1821            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1822        )
1823
1824    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1825        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1826
1827        if expression.this:
1828            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1829            if not expressions:
1830                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1831
1832            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1833            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1834            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1835            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1836            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1837
1838        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1839        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1840        direction = self.seg("UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT")
1841
1842        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1843        if field and isinstance(expression.args.get("field"), exp.PivotAny):
1844            field = f"IN ({field})"
1845
1846        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1847        if include_nulls is not None:
1848            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1849        else:
1850            nulls = ""
1851
1852        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
1853        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
1854        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"
1855
1856    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1857        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1858        kind = expression.text("kind")
1859        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1860        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1861
1862    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1863        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
1864
1865    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1866        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1867        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1868        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1869        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1870        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1871        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1872        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1873        if self.RETURNING_END:
1874            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1875        else:
1876            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1877        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1878        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1879
1880    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1881        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1882
1883        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1884        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1885            args = self.expressions(expression)
1886            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1887            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1888            values = (
1889                f"({values})"
1890                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1891                else values
1892            )
1893            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1894
1895        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1896        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1897        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1898
1899        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1900
1901        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1902            row = tup.expressions
1903
1904            if i == 0 and column_names:
1905                row = [
1906                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1907                ]
1908
1909            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1910
1911        if self.pretty:
1912            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1913            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1914            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1915            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1916            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1917
1918        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1919        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1920        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1921
1922    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1923        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1924
1925    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1926        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1927        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1928        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1929
1930    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1931        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1932
1933    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1934        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1935        if group_by_all is True:
1936            modifier = " ALL"
1937        elif group_by_all is False:
1938            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1939        else:
1940            modifier = ""
1941
1942        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1943
1944        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1945        grouping_sets = (
1946            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1947        )
1948
1949        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1950        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1951            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1952        else:
1953            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1954            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1955
1956        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1957        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1958            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1959        else:
1960            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1961            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1962
1963        groupings = csv(
1964            grouping_sets,
1965            cube_sql,
1966            rollup_sql,
1967            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1968            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1969        )
1970
1971        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1972            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1973
1974        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1975
1976    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1977        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1978        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1979
1980    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1981        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1982        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1983        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1984        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1985        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1986        return start + connect
1987
1988    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1989        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1990
1991    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1992        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1993            side = None
1994        else:
1995            side = expression.side
1996
1997        op_sql = " ".join(
1998            op
1999            for op in (
2000                expression.method,
2001                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
2002                side,
2003                expression.kind,
2004                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
2005            )
2006            if op
2007        )
2008        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
2009        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
2010        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
2011        using = expression.args.get("using")
2012
2013        if not on_sql and using:
2014            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
2015
2016        this = expression.this
2017        this_sql = self.sql(this)
2018
2019        if on_sql:
2020            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
2021            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2022            if using:
2023                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2024            else:
2025                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2026        elif not op_sql:
2027            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2028                return f" {this_sql}"
2029
2030            return f", {this_sql}"
2031
2032        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2033            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2034
2035        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
2036
2037    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2038        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2039        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2040        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2041
2042    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2043        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2044
2045        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2046        if cross_apply is True:
2047            op = "INNER JOIN "
2048        elif cross_apply is False:
2049            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2050        else:
2051            op = ""
2052
2053        return f"{op}LATERAL"
2054
2055    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2056        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2057
2058        if expression.args.get("view"):
2059            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2060            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2061            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2062            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2063            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2064            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2065
2066        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2067        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2068        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
2069
2070    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2071        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2072
2073        args = [
2074            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2075            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2076            if e
2077        ]
2078
2079        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2080        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2081        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2082        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2083
2084        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
2085
2086    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2087        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2088        value = expression.expression
2089        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2090        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2091        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2092        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2093
2094    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2095        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2096        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2097        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2098        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2099        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2100        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2101        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2102        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2103
2104    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2105        expressions = (
2106            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2107        )
2108        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2109        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2110
2111    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2112        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2113
2114    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2115        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2116            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2117            return ""
2118
2119        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2120        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2121        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2122        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2123
2124        if wait is not None:
2125            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2126                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2127            else:
2128                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2129
2130        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2131
2132    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2133        text = expression.this or ""
2134        if expression.is_string:
2135            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2136        return text
2137
2138    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2139        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2140            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2141            text = "".join(
2142                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2143            )
2144
2145        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2146            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2147        )
2148
2149    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2150        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2151        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2152        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2153        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2154        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2155        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2156        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2157        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2158        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2159        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2160        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2161
2162    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2163        return "NULL"
2164
2165    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2166        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2167
2168    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2169        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2170        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2171        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2172        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2173        interpolated_values = [
2174            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2175            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2176        ]
2177        interpolate = (
2178            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2179        )
2180        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
2181
2182    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2183        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2184        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2185        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2186        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2187        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2188        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2189        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
2190
2191    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2192        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2193
2194    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2195        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2196
2197    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2198        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2199
2200    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2201        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2202        asc = not desc
2203
2204        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2205        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2206        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2207        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2208        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2209
2210        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2211
2212        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2213        nulls_sort_change = ""
2214        if nulls_first and (
2215            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2216        ):
2217            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2218        elif (
2219            nulls_last
2220            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2221            and not nulls_are_last
2222        ):
2223            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2224
2225        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2226        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2227            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2228            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2229                self.unsupported(
2230                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2231                )
2232                nulls_sort_change = ""
2233            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2234                if expression.this.is_int:
2235                    self.unsupported(
2236                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2237                    )
2238                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2239                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2240                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2241                nulls_sort_change = ""
2242
2243        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2244        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2245
2246        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2247
2248    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2249        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2250        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2251
2252        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2253
2254        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2255
2256    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2257        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2258        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2259        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2260        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2261        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2262        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2263        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2264        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2265        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2266        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2267        definition_sqls = [
2268            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2269            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2270        ]
2271        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2272        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2273        body = "".join(
2274            (
2275                partition,
2276                order,
2277                measures,
2278                rows,
2279                after,
2280                pattern,
2281                define,
2282            )
2283        )
2284        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2285        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2286        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2287
2288    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2289        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2290
2291        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2292            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2293        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2294            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2295
2296        return csv(
2297            *sqls,
2298            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2299            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2300            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2301            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2302            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2303            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2304            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2305            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2306            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2307            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2308            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2309            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2310            self.options_modifier(expression),
2311            sep="",
2312        )
2313
2314    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2315        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2316        return f" {options}" if options else ""
2317
2318    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2319        return ""
2320
2321    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2322        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2323    ) -> t.List[str]:
2324        return [
2325            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2326            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2327        ]
2328
2329    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2330        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2331        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2332        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2333
2334    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2335        into = expression.args.get("into")
2336        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2337            into.pop()
2338
2339        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2340        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2341        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2342        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2343
2344        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2345        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2346            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2347            limit.pop()
2348        else:
2349            top = ""
2350
2351        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2352
2353        if kind:
2354            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2355                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2356            else:
2357                if kind == "STRUCT":
2358                    expressions = self.expressions(
2359                        sqls=[
2360                            self.sql(
2361                                exp.Struct(
2362                                    expressions=[
2363                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2364                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2365                                        else e
2366                                        for e in expression.expressions
2367                                    ]
2368                                )
2369                            )
2370                        ]
2371                    )
2372                kind = ""
2373
2374        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2375        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2376        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2377        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2378        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2379            expression,
2380            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2381            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2382            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2383        )
2384
2385        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2386
2387        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2388            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2389                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2390            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2391                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2392            else:
2393                table_kind = ""
2394            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2395
2396        return sql
2397
2398    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2399        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2400        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2401        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2402
2403    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2404        if expression.expressions:
2405            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2406        return ""
2407
2408    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2409        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2410        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2411        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2412        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2413        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2414        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2415        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2416
2417    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2418        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2419        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2420
2421    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2422        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2423        kind = expression.text("kind")
2424        if kind:
2425            kind = f"{kind}."
2426        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2427
2428    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2429        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2430
2431    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2432        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2433        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2434        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2435        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2436        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2437
2438    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2439        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2440        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2441
2442    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2443        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
2444            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2445            order = expression.args.get("order")
2446
2447            if limit or order:
2448                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
2449
2450                if limit:
2451                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
2452                if order:
2453                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
2454                return self.sql(select)
2455
2456        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2457        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2458
2459        while stack:
2460            node = stack.pop()
2461
2462            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
2463                stack.append(node.expression)
2464                stack.append(
2465                    self.maybe_comment(
2466                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2467                        comments=node.comments,
2468                        separated=True,
2469                    )
2470                )
2471                stack.append(node.this)
2472            else:
2473                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2474
2475        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2476        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2477        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
2478
2479    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2480        return self.set_operations(expression)
2481
2482    def union_op(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2483        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_SET_OP else ""
2484        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2485        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2486        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2487
2488    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2489        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2490
2491        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2492        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2493
2494        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2495            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2496                alias.append("columns", offset)
2497
2498        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2499            columns = alias.columns
2500            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2501        else:
2502            alias = self.sql(alias)
2503
2504        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2505        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2506            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2507        else:
2508            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2509                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2510            elif offset:
2511                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2512            else:
2513                suffix = alias
2514
2515        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2516
2517    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2518        return ""
2519
2520    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2521        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2522        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2523
2524    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2525        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2526        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2527        order = expression.args.get("order")
2528        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2529        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2530        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2531        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2532
2533        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2534
2535        first = expression.args.get("first")
2536        if first is None:
2537            first = ""
2538        else:
2539            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2540
2541        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2542            return f"{this} {alias}"
2543
2544        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2545        return f"{this} ({args})"
2546
2547    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2548        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2549        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2550
2551    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2552        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2553        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2554        end = (
2555            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2556            or "CURRENT ROW"
2557        )
2558        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2559
2560    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2561        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2562        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2563        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2564
2565    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2566        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2567        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2568        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2569        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2570
2571    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2572        return apply_index_offset(
2573            expression.this,
2574            expression.expressions,
2575            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2576        )
2577
2578    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2579        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2580        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2581        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2582
2583    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2584        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2585
2586    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2587        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2588        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2589            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2590                this = self.wrap(this)
2591            return f"ANY{this}"
2592        return f"ANY {this}"
2593
2594    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2595        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2596
2597    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2598        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2599        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2600
2601        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2602            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2603            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2604
2605        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2606
2607        if default:
2608            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2609
2610        statements.append("END")
2611
2612        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2613            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2614
2615        return " ".join(statements)
2616
2617    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2618        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2619        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2620        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2621
2622    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2623        order = expression.args.get("order")
2624        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2625        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2626
2627    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2628        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2629        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2630        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2631
2632    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2633        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2634
2635        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2636            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2637        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2638            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2639        else:
2640            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2641
2642    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2643        args = expression.expressions
2644        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2645            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2646
2647        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2648            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2649
2650        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2651            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2652
2653        return args
2654
2655    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2656        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2657
2658        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2659        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2660            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2661
2662        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2663
2664    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2665        return self.func(
2666            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2667        )
2668
2669    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2670        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2671        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2672
2673    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2674        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2675        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2676        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2677        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2678        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2679        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2680        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2681        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2682
2683    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2684        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2685        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2686        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2687        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2688
2689    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2690        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2691
2692    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2693        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2694        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2695        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2696
2697    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2698        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2699
2700    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2701        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2702        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2703            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2704
2705        return path
2706
2707    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2708        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2709            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2710            if not callable(transform):
2711                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2712                return ""
2713
2714            return transform(self, expression)
2715
2716        if isinstance(expression, int):
2717            return str(expression)
2718
2719        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2720            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2721            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2722        else:
2723            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2724            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2725
2726        return escaped
2727
2728    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2729        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2730
2731    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2732        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2733        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2734
2735        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2736        if unique_keys is not None:
2737            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2738        else:
2739            unique_keys = ""
2740
2741        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2742        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2743        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2744        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2745
2746        return self.func(
2747            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2748            *expression.expressions,
2749            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2750        )
2751
2752    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2753        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2754
2755    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2756        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2757        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2758        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2759        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2760        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2761        return self.func(
2762            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2763        )
2764
2765    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2766        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2767        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2768        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2769        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2770        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2771        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2772        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2773        return self.func(
2774            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2775            this,
2776            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2777        )
2778
2779    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2780        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2781        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2782        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2783
2784        if nested_schema:
2785            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2786
2787        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2788        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2789        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2790        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2791
2792    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2793        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2794
2795    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2796        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2797        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2798        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2799        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2800        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2801        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2802        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2803        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2804        return self.func(
2805            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2806        )
2807
2808    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2809        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2810        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2811        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2812        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2813        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2814        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2815
2816    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2817        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2818        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2819        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2820        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2821        with_ = (
2822            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2823            if expressions
2824            else ""
2825        )
2826        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2827
2828    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2829        query = expression.args.get("query")
2830        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2831        field = expression.args.get("field")
2832        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2833
2834        if query:
2835            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2836        elif unnest:
2837            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2838        elif field:
2839            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2840        else:
2841            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2842
2843        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2844
2845    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2846        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2847
2848    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2849        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2850        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2851            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2852        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2853
2854        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2855            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2856            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2857
2858        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2859        if this:
2860            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2861            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2862
2863        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2864
2865    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2866        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2867
2868    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2869        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2870        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2871        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2872        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2873        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2874        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2875
2876    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2877        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
2878
2879    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2880        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2881        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2882
2883    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2884        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2885        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2886        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2887        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2888
2889    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2890        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2891
2892    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2893        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2894        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2895        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2896
2897    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2898        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2899        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2900
2901        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2902            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2903        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2904            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2905
2906        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2907
2908    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2909        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2910
2911    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2912        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2913        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2914        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2915
2916    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2917        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2918        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2919        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2920
2921    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2922        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2923        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2924        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
2925
2926    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2927        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2928
2929    def and_sql(
2930        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2931    ) -> str:
2932        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
2933
2934    def or_sql(
2935        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2936    ) -> str:
2937        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
2938
2939    def xor_sql(
2940        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2941    ) -> str:
2942        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
2943
2944    def connector_sql(
2945        self,
2946        expression: exp.Connector,
2947        op: str,
2948        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2949    ) -> str:
2950        if stack is not None:
2951            if expression.expressions:
2952                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2953            else:
2954                stack.append(expression.right)
2955                if expression.comments and self.comments:
2956                    for comment in expression.comments:
2957                        if comment:
2958                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2959                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2960            return op
2961
2962        stack = [expression]
2963        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2964        ops = set()
2965
2966        while stack:
2967            node = stack.pop()
2968            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2969                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2970            else:
2971                sql = self.sql(node)
2972                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2973                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2974                else:
2975                    sqls.append(sql)
2976
2977        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
2978        return sep.join(sqls)
2979
2980    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2981        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2982
2983    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2984        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2985
2986    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2987        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2988
2989    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2990        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2991
2992    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2993        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2994
2995    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2996        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2997
2998    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2999        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
3000        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
3001        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
3002        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
3003        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
3004        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
3005        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
3006
3007    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
3008        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
3009        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
3010
3011    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
3012        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
3013            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3014        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
3015
3016    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
3017        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
3018
3019    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
3020        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3021        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3022        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3023        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3024        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3025        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
3026
3027    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3028        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3029        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3030        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3031        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3032        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3033        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3034        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3035        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3036        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
3037
3038    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3039        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3040        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3041        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3042        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3043
3044        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3045            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3046
3047        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
3048
3049    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3050        return "BEGIN"
3051
3052    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3053        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3054        if chain is not None:
3055            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3056
3057        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
3058
3059    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3060        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3061        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3062        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
3063
3064    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3065        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3066
3067        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3068        if dtype:
3069            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3070            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3071            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3072            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3073            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3074
3075        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3076        if default:
3077            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3078
3079        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3080        if comment:
3081            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3082
3083        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3084        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3085
3086        if not drop and not allow_null:
3087            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3088
3089        if allow_null is not None:
3090            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3091            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3092
3093        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3094
3095    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3096        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3097        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3098            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3099        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3100
3101    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3102        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3103        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3104        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3105        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3106        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3107
3108    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3109        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3110            # Remove db from tables
3111            expression = expression.transform(
3112                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3113            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3114        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3115        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3116
3117    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3118        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3119        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3120        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3121        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3122
3123    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3124        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3125        return f"SET {exprs}"
3126
3127    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3128        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3129
3130        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3131            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3132        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3133            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3134        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3135            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3136        else:
3137            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3138
3139        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3140        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3141        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3142        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3143        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3144        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3145        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{options}"
3146
3147    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3148        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3149            return self.expressions(
3150                expression,
3151                key="actions",
3152                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3153                skip_first=True,
3154            )
3155        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3156
3157    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3158        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3159        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3160        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3161
3162    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3163        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3164
3165    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3166        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3167
3168        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3169            case = exp.case()
3170            for arg in expression.expressions:
3171                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3172            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3173
3174        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3175
3176        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3177        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3178        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3179
3180    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3181        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3182
3183    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3184        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3185
3186    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3187        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3188        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3189        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3190        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3191
3192    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3193        return self.sql(
3194            exp.Cast(
3195                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3196                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3197            )
3198        )
3199
3200    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3201        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3202            return self.func(
3203                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3204            )
3205        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3206
3207    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3208        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3209
3210        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3211            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3212
3213        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3214            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3215                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3216
3217        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3218            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3219                return self.sql(
3220                    exp.cast(
3221                        l / r,
3222                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3223                    )
3224                )
3225
3226        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3227
3228    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3229        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3230
3231    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3232        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3233
3234    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3235        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3236
3237    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3238        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3239
3240    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3241        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3242
3243    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3244        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3245
3246    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3247        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3248
3249    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3250        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3251
3252    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3253        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3254
3255    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3256        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3257
3258    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3259        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3260
3261    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3262        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3263            return self.sql(
3264                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3265            )
3266        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3267
3268    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3269        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3270
3271    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3272        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3273
3274    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3275        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3276
3277    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3278        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3279
3280    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3281        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3282
3283    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3284        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3285
3286    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3287        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3288
3289    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3290        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3291
3292    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3293        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3294
3295    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3296        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3297
3298    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3299        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3300
3301    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3302        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3303
3304    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3305        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3306
3307    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3308        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3309            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3310            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3311
3312        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3313
3314    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3315        this = expression.this
3316        expr = expression.expression
3317
3318        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3319            this, expr = expr, this
3320        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3321            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3322                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3323
3324            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3325
3326        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3327
3328    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3329        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3330        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3331        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3332        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3333        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3334
3335    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3336        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3337        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3338
3339    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3340        args = []
3341
3342        for key in expression.arg_types:
3343            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3344
3345            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3346                for value in arg_value:
3347                    args.append(value)
3348            elif arg_value is not None:
3349                args.append(arg_value)
3350
3351        if self.normalize_functions:
3352            name = expression.sql_name()
3353        else:
3354            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3355
3356        return self.func(name, *args)
3357
3358    def func(
3359        self,
3360        name: str,
3361        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3362        prefix: str = "(",
3363        suffix: str = ")",
3364    ) -> str:
3365        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3366
3367    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3368        arg_sqls = tuple(
3369            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
3370        )
3371        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3372            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3373        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3374
3375    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3376        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3377
3378    def format_time(
3379        self,
3380        expression: exp.Expression,
3381        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3382        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3383    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3384        return format_time(
3385            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3386            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3387            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3388        )
3389
3390    def expressions(
3391        self,
3392        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3393        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3394        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3395        flat: bool = False,
3396        indent: bool = True,
3397        skip_first: bool = False,
3398        skip_last: bool = False,
3399        sep: str = ", ",
3400        prefix: str = "",
3401        dynamic: bool = False,
3402        new_line: bool = False,
3403    ) -> str:
3404        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3405
3406        if not expressions:
3407            return ""
3408
3409        if flat:
3410            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3411
3412        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3413        result_sqls = []
3414
3415        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3416            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3417            if not sql:
3418                continue
3419
3420            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3421
3422            if self.pretty:
3423                if self.leading_comma:
3424                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3425                else:
3426                    result_sqls.append(
3427                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3428                    )
3429            else:
3430                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3431
3432        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3433            if new_line:
3434                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3435                result_sqls.append("")
3436            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
3437        else:
3438            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3439        return (
3440            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3441            if indent
3442            else result_sql
3443        )
3444
3445    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3446        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3447        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3448        if flat:
3449            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3450        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3451
3452    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3453        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3454        if not property_name:
3455            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3456        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3457
3458    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3459        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3460
3461    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3462        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3463
3464    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3465        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3466        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3467        expressions = (
3468            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3469        )
3470        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3471
3472    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3473        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3474        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3475        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3476
3477    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3478        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3479
3480    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3481        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3482        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3483        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3484        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3485
3486        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3487        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3488            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3489            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3490            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3491            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3492        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3493            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3494                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3495            else:
3496                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3497        else:
3498            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3499        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3500
3501    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3502        table = expression.this
3503        table_alias = ""
3504
3505        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3506        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3507            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3508            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3509
3510        this = self.sql(table)
3511        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3512        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3513        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3514        sep = self.sep()
3515
3516        return self.prepend_ctes(
3517            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}"
3518        )
3519
3520    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3521        if expression.args.get("format"):
3522            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3523
3524        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3525
3526    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3527        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3528            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3529            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3530
3531        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3532        if not fmt:
3533            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3534            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3535
3536        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3537
3538    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3539        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3540        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3541        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3542        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3543        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3544
3545    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3546        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3547        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3548        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3549        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3550
3551    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3552        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3553
3554    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3555        return ""
3556
3557    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3558        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3559        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3560        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3561        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3562        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3563
3564    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3565        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3566        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3567
3568        if having:
3569            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3570
3571        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3572
3573    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3574        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3575        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3576        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3577        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3578        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3579        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3580        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3581        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3582        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3583        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3584        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3585        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3586        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3587
3588    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3589        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3590        if key_block_size:
3591            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3592
3593        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3594        if using:
3595            return f"USING {using}"
3596
3597        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3598        if parser:
3599            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3600
3601        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3602        if comment:
3603            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3604
3605        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3606        if visible is not None:
3607            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3608
3609        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3610        if engine_attr:
3611            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3612
3613        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3614        if secondary_engine_attr:
3615            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3616
3617        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3618        return ""
3619
3620    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3621        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3622        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3623
3624    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3625        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3626        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3627        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3628        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3629        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3630        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3631        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3632        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3633        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3634        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3635        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3636
3637    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3638        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3639            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3640
3641        case = exp.Case().when(
3642            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3643            expression.args["true"],
3644            copy=False,
3645        )
3646        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3647        if else_cond:
3648            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3649
3650        return self.sql(case)
3651
3652    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3653        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3654        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3655        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3656        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3657        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3658        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3659
3660    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3661        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3662
3663    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3664        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3665
3666    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3667        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3668        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3669        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3670        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3671        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3672        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3673
3674    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3675        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3676        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3677        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3678
3679    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3680        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3681        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3682        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3683
3684    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3685        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3686
3687    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3688        arg = expression.this
3689        if not arg.type:
3690            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3691
3692            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3693
3694        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3695            return self.sql(arg)
3696
3697        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3698        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3699
3700    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3701        this = expression.this
3702        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3703            return self.sql(this)
3704
3705        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3706
3707    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3708        this = expression.this
3709        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3710            return self.sql(this)
3711
3712        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
3713
3714    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3715        this = expression.this
3716        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3717
3718        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3719            return self.sql(
3720                exp.cast(
3721                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3722                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3723                )
3724            )
3725
3726        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3727            return self.sql(this)
3728
3729        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3730
3731    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3732        return self.sql(
3733            exp.func(
3734                "DATEDIFF",
3735                expression.this,
3736                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3737                "day",
3738            )
3739        )
3740
3741    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3742        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3743            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3744
3745        unit = expression.text("unit")
3746        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3747            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3748
3749        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3750
3751    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3752        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3753
3754        return self.func(
3755            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3756        )
3757
3758    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3759        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3760            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3761            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3762            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3763            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3764
3765        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3766
3767        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3768        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3769            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3770
3771        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3772
3773    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3774        expression.set(
3775            "expressions",
3776            [
3777                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3778                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3779                else e
3780                for e in expression.expressions
3781            ],
3782        )
3783
3784        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3785
3786    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3787        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3788        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3789
3790        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3791
3792    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3793        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3794        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3795
3796        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3797
3798        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3799        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3800
3801        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3802        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3803
3804        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3805        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3806
3807        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3808        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3809
3810        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3811
3812    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3813    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3814    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3815        to = expression.this
3816        value = expression.expression
3817        style = expression.args.get("style")
3818        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3819        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3820
3821        if not to or not value:
3822            return ""
3823
3824        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3825        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3826            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3827
3828        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3829        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3830
3831        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3832        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3833            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3834
3835            style_value = style.name
3836            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3837            if not converted_style:
3838                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3839
3840            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3841
3842            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3843                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3844            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3845                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3846            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3847                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3848            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3849                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3850
3851        if not transformed:
3852            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3853
3854        return self.sql(transformed)
3855
3856    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
3857        this = expression.this
3858        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
3859            this = self.json_path_part(this)
3860            return f".{this}" if this else ""
3861
3862        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
3863            return f".{this}"
3864
3865        this = self.json_path_part(this)
3866        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
3867
3868    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
3869        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
3870        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
3871
3872    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3873        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3874            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3875
3876            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3877
3878        return expression
3879
3880    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
3881        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
3882            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
3883            mods = sorted(
3884                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
3885                key=lambda x: 0
3886                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
3887                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
3888            )
3889
3890            if mods:
3891                mod = mods[0]
3892                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
3893                this.meta["inline"] = True
3894                mod.this.replace(this)
3895                return self.sql(expression.this)
3896
3897            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
3898
3899            if agg_func:
3900                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
3901
3902        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
3903
3904    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
3905        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
3906        if self.pretty:
3907            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
3908        return string
3909
3910    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
3911        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
3912
3913        if expression.expressions:
3914            upper = option.upper()
3915
3916            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
3917            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
3918
3919            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
3920            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
3921            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
3922            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
3923
3924        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3925
3926        if not value:
3927            return option
3928
3929        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
3930
3931        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
3932
3933    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
3934        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
3935        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
3936            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
3937            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3938            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
3939        else:
3940            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
3941            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
3942            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
3943
3944        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
3945        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
3946
3947        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
3948        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
3949
3950        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
3951        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
3952
3953        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
3954        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
3955
3956        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
3957
3958    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
3959        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3960        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
3961
3962        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3963        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
3964        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
3965        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
3966
3967        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
3968        params = self.expressions(
3969            expression,
3970            key="params",
3971            sep=sep,
3972            new_line=True,
3973            skip_last=True,
3974            skip_first=True,
3975            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
3976        )
3977
3978        if params:
3979            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
3980                params = f" WITH ({params})"
3981            elif not self.pretty:
3982                params = f" {params}"
3983
3984        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
3985
3986    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
3987        return ""
3988
3989    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
3990        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
3991        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
3992        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
3993        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
3994        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
3995
3996        if filter_col or retention_period:
3997            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
3998
3999        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
4000
4001    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
4002        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
4003    ) -> str:
4004        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4005        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4006        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4007        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
4008
4009    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
4010        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4011        this = f"TABLE {this}"
4012        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
4013
4014    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4015        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
4016
4017    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4018        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4019        expr = expression.expression
4020
4021        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4022            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4023            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4024        else:
4025            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4026
4027        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
4028
4029    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4030        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4031            return self.sql(expression.this)
4032
4033        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
4034
4035    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4036        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4037        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4038
4039        if lower and upper:
4040            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4041        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
4042
4043    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4044        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4045        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4046        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4047        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4048        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4049        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4050
4051        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
4052
4053    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4054        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4055
4056        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4057        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4058            fill_pattern = "' '"
4059
4060        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
4061
4062    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
4063        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
4064        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
4065
4066    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4067        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
4068
4069        parent = expression.parent
4070        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
4071            parent = parent.parent
4072
4073        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
4074            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
4075
4076        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
4077            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
4078
4079        return self.sql(generate_series)
4080
4081    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
4082        exprs = expression.expressions
4083        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
4084            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
4085        else:
4086            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
4087
4088        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs)
4089
4090    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4091        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
4092            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4093
4094        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
4095        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
4096        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
4097
4098        if source_tz and timestamp:
4099            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
4100                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
4101            )
4102
4103        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
4104
4105        return self.sql(expr)
logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile('\\\\(\\d+)')
class Generator:
  37class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  38    """
  39    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  40
  41    Args:
  42        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  43            Default: False.
  44        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  45            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  46            True or 'always': Always quote.
  47            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  48        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  49            Default: False.
  50        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  51            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  52            Default: 2.
  53        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  54            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  55            Default: 2.
  56        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  57            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  58            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  59            False: Disables function name normalization.
  60        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  61            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  62        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  63            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  64            Default: 3
  65        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  66            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  67            Default: False
  68        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  69            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  70            line length.
  71            Default: 80
  72        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  73            Default: True
  74    """
  75
  76    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
  77        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
  78        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
  79        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
  80        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  81        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  82        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
  83        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  84        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  85        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
  86        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  87        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  88        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  89        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.ConnectByRoot: lambda self, e: f"CONNECT_BY_ROOT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  92        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
  93        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  95        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
  96        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  97        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  98        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
  99        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
 100        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 101        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
 102        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 103        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 104        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 105        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 106        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 107        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 108        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 109        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 110        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 111        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 112        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 113        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 114        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 115        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 116        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 117        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 118        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 119        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 120        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 121        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 122        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 123        exp.PivotAny: lambda self, e: f"ANY{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 124        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 125        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 126        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 127        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 128        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
 129            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
 130        ),
 131        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 132        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
 133        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 134        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 135        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 136        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 137        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 138        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 139        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 140        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 141        exp.Stream: lambda self, e: f"STREAM {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 142        exp.StreamingTableProperty: lambda *_: "STREAMING",
 143        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
 144        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 145        exp.TagColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 146        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 147        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 148        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 149        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 150        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 151        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 152        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 153        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 154        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 155        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 156        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 157        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH SCHEMA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 158        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 159    }
 160
 161    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 162    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
 163    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 164
 165    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 166    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 167    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 168
 169    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 170    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 171
 172    # Always do <set op> distinct or <set op> all
 173    EXPLICIT_SET_OP = False
 174
 175    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 176    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 177
 178    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 179    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 180
 181    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 182    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 183
 184    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 185    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 186
 187    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 188    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 189
 190    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 191    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 192
 193    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 194    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 195
 196    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 197    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 198
 199    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 200    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 201
 202    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 203    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 204
 205    # Whether join hints should be generated
 206    JOIN_HINTS = True
 207
 208    # Whether table hints should be generated
 209    TABLE_HINTS = True
 210
 211    # Whether query hints should be generated
 212    QUERY_HINTS = True
 213
 214    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 215    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 216
 217    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 218    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 219
 220    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 221    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 222
 223    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 224    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 225
 226    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 227    RETURNING_END = True
 228
 229    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 230    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 231
 232    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 233    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 234
 235    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 236    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 237
 238    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 239    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 240
 241    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 242    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 243    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 244    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 245
 246    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 247    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 248
 249    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 250    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 251
 252    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 253    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 254
 255    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 256    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 257
 258    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 259    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 260
 261    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 262    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 263
 264    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 265    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 266
 267    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 268    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 269
 270    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 271    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 272
 273    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 274    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 275
 276    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 277    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 278
 279    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 280    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 281
 282    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 283    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 284
 285    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 286    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 287
 288    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 289    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 290
 291    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 292    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 293
 294    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 295    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 296
 297    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 298    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 299
 300    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 301    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 302
 303    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 304    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 305
 306    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 307    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 308
 309    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 310    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 311
 312    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 313    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 314
 315    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 316    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 317
 318    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 319    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 320
 321    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 322    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 323    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 324
 325    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 326    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 327
 328    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 329    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 330
 331    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 332    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 333
 334    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 335    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 336
 337    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 338    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 339
 340    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 341    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 342
 343    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
 344    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 345    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
 346    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
 347
 348    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 349    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 350
 351    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 352    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 353
 354    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 355    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 356
 357    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 358    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 359
 360    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
 361    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
 362
 363    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 364    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 365
 366    # The HEX function name
 367    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 368
 369    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
 370    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
 371
 372    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
 373    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
 374
 375    # Whether the text pattern/fill (3rd) parameter of RPAD()/LPAD() is optional (defaults to space)
 376    PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
 377
 378    # Whether a projection can explode into multiple rows, e.g. by unnesting an array.
 379    SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
 380
 381    # Whether ARRAY_CONCAT can be generated with varlen args or if it should be reduced to 2-arg version
 382    ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
 383
 384    # Whether CONVERT_TIMEZONE() is supported; if not, it will be generated as exp.AtTimeZone
 385    SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
 386
 387    # The name to generate for the JSONPath expression. If `None`, only `this` will be generated
 388    PARSE_JSON_NAME: t.Optional[str] = "PARSE_JSON"
 389
 390    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 391        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 392        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 393        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 394        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 395        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 396        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 397        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 398        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 399        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 400        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 401    }
 402
 403    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 404        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 405        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 406        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 407        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 408        "DAYS": "DAY",
 409        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 410        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 411        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 412        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 413    }
 414
 415    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 416        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 417        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 418        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 419        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 420            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 421            if e.args.get("windows")
 422            else ""
 423        ),
 424        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 425    }
 426
 427    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 428
 429    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 430
 431    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 432    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 433
 434    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 435        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 436        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 437        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 438        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 439        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 440        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 441        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 442        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 443        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 444        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 445        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 446        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 447        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 448        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 449        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 450        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 451        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 452        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 453        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 454        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 455        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 456        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 457        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 458        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 459        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 460        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 461        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 462        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 463        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 464        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 465        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 466        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 467        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 468        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 469        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 470        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 471        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 472        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 473        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 474        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 475        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 476        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 477        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 478        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 479        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 480        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 481        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 482        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 483        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 484        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 485        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 486        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 487        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 488        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 489        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 490        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 491        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 492        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 493        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 494        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 495        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 496        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 497        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 498        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 499        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 500        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 501        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 502        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 503        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 504        exp.StreamingTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 505        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 506        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 507        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 508        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 509        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 510        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 511        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 512        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 513        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 514        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 515        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 516        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 517        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 518    }
 519
 520    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 521    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 522
 523    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 524    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 525        exp.Command,
 526        exp.Create,
 527        exp.Delete,
 528        exp.Drop,
 529        exp.From,
 530        exp.Insert,
 531        exp.Join,
 532        exp.Select,
 533        exp.SetOperation,
 534        exp.Update,
 535        exp.Where,
 536        exp.With,
 537    )
 538
 539    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 540    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 541        exp.Binary,
 542        exp.SetOperation,
 543    )
 544
 545    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 546    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 547        exp.Column,
 548        exp.Literal,
 549        exp.Neg,
 550        exp.Paren,
 551    )
 552
 553    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 554        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 555        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 556        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 557        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 558    }
 559
 560    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 561    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 562
 563    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 564
 565    __slots__ = (
 566        "pretty",
 567        "identify",
 568        "normalize",
 569        "pad",
 570        "_indent",
 571        "normalize_functions",
 572        "unsupported_level",
 573        "max_unsupported",
 574        "leading_comma",
 575        "max_text_width",
 576        "comments",
 577        "dialect",
 578        "unsupported_messages",
 579        "_escaped_quote_end",
 580        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 581        "_next_name",
 582    )
 583
 584    def __init__(
 585        self,
 586        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 587        identify: str | bool = False,
 588        normalize: bool = False,
 589        pad: int = 2,
 590        indent: int = 2,
 591        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 592        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 593        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 594        leading_comma: bool = False,
 595        max_text_width: int = 80,
 596        comments: bool = True,
 597        dialect: DialectType = None,
 598    ):
 599        import sqlglot
 600        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 601
 602        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 603        self.identify = identify
 604        self.normalize = normalize
 605        self.pad = pad
 606        self._indent = indent
 607        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 608        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 609        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 610        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 611        self.comments = comments
 612        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 613
 614        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 615        self.normalize_functions = (
 616            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 617        )
 618
 619        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 620        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 621            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 622        )
 623        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 624            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 625        )
 626
 627        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 628
 629    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 630        """
 631        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 632
 633        Args:
 634            expression: The syntax tree.
 635            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 636                it is safer to copy.
 637
 638        Returns:
 639            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 640        """
 641        if copy:
 642            expression = expression.copy()
 643
 644        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 645
 646        self.unsupported_messages = []
 647        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 648
 649        if self.pretty:
 650            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 651
 652        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 653            return sql
 654
 655        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 656            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 657                logger.warning(msg)
 658        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 659            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 660
 661        return sql
 662
 663    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 664        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 665        if (
 666            not expression.parent
 667            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 668            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 669        ):
 670            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 671
 672            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 673
 674        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 675            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 676
 677            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 678
 679        return expression
 680
 681    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 682        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 683            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 684        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 685
 686    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 687        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 688
 689    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 690        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 691
 692    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 693        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 694        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 695        return comment
 696
 697    def maybe_comment(
 698        self,
 699        sql: str,
 700        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 701        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 702        separated: bool = False,
 703    ) -> str:
 704        comments = (
 705            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 706            if self.comments
 707            else None
 708        )
 709
 710        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 711            return sql
 712
 713        comments_sql = " ".join(
 714            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 715        )
 716
 717        if not comments_sql:
 718            return sql
 719
 720        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 721
 722        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 723            return (
 724                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 725                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 726                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 727            )
 728
 729        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 730
 731    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 732        this_sql = (
 733            self.sql(expression)
 734            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 735            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 736        )
 737        if not this_sql:
 738            return "()"
 739
 740        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 741        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 742
 743    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 744        original = self.identify
 745        self.identify = False
 746        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 747        self.identify = original
 748        return result
 749
 750    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 751        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 752            return name.upper()
 753        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 754            return name.lower()
 755        return name
 756
 757    def indent(
 758        self,
 759        sql: str,
 760        level: int = 0,
 761        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 762        skip_first: bool = False,
 763        skip_last: bool = False,
 764    ) -> str:
 765        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 766            return sql
 767
 768        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 769        lines = sql.split("\n")
 770
 771        return "\n".join(
 772            (
 773                line
 774                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 775                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 776            )
 777            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 778        )
 779
 780    def sql(
 781        self,
 782        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 783        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 784        comment: bool = True,
 785    ) -> str:
 786        if not expression:
 787            return ""
 788
 789        if isinstance(expression, str):
 790            return expression
 791
 792        if key:
 793            value = expression.args.get(key)
 794            if value:
 795                return self.sql(value)
 796            return ""
 797
 798        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 799
 800        if callable(transform):
 801            sql = transform(self, expression)
 802        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 803            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 804
 805            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 806                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 807            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 808                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 809            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 810                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 811            else:
 812                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 813        else:
 814            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 815
 816        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 817
 818    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 819        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 820        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 821        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 822
 823    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 824        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 825        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 826        options = expression.args.get("options")
 827        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 828        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 829        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 830        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 831        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 832
 833    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 834        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 835            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 836        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 837        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 838
 839    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 840        return ".".join(
 841            self.sql(part)
 842            for part in (
 843                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 844                expression.args.get("db"),
 845                expression.args.get("table"),
 846                expression.args.get("this"),
 847            )
 848            if part
 849        )
 850
 851    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 852        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 853
 854        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
 855            join_mark = ""
 856            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 857
 858        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 859
 860    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 861        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 862        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 863        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 864        return f"{position}{this}"
 865
 866    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 867        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 868        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 869        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 870        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 871        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 872        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 873        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 874        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 875
 876        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 877            kind = ""
 878
 879        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 880
 881    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 882        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 883        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 884        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 885
 886    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 887        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 888        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 889            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 890        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 891            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 892        else:
 893            persisted = ""
 894        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 895
 896    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 897        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 898
 899    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 900        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 901            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 902        else:
 903            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 904
 905        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 906
 907    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 908        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 909    ) -> str:
 910        this = ""
 911        if expression.this is not None:
 912            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 913            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 914
 915        start = expression.args.get("start")
 916        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 917        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 918        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 919        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 920        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 921        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 922        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 923        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 924        cycle_sql = ""
 925
 926        if cycle is not None:
 927            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 928            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 929
 930        sequence_opts = ""
 931        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 932            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 933            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 934
 935        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 936        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 937
 938        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 939
 940    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 941        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 942    ) -> str:
 943        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
 944        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 945        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 946
 947    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 948        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 949    ) -> str:
 950        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 951
 952    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 953        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 954
 955    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 956        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 957
 958    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 959        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 960        if desc is not None:
 961            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 962        return "PRIMARY KEY"
 963
 964    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 965        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 966        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 967        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 968        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 969        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
 970        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
 971        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
 972        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
 973
 974    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 975        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 976
 977    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 978        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 979        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 980        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 981
 982        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 983
 984        properties_sql = ""
 985        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 986            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 987        ):
 988            properties_sql = self.sql(
 989                exp.Properties(
 990                    expressions=[
 991                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 992                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 993                    ]
 994                )
 995            )
 996
 997            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
 998                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
 999            elif not self.pretty:
1000                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
1001                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
1002
1003        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
1004        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
1005
1006        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1007        if expression_sql:
1008            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
1009
1010            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
1011                postalias_props_sql = ""
1012                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1013                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1014                        exp.Properties(
1015                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1016                        ),
1017                        wrapped=False,
1018                    )
1019                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1020                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1021
1022        postindex_props_sql = ""
1023        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1024            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1025                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1026                wrapped=False,
1027                prefix=" ",
1028            )
1029
1030        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1031        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1032        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1033
1034        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1035        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
1036        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1037
1038        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
1039        if clustered is None:
1040            clustered_sql = ""
1041        elif clustered:
1042            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1043        else:
1044            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1045
1046        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1047        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1048            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1049                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1050                sep=" ",
1051                prefix=" ",
1052                wrapped=False,
1053            )
1054
1055        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1056
1057        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1058        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1059            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1060                exp.Properties(
1061                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1062                ),
1063                sep=" ",
1064                prefix=" ",
1065                wrapped=False,
1066            )
1067
1068        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1069        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1070        no_schema_binding = (
1071            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1072        )
1073
1074        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1075        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1076
1077        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1078        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1079
1080    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1081        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1082        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1083        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1084        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1085        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1086        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1087        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1088        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1089        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1090        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1091
1092        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1093        if cache is None:
1094            cache_str = ""
1095        elif cache is True:
1096            cache_str = " CACHE"
1097        else:
1098            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1099
1100        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1101        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1102
1103        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1104
1105    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1106        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1107        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1108        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1109        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1110
1111    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1112        style = expression.args.get("style")
1113        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1114        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1115
1116    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1117        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1118        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1119
1120    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1121        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1122        if with_:
1123            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1124        return sql
1125
1126    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1127        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1128        recursive = (
1129            "RECURSIVE "
1130            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1131            else ""
1132        )
1133
1134        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1135
1136    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1137        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1138
1139        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1140        if materialized is False:
1141            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1142        elif materialized:
1143            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1144
1145        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1146
1147    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1148        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1149        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1150        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1151
1152        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1153            columns = ""
1154            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1155
1156        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1157            alias = self._next_name()
1158
1159        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1160
1161    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1162        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1163        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1164            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1165        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1166
1167    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1168        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1169        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1170            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1171        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1172
1173    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1174        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1175        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1176            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1177        return this
1178
1179    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1180        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1181        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1182
1183        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1184            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1185            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1186        else:
1187            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1188            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1189
1190        if escape:
1191            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1192            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1193        else:
1194            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1195            escape_sql = ""
1196
1197        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1198            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1199
1200        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
1201
1202    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1203        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1204        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1205
1206    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1207        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1208        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1209        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1210        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1211
1212    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1213        type_value = expression.this
1214
1215        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1216            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1217        else:
1218            type_sql = (
1219                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1220                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1221                else type_value
1222            )
1223
1224        nested = ""
1225        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1226        values = ""
1227
1228        if interior:
1229            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1230                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1231                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1232                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1233                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1234                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1235            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1236                nested = f" {interior}"
1237            else:
1238                nested = f"({interior})"
1239
1240        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1241        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1242            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1243            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1244        ):
1245            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1246
1247        return type_sql
1248
1249    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1250        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1251        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1252        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1253        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1254
1255    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1256        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1257        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1258        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1259        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1260        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1261        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1262        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1263        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1264        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1265        if self.RETURNING_END:
1266            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1267        else:
1268            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1269        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1270
1271    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1272        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1273        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1274        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1275        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1276        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1277        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1278        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1279        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1280        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1281        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1282        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1283        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1284        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1285
1286    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1287        return self.set_operations(expression)
1288
1289    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1290        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1291
1292    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1293        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1294        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1295        count = expression.args.get("count")
1296        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1297        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1298            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1299        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1300        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1301
1302    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1303        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1304            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1305            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1306            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1307
1308        agg = expression.this
1309        agg_arg = agg.this
1310        cond = expression.expression.this
1311        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1312        return self.sql(agg)
1313
1314    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1315        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1316            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1317            return ""
1318
1319        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1320
1321    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1322        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1323        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1324        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1325        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1326        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1327        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1328        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1329        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1330        if include:
1331            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1332        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1333        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1334        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1335        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1336        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1337        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1338
1339        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
1340
1341    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1342        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1343        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1344        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1345        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1346        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1347        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1348        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1349
1350        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1351
1352        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1353        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1354
1355    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1356        text = expression.name
1357        lower = text.lower()
1358        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1359        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1360        if (
1361            expression.quoted
1362            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1363            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1364            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1365        ):
1366            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1367        return text
1368
1369    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1370        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1371        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1372            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1373
1374        return text
1375
1376    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1377        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1378        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1379            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1380        return text
1381
1382    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1383        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1384        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1385        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1386        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1387        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1388
1389    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1390        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1391        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1392
1393    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1394        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1395
1396    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1397        root_properties = []
1398        with_properties = []
1399
1400        for p in expression.expressions:
1401            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1402            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1403                with_properties.append(p)
1404            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1405                root_properties.append(p)
1406
1407        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1408        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1409
1410        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1411            with_props = " " + with_props
1412
1413        return root_props + with_props
1414
1415    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1416        if properties.expressions:
1417            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1418        return ""
1419
1420    def properties(
1421        self,
1422        properties: exp.Properties,
1423        prefix: str = "",
1424        sep: str = ", ",
1425        suffix: str = "",
1426        wrapped: bool = True,
1427    ) -> str:
1428        if properties.expressions:
1429            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1430            if expressions:
1431                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1432                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1433        return ""
1434
1435    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1436        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
1437
1438    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1439        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1440        for p in properties.expressions:
1441            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1442            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1443                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1444            else:
1445                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1446
1447        return properties_locs
1448
1449    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1450        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1451            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1452        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1453
1454    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1455        property_cls = expression.__class__
1456        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1457            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1458
1459        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1460        if not property_name:
1461            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1462
1463        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1464
1465    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1466        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1467            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1468            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1469
1470            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1471            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1472                like = f"({like})"
1473
1474            return like
1475
1476        if expression.expressions:
1477            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1478
1479        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1480        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1481
1482    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1483        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1484        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1485        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1486
1487    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1488        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1489        local = expression.args.get("local")
1490        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1491        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1492        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1493        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1494        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1495
1496    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1497        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1498        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1499        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1500
1501    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1502        if expression.args.get("default"):
1503            property = "DEFAULT"
1504        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1505            property = "ON"
1506        else:
1507            property = "OFF"
1508        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1509
1510    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1511        if expression.args.get("no"):
1512            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1513        if expression.args.get("default"):
1514            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1515
1516        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1517        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1518
1519    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1520        default = expression.args.get("default")
1521        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1522        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1523        if default or minimum or maximum:
1524            if default:
1525                prop = "DEFAULT"
1526            elif minimum:
1527                prop = "MINIMUM"
1528            else:
1529                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1530            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1531        units = expression.args.get("units")
1532        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1533        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1534
1535    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1536        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1537        always = expression.args.get("always")
1538        default = expression.args.get("default")
1539        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1540        never = expression.args.get("never")
1541
1542        if autotemp is not None:
1543            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1544        elif always:
1545            prop = "ALWAYS"
1546        elif default:
1547            prop = "DEFAULT"
1548        elif manual:
1549            prop = "MANUAL"
1550        elif never:
1551            prop = "NEVER"
1552        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1553
1554    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1555        no = expression.args.get("no")
1556        no = " NO" if no else ""
1557        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1558        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1559        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1560        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1561        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1562
1563    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1564        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1565            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1566        if expression.this:
1567            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1568            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1569            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1570
1571        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1572        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1573        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1574
1575    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1576        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1577
1578        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1579        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1580            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1581        else:
1582            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1583
1584        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1585
1586    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1587        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1588        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1589        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1590        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1591        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1592        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1593        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1594
1595    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1596        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1597        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1598        statistics_sql = ""
1599        if statistics is not None:
1600            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1601        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1602
1603    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1604        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1605        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1606        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1607        data_consistency = (
1608            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1609        )
1610        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1611        retention_period = (
1612            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1613        )
1614
1615        if this:
1616            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1617        else:
1618            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1619
1620        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1621
1622        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
1623
1624    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1625        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1626        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1627
1628        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1629            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1630        else:
1631            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1632
1633        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1634        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1635        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1636        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1637        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1638        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1639        if is_function:
1640            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1641        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1642
1643        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1644        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1645        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1646        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1647        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1648        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1649        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1650        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1651
1652        if self.RETURNING_END:
1653            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1654        else:
1655            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1656
1657        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{where}{expression_sql}"
1658        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1659
1660    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1661        return self.set_operations(expression)
1662
1663    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1664        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1665
1666    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1667        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1668
1669    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1670        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1671        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1672        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1673        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1674        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1675
1676    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1677        return expression.name
1678
1679    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1680        return expression.name
1681
1682    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1683        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1684
1685        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1686        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1687
1688        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1689        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1690        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1691
1692        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1693        if expressions:
1694            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1695            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1696
1697        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1698
1699    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1700        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1701
1702    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1703        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1704        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1705        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1706        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1707        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1708        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1709        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1710        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1711        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1712        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1713        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1714        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1715        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1716
1717    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1718        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1719
1720    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1721        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1722        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1723        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1724        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1725
1726    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1727        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1728        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1729        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1730        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1731
1732    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1733        return ".".join(
1734            self.sql(part)
1735            for part in (
1736                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1737                expression.args.get("db"),
1738                expression.args.get("this"),
1739            )
1740            if part is not None
1741        )
1742
1743    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1744        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1745        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1746        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1747        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1748        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1749        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1750        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1751        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1752        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1753        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1754        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
1755        joins = self.indent(
1756            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1757        )
1758        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1759
1760        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1761        if file_format:
1762            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1763            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1764            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1765
1766        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1767        if ordinality:
1768            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1769            alias = ""
1770
1771        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1772        if when:
1773            table = f"{table} {when}"
1774
1775        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
1776        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
1777
1778        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
1779        if rows_from:
1780            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
1781
1782        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1783
1784    def tablesample_sql(
1785        self,
1786        expression: exp.TableSample,
1787        sep: str = " AS ",
1788        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1789    ) -> str:
1790        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1791            table = expression.this.copy()
1792            table.set("alias", None)
1793            this = self.sql(table)
1794            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1795        else:
1796            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1797            alias = ""
1798
1799        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1800        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1801        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1802        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1803        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1804        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1805        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1806        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1807        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1808
1809        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1810        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1811            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1812
1813        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1814        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1815            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1816
1817        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1818        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1819            expr = f"({expr})"
1820
1821        return (
1822            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1823        )
1824
1825    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1826        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1827
1828        if expression.this:
1829            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1830            if not expressions:
1831                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1832
1833            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1834            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1835            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1836            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1837            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1838
1839        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1840        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1841        direction = self.seg("UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT")
1842
1843        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1844        if field and isinstance(expression.args.get("field"), exp.PivotAny):
1845            field = f"IN ({field})"
1846
1847        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1848        if include_nulls is not None:
1849            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1850        else:
1851            nulls = ""
1852
1853        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
1854        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
1855        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"
1856
1857    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1858        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1859        kind = expression.text("kind")
1860        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1861        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1862
1863    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1864        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
1865
1866    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1867        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1868        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1869        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1870        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1871        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1872        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1873        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1874        if self.RETURNING_END:
1875            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1876        else:
1877            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1878        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1879        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1880
1881    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1882        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1883
1884        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1885        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1886            args = self.expressions(expression)
1887            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1888            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1889            values = (
1890                f"({values})"
1891                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1892                else values
1893            )
1894            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1895
1896        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1897        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1898        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1899
1900        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1901
1902        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1903            row = tup.expressions
1904
1905            if i == 0 and column_names:
1906                row = [
1907                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1908                ]
1909
1910            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1911
1912        if self.pretty:
1913            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1914            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1915            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1916            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1917            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1918
1919        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1920        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1921        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1922
1923    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1924        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1925
1926    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1927        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1928        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1929        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1930
1931    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1932        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1933
1934    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1935        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1936        if group_by_all is True:
1937            modifier = " ALL"
1938        elif group_by_all is False:
1939            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1940        else:
1941            modifier = ""
1942
1943        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1944
1945        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1946        grouping_sets = (
1947            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1948        )
1949
1950        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1951        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1952            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1953        else:
1954            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1955            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1956
1957        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1958        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1959            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1960        else:
1961            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1962            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1963
1964        groupings = csv(
1965            grouping_sets,
1966            cube_sql,
1967            rollup_sql,
1968            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1969            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1970        )
1971
1972        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1973            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1974
1975        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1976
1977    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1978        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1979        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1980
1981    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1982        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1983        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1984        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1985        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1986        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1987        return start + connect
1988
1989    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1990        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1991
1992    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1993        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1994            side = None
1995        else:
1996            side = expression.side
1997
1998        op_sql = " ".join(
1999            op
2000            for op in (
2001                expression.method,
2002                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
2003                side,
2004                expression.kind,
2005                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
2006            )
2007            if op
2008        )
2009        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
2010        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
2011        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
2012        using = expression.args.get("using")
2013
2014        if not on_sql and using:
2015            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
2016
2017        this = expression.this
2018        this_sql = self.sql(this)
2019
2020        if on_sql:
2021            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
2022            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2023            if using:
2024                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2025            else:
2026                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2027        elif not op_sql:
2028            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2029                return f" {this_sql}"
2030
2031            return f", {this_sql}"
2032
2033        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2034            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2035
2036        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
2037
2038    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2039        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2040        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2041        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2042
2043    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2044        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2045
2046        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2047        if cross_apply is True:
2048            op = "INNER JOIN "
2049        elif cross_apply is False:
2050            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2051        else:
2052            op = ""
2053
2054        return f"{op}LATERAL"
2055
2056    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2057        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2058
2059        if expression.args.get("view"):
2060            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2061            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2062            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2063            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2064            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2065            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2066
2067        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2068        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2069        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
2070
2071    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2072        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2073
2074        args = [
2075            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2076            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2077            if e
2078        ]
2079
2080        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2081        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2082        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2083        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2084
2085        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
2086
2087    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2088        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2089        value = expression.expression
2090        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2091        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2092        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2093        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2094
2095    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2096        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2097        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2098        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2099        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2100        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2101        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2102        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2103        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2104
2105    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2106        expressions = (
2107            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2108        )
2109        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2110        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2111
2112    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2113        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2114
2115    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2116        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2117            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2118            return ""
2119
2120        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2121        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2122        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2123        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2124
2125        if wait is not None:
2126            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2127                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2128            else:
2129                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2130
2131        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2132
2133    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2134        text = expression.this or ""
2135        if expression.is_string:
2136            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2137        return text
2138
2139    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2140        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2141            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2142            text = "".join(
2143                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2144            )
2145
2146        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2147            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2148        )
2149
2150    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2151        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2152        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2153        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2154        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2155        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2156        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2157        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2158        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2159        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2160        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2161        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2162
2163    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2164        return "NULL"
2165
2166    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2167        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2168
2169    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2170        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2171        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2172        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2173        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2174        interpolated_values = [
2175            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2176            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2177        ]
2178        interpolate = (
2179            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2180        )
2181        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
2182
2183    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2184        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2185        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2186        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2187        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2188        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2189        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2190        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
2191
2192    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2193        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2194
2195    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2196        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2197
2198    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2199        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2200
2201    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2202        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2203        asc = not desc
2204
2205        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2206        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2207        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2208        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2209        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2210
2211        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2212
2213        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2214        nulls_sort_change = ""
2215        if nulls_first and (
2216            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2217        ):
2218            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2219        elif (
2220            nulls_last
2221            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2222            and not nulls_are_last
2223        ):
2224            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2225
2226        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2227        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2228            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2229            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2230                self.unsupported(
2231                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2232                )
2233                nulls_sort_change = ""
2234            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2235                if expression.this.is_int:
2236                    self.unsupported(
2237                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2238                    )
2239                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2240                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2241                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2242                nulls_sort_change = ""
2243
2244        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2245        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2246
2247        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2248
2249    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2250        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2251        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2252
2253        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2254
2255        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2256
2257    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2258        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2259        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2260        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2261        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2262        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2263        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2264        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2265        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2266        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2267        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2268        definition_sqls = [
2269            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2270            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2271        ]
2272        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2273        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2274        body = "".join(
2275            (
2276                partition,
2277                order,
2278                measures,
2279                rows,
2280                after,
2281                pattern,
2282                define,
2283            )
2284        )
2285        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2286        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2287        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2288
2289    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2290        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2291
2292        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2293            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2294        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2295            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2296
2297        return csv(
2298            *sqls,
2299            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2300            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2301            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2302            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2303            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2304            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2305            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2306            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2307            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2308            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2309            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2310            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2311            self.options_modifier(expression),
2312            sep="",
2313        )
2314
2315    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2316        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2317        return f" {options}" if options else ""
2318
2319    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2320        return ""
2321
2322    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2323        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2324    ) -> t.List[str]:
2325        return [
2326            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2327            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2328        ]
2329
2330    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2331        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2332        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2333        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2334
2335    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2336        into = expression.args.get("into")
2337        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2338            into.pop()
2339
2340        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2341        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2342        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2343        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2344
2345        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2346        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2347            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2348            limit.pop()
2349        else:
2350            top = ""
2351
2352        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2353
2354        if kind:
2355            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2356                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2357            else:
2358                if kind == "STRUCT":
2359                    expressions = self.expressions(
2360                        sqls=[
2361                            self.sql(
2362                                exp.Struct(
2363                                    expressions=[
2364                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2365                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2366                                        else e
2367                                        for e in expression.expressions
2368                                    ]
2369                                )
2370                            )
2371                        ]
2372                    )
2373                kind = ""
2374
2375        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2376        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2377        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2378        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2379        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2380            expression,
2381            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2382            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2383            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2384        )
2385
2386        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2387
2388        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2389            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2390                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2391            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2392                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2393            else:
2394                table_kind = ""
2395            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2396
2397        return sql
2398
2399    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2400        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2401        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2402        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2403
2404    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2405        if expression.expressions:
2406            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2407        return ""
2408
2409    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2410        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2411        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2412        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2413        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2414        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2415        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2416        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2417
2418    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2419        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2420        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2421
2422    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2423        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2424        kind = expression.text("kind")
2425        if kind:
2426            kind = f"{kind}."
2427        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2428
2429    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2430        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2431
2432    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2433        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2434        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2435        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2436        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2437        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2438
2439    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2440        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2441        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2442
2443    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2444        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
2445            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2446            order = expression.args.get("order")
2447
2448            if limit or order:
2449                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
2450
2451                if limit:
2452                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
2453                if order:
2454                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
2455                return self.sql(select)
2456
2457        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2458        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2459
2460        while stack:
2461            node = stack.pop()
2462
2463            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
2464                stack.append(node.expression)
2465                stack.append(
2466                    self.maybe_comment(
2467                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2468                        comments=node.comments,
2469                        separated=True,
2470                    )
2471                )
2472                stack.append(node.this)
2473            else:
2474                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2475
2476        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2477        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2478        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
2479
2480    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2481        return self.set_operations(expression)
2482
2483    def union_op(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2484        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_SET_OP else ""
2485        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2486        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2487        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2488
2489    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2490        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2491
2492        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2493        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2494
2495        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2496            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2497                alias.append("columns", offset)
2498
2499        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2500            columns = alias.columns
2501            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2502        else:
2503            alias = self.sql(alias)
2504
2505        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2506        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2507            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2508        else:
2509            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2510                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2511            elif offset:
2512                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2513            else:
2514                suffix = alias
2515
2516        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2517
2518    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2519        return ""
2520
2521    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2522        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2523        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2524
2525    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2526        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2527        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2528        order = expression.args.get("order")
2529        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2530        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2531        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2532        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2533
2534        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2535
2536        first = expression.args.get("first")
2537        if first is None:
2538            first = ""
2539        else:
2540            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2541
2542        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2543            return f"{this} {alias}"
2544
2545        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2546        return f"{this} ({args})"
2547
2548    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2549        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2550        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2551
2552    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2553        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2554        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2555        end = (
2556            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2557            or "CURRENT ROW"
2558        )
2559        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2560
2561    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2562        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2563        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2564        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2565
2566    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2567        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2568        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2569        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2570        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2571
2572    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2573        return apply_index_offset(
2574            expression.this,
2575            expression.expressions,
2576            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2577        )
2578
2579    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2580        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2581        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2582        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2583
2584    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2585        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2586
2587    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2588        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2589        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2590            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2591                this = self.wrap(this)
2592            return f"ANY{this}"
2593        return f"ANY {this}"
2594
2595    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2596        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2597
2598    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2599        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2600        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2601
2602        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2603            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2604            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2605
2606        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2607
2608        if default:
2609            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2610
2611        statements.append("END")
2612
2613        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2614            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2615
2616        return " ".join(statements)
2617
2618    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2619        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2620        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2621        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2622
2623    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2624        order = expression.args.get("order")
2625        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2626        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2627
2628    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2629        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2630        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2631        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2632
2633    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2634        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2635
2636        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2637            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2638        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2639            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2640        else:
2641            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2642
2643    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2644        args = expression.expressions
2645        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2646            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2647
2648        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2649            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2650
2651        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2652            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2653
2654        return args
2655
2656    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2657        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2658
2659        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2660        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2661            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2662
2663        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2664
2665    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2666        return self.func(
2667            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2668        )
2669
2670    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2671        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2672        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2673
2674    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2675        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2676        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2677        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2678        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2679        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2680        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2681        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2682        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2683
2684    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2685        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2686        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2687        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2688        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2689
2690    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2691        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2692
2693    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2694        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2695        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2696        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2697
2698    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2699        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2700
2701    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2702        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2703        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2704            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2705
2706        return path
2707
2708    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2709        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2710            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2711            if not callable(transform):
2712                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2713                return ""
2714
2715            return transform(self, expression)
2716
2717        if isinstance(expression, int):
2718            return str(expression)
2719
2720        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2721            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2722            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2723        else:
2724            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2725            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2726
2727        return escaped
2728
2729    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2730        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2731
2732    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2733        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2734        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2735
2736        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2737        if unique_keys is not None:
2738            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2739        else:
2740            unique_keys = ""
2741
2742        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2743        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2744        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2745        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2746
2747        return self.func(
2748            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2749            *expression.expressions,
2750            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2751        )
2752
2753    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2754        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2755
2756    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2757        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2758        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2759        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2760        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2761        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2762        return self.func(
2763            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2764        )
2765
2766    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2767        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2768        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2769        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2770        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2771        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2772        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2773        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2774        return self.func(
2775            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2776            this,
2777            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2778        )
2779
2780    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2781        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2782        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2783        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2784
2785        if nested_schema:
2786            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2787
2788        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2789        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2790        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2791        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2792
2793    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2794        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2795
2796    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2797        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2798        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2799        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2800        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2801        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2802        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2803        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2804        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2805        return self.func(
2806            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2807        )
2808
2809    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2810        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2811        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2812        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2813        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2814        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2815        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2816
2817    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2818        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2819        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2820        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2821        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2822        with_ = (
2823            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2824            if expressions
2825            else ""
2826        )
2827        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2828
2829    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2830        query = expression.args.get("query")
2831        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2832        field = expression.args.get("field")
2833        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2834
2835        if query:
2836            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2837        elif unnest:
2838            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2839        elif field:
2840            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2841        else:
2842            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2843
2844        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2845
2846    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2847        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2848
2849    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2850        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2851        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2852            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2853        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2854
2855        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2856            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2857            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2858
2859        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2860        if this:
2861            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2862            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2863
2864        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2865
2866    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2867        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2868
2869    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2870        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2871        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2872        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2873        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2874        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2875        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2876
2877    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2878        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
2879
2880    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2881        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2882        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2883
2884    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2885        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2886        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2887        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2888        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2889
2890    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2891        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2892
2893    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2894        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2895        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2896        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2897
2898    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2899        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2900        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2901
2902        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2903            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2904        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2905            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2906
2907        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2908
2909    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2910        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2911
2912    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2913        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2914        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2915        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2916
2917    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2918        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2919        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2920        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2921
2922    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2923        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2924        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2925        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
2926
2927    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2928        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2929
2930    def and_sql(
2931        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2932    ) -> str:
2933        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
2934
2935    def or_sql(
2936        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2937    ) -> str:
2938        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
2939
2940    def xor_sql(
2941        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2942    ) -> str:
2943        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
2944
2945    def connector_sql(
2946        self,
2947        expression: exp.Connector,
2948        op: str,
2949        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2950    ) -> str:
2951        if stack is not None:
2952            if expression.expressions:
2953                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2954            else:
2955                stack.append(expression.right)
2956                if expression.comments and self.comments:
2957                    for comment in expression.comments:
2958                        if comment:
2959                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2960                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2961            return op
2962
2963        stack = [expression]
2964        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2965        ops = set()
2966
2967        while stack:
2968            node = stack.pop()
2969            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2970                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2971            else:
2972                sql = self.sql(node)
2973                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2974                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2975                else:
2976                    sqls.append(sql)
2977
2978        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
2979        return sep.join(sqls)
2980
2981    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2982        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2983
2984    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2985        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2986
2987    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2988        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2989
2990    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2991        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2992
2993    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2994        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2995
2996    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2997        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2998
2999    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3000        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
3001        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
3002        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
3003        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
3004        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
3005        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
3006        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
3007
3008    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
3009        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
3010        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
3011
3012    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
3013        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
3014            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3015        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
3016
3017    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
3018        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
3019
3020    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
3021        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3022        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3023        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3024        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3025        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3026        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
3027
3028    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3029        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3030        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3031        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3032        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3033        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3034        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3035        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3036        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3037        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
3038
3039    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3040        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3041        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3042        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3043        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3044
3045        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3046            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3047
3048        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
3049
3050    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3051        return "BEGIN"
3052
3053    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3054        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3055        if chain is not None:
3056            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3057
3058        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
3059
3060    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3061        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3062        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3063        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
3064
3065    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3066        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3067
3068        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3069        if dtype:
3070            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3071            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3072            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3073            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3074            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3075
3076        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3077        if default:
3078            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3079
3080        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3081        if comment:
3082            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3083
3084        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3085        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3086
3087        if not drop and not allow_null:
3088            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3089
3090        if allow_null is not None:
3091            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3092            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3093
3094        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3095
3096    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3097        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3098        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3099            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3100        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3101
3102    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3103        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3104        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3105        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3106        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3107        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3108
3109    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3110        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3111            # Remove db from tables
3112            expression = expression.transform(
3113                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3114            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3115        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3116        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3117
3118    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3119        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3120        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3121        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3122        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3123
3124    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3125        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3126        return f"SET {exprs}"
3127
3128    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3129        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3130
3131        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3132            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3133        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3134            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3135        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3136            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3137        else:
3138            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3139
3140        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3141        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3142        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3143        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3144        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3145        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3146        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{options}"
3147
3148    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3149        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3150            return self.expressions(
3151                expression,
3152                key="actions",
3153                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3154                skip_first=True,
3155            )
3156        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3157
3158    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3159        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3160        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3161        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3162
3163    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3164        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3165
3166    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3167        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3168
3169        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3170            case = exp.case()
3171            for arg in expression.expressions:
3172                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3173            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3174
3175        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3176
3177        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3178        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3179        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3180
3181    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3182        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3183
3184    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3185        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3186
3187    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3188        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3189        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3190        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3191        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3192
3193    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3194        return self.sql(
3195            exp.Cast(
3196                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3197                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3198            )
3199        )
3200
3201    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3202        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3203            return self.func(
3204                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3205            )
3206        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3207
3208    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3209        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3210
3211        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3212            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3213
3214        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3215            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3216                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3217
3218        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3219            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3220                return self.sql(
3221                    exp.cast(
3222                        l / r,
3223                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3224                    )
3225                )
3226
3227        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3228
3229    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3230        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3231
3232    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3233        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3234
3235    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3236        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3237
3238    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3239        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3240
3241    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3242        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3243
3244    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3245        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3246
3247    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3248        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3249
3250    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3251        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3252
3253    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3254        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3255
3256    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3257        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3258
3259    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3260        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3261
3262    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3263        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3264            return self.sql(
3265                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3266            )
3267        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3268
3269    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3270        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3271
3272    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3273        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3274
3275    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3276        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3277
3278    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3279        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3280
3281    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3282        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3283
3284    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3285        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3286
3287    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3288        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3289
3290    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3291        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3292
3293    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3294        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3295
3296    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3297        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3298
3299    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3300        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3301
3302    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3303        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3304
3305    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3306        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3307
3308    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3309        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3310            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3311            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3312
3313        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3314
3315    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3316        this = expression.this
3317        expr = expression.expression
3318
3319        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3320            this, expr = expr, this
3321        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3322            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3323                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3324
3325            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3326
3327        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3328
3329    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3330        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3331        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3332        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3333        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3334        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3335
3336    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3337        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3338        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3339
3340    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3341        args = []
3342
3343        for key in expression.arg_types:
3344            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3345
3346            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3347                for value in arg_value:
3348                    args.append(value)
3349            elif arg_value is not None:
3350                args.append(arg_value)
3351
3352        if self.normalize_functions:
3353            name = expression.sql_name()
3354        else:
3355            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3356
3357        return self.func(name, *args)
3358
3359    def func(
3360        self,
3361        name: str,
3362        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3363        prefix: str = "(",
3364        suffix: str = ")",
3365    ) -> str:
3366        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3367
3368    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3369        arg_sqls = tuple(
3370            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
3371        )
3372        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3373            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3374        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3375
3376    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3377        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3378
3379    def format_time(
3380        self,
3381        expression: exp.Expression,
3382        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3383        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3384    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3385        return format_time(
3386            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3387            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3388            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3389        )
3390
3391    def expressions(
3392        self,
3393        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3394        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3395        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3396        flat: bool = False,
3397        indent: bool = True,
3398        skip_first: bool = False,
3399        skip_last: bool = False,
3400        sep: str = ", ",
3401        prefix: str = "",
3402        dynamic: bool = False,
3403        new_line: bool = False,
3404    ) -> str:
3405        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3406
3407        if not expressions:
3408            return ""
3409
3410        if flat:
3411            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3412
3413        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3414        result_sqls = []
3415
3416        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3417            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3418            if not sql:
3419                continue
3420
3421            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3422
3423            if self.pretty:
3424                if self.leading_comma:
3425                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3426                else:
3427                    result_sqls.append(
3428                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3429                    )
3430            else:
3431                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3432
3433        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3434            if new_line:
3435                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3436                result_sqls.append("")
3437            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
3438        else:
3439            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3440        return (
3441            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3442            if indent
3443            else result_sql
3444        )
3445
3446    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3447        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3448        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3449        if flat:
3450            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3451        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3452
3453    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3454        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3455        if not property_name:
3456            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3457        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3458
3459    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3460        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3461
3462    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3463        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3464
3465    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3466        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3467        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3468        expressions = (
3469            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3470        )
3471        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3472
3473    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3474        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3475        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3476        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3477
3478    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3479        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3480
3481    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3482        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3483        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3484        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3485        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3486
3487        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3488        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3489            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3490            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3491            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3492            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3493        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3494            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3495                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3496            else:
3497                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3498        else:
3499            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3500        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3501
3502    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3503        table = expression.this
3504        table_alias = ""
3505
3506        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3507        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3508            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3509            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3510
3511        this = self.sql(table)
3512        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3513        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3514        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3515        sep = self.sep()
3516
3517        return self.prepend_ctes(
3518            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}"
3519        )
3520
3521    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3522        if expression.args.get("format"):
3523            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3524
3525        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3526
3527    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3528        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3529            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3530            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3531
3532        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3533        if not fmt:
3534            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3535            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3536
3537        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3538
3539    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3540        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3541        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3542        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3543        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3544        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3545
3546    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3547        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3548        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3549        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3550        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3551
3552    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3553        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3554
3555    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3556        return ""
3557
3558    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3559        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3560        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3561        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3562        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3563        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3564
3565    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3566        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3567        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3568
3569        if having:
3570            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3571
3572        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3573
3574    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3575        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3576        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3577        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3578        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3579        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3580        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3581        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3582        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3583        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3584        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3585        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3586        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3587        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3588
3589    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3590        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3591        if key_block_size:
3592            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3593
3594        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3595        if using:
3596            return f"USING {using}"
3597
3598        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3599        if parser:
3600            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3601
3602        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3603        if comment:
3604            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3605
3606        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3607        if visible is not None:
3608            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3609
3610        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3611        if engine_attr:
3612            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3613
3614        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3615        if secondary_engine_attr:
3616            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3617
3618        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3619        return ""
3620
3621    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3622        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3623        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3624
3625    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3626        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3627        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3628        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3629        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3630        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3631        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3632        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3633        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3634        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3635        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3636        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3637
3638    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3639        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3640            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3641
3642        case = exp.Case().when(
3643            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3644            expression.args["true"],
3645            copy=False,
3646        )
3647        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3648        if else_cond:
3649            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3650
3651        return self.sql(case)
3652
3653    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3654        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3655        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3656        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3657        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3658        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3659        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3660
3661    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3662        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3663
3664    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3665        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3666
3667    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3668        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3669        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3670        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3671        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3672        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3673        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3674
3675    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3676        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3677        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3678        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3679
3680    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3681        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3682        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3683        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3684
3685    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3686        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3687
3688    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3689        arg = expression.this
3690        if not arg.type:
3691            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3692
3693            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3694
3695        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3696            return self.sql(arg)
3697
3698        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3699        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3700
3701    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3702        this = expression.this
3703        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3704            return self.sql(this)
3705
3706        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3707
3708    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3709        this = expression.this
3710        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3711            return self.sql(this)
3712
3713        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
3714
3715    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3716        this = expression.this
3717        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3718
3719        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3720            return self.sql(
3721                exp.cast(
3722                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3723                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3724                )
3725            )
3726
3727        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3728            return self.sql(this)
3729
3730        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3731
3732    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3733        return self.sql(
3734            exp.func(
3735                "DATEDIFF",
3736                expression.this,
3737                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3738                "day",
3739            )
3740        )
3741
3742    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3743        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3744            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3745
3746        unit = expression.text("unit")
3747        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3748            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3749
3750        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3751
3752    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3753        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3754
3755        return self.func(
3756            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3757        )
3758
3759    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3760        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3761            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3762            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3763            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3764            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3765
3766        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3767
3768        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3769        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3770            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3771
3772        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3773
3774    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3775        expression.set(
3776            "expressions",
3777            [
3778                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3779                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3780                else e
3781                for e in expression.expressions
3782            ],
3783        )
3784
3785        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3786
3787    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3788        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3789        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3790
3791        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3792
3793    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3794        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3795        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3796
3797        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3798
3799        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3800        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3801
3802        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3803        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3804
3805        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3806        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3807
3808        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3809        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3810
3811        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3812
3813    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3814    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3815    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3816        to = expression.this
3817        value = expression.expression
3818        style = expression.args.get("style")
3819        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3820        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3821
3822        if not to or not value:
3823            return ""
3824
3825        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3826        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3827            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3828
3829        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3830        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3831
3832        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3833        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3834            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3835
3836            style_value = style.name
3837            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3838            if not converted_style:
3839                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3840
3841            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3842
3843            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3844                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3845            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3846                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3847            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3848                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3849            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3850                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3851
3852        if not transformed:
3853            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3854
3855        return self.sql(transformed)
3856
3857    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
3858        this = expression.this
3859        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
3860            this = self.json_path_part(this)
3861            return f".{this}" if this else ""
3862
3863        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
3864            return f".{this}"
3865
3866        this = self.json_path_part(this)
3867        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
3868
3869    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
3870        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
3871        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
3872
3873    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3874        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3875            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3876
3877            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3878
3879        return expression
3880
3881    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
3882        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
3883            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
3884            mods = sorted(
3885                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
3886                key=lambda x: 0
3887                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
3888                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
3889            )
3890
3891            if mods:
3892                mod = mods[0]
3893                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
3894                this.meta["inline"] = True
3895                mod.this.replace(this)
3896                return self.sql(expression.this)
3897
3898            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
3899
3900            if agg_func:
3901                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
3902
3903        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
3904
3905    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
3906        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
3907        if self.pretty:
3908            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
3909        return string
3910
3911    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
3912        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
3913
3914        if expression.expressions:
3915            upper = option.upper()
3916
3917            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
3918            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
3919
3920            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
3921            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
3922            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
3923            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
3924
3925        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3926
3927        if not value:
3928            return option
3929
3930        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
3931
3932        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
3933
3934    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
3935        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
3936        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
3937            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
3938            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3939            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
3940        else:
3941            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
3942            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
3943            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
3944
3945        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
3946        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
3947
3948        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
3949        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
3950
3951        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
3952        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
3953
3954        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
3955        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
3956
3957        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
3958
3959    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
3960        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3961        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
3962
3963        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3964        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
3965        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
3966        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
3967
3968        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
3969        params = self.expressions(
3970            expression,
3971            key="params",
3972            sep=sep,
3973            new_line=True,
3974            skip_last=True,
3975            skip_first=True,
3976            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
3977        )
3978
3979        if params:
3980            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
3981                params = f" WITH ({params})"
3982            elif not self.pretty:
3983                params = f" {params}"
3984
3985        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
3986
3987    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
3988        return ""
3989
3990    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
3991        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
3992        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
3993        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
3994        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
3995        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
3996
3997        if filter_col or retention_period:
3998            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
3999
4000        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
4001
4002    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
4003        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
4004    ) -> str:
4005        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4006        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4007        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4008        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
4009
4010    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
4011        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4012        this = f"TABLE {this}"
4013        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
4014
4015    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4016        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
4017
4018    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4019        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4020        expr = expression.expression
4021
4022        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4023            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4024            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4025        else:
4026            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4027
4028        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
4029
4030    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4031        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4032            return self.sql(expression.this)
4033
4034        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
4035
4036    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4037        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4038        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4039
4040        if lower and upper:
4041            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4042        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
4043
4044    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4045        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4046        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4047        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4048        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4049        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4050        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4051
4052        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
4053
4054    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4055        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4056
4057        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4058        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4059            fill_pattern = "' '"
4060
4061        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
4062
4063    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
4064        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
4065        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
4066
4067    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4068        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
4069
4070        parent = expression.parent
4071        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
4072            parent = parent.parent
4073
4074        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
4075            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
4076
4077        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
4078            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
4079
4080        return self.sql(generate_series)
4081
4082    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
4083        exprs = expression.expressions
4084        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
4085            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
4086        else:
4087            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
4088
4089        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs)
4090
4091    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4092        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
4093            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4094
4095        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
4096        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
4097        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
4098
4099        if source_tz and timestamp:
4100            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
4101                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
4102            )
4103
4104        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
4105
4106        return self.sql(expr)

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

Arguments:
  • pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
  • identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  • normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
  • pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level. Default: 2.
  • indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of subqueries and filters under a WHERE clause. Default: 2.
  • normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
  • unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True, dialect: Union[str, sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect, Type[sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect], NoneType] = None)
584    def __init__(
585        self,
586        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
587        identify: str | bool = False,
588        normalize: bool = False,
589        pad: int = 2,
590        indent: int = 2,
591        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
592        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
593        max_unsupported: int = 3,
594        leading_comma: bool = False,
595        max_text_width: int = 80,
596        comments: bool = True,
597        dialect: DialectType = None,
598    ):
599        import sqlglot
600        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
601
602        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
603        self.identify = identify
604        self.normalize = normalize
605        self.pad = pad
606        self._indent = indent
607        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
608        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
609        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
610        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
611        self.comments = comments
612        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
613
614        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
615        self.normalize_functions = (
616            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
617        )
618
619        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
620        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
621            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
622        )
623        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
624            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
625        )
626
627        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
TRANSFORMS: Dict[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], Callable[..., str]] = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathFilter'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathKey'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRecursive'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRoot'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathScript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSelector'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSlice'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSubscript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathUnion'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathWildcard'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AllowedValuesProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ConnectByRoot'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DynamicProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EphemeralColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExcludeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalSpan'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NonClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PivotAny'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecureProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Stream'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StreamingTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StrictProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TagColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSchemaBindingProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithOperator'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: Optional[bool] = True
IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXPLICIT_SET_OP = False
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINT_SEP = ', '
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
RETURNING_END = True
EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = 'TABLESAMPLE'
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = 'SEED'
COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
ENSURE_BOOLS = False
CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ':'
INSERT_OVERWRITE = ' OVERWRITE TABLE'
SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
TRY_SUPPORTED = True
SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
STAR_EXCEPT = 'EXCEPT'
HEX_FUNC = 'HEX'
WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = 'WITH'
QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
PARSE_JSON_NAME: Optional[str] = 'PARSE_JSON'
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.TINYTEXT: 'TINYTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.TINYBLOB: 'TINYBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET', <Type.ROWVERSION: 'ROWVERSION'>: 'VARBINARY'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'MICROSECONDS': 'MICROSECOND', 'SECONDS': 'SECOND', 'MINUTES': 'MINUTE', 'HOURS': 'HOUR', 'DAYS': 'DAY', 'WEEKS': 'WEEK', 'MONTHS': 'MONTH', 'QUARTERS': 'QUARTER', 'YEARS': 'YEAR'}
AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {'cluster': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'distribute': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'sort': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'windows': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'qualify': <function Generator.<lambda>>}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ':'
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AllowedValuesProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataDeletionProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DynamicProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecureProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StreamingTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StrictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSchemaBindingProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Binary'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation'>)
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {<Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>, <Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>, <Type.VARCHAR: 'VARCHAR'>, <Type.CHAR: 'CHAR'>}
EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: Set[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = set()
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
dialect
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
629    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
630        """
631        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
632
633        Args:
634            expression: The syntax tree.
635            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
636                it is safer to copy.
637
638        Returns:
639            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
640        """
641        if copy:
642            expression = expression.copy()
643
644        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
645
646        self.unsupported_messages = []
647        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
648
649        if self.pretty:
650            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
651
652        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
653            return sql
654
655        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
656            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
657                logger.warning(msg)
658        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
659            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
660
661        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

Arguments:
  • expression: The syntax tree.
  • copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so it is safer to copy.
Returns:

The SQL string corresponding to expression.

def preprocess( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> sqlglot.expressions.Expression:
663    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
664        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
665        if (
666            not expression.parent
667            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
668            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
669        ):
670            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
671
672            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
673
674        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
675            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
676
677            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
678
679        return expression

Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
681    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
682        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
683            raise UnsupportedError(message)
684        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
686    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
687        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
689    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
690        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
692    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
693        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
694        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
695        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None, separated: bool = False) -> str:
697    def maybe_comment(
698        self,
699        sql: str,
700        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
701        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
702        separated: bool = False,
703    ) -> str:
704        comments = (
705            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
706            if self.comments
707            else None
708        )
709
710        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
711            return sql
712
713        comments_sql = " ".join(
714            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
715        )
716
717        if not comments_sql:
718            return sql
719
720        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
721
722        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
723            return (
724                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
725                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
726                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
727            )
728
729        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
731    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
732        this_sql = (
733            self.sql(expression)
734            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
735            else self.sql(expression, "this")
736        )
737        if not this_sql:
738            return "()"
739
740        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
741        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
743    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
744        original = self.identify
745        self.identify = False
746        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
747        self.identify = original
748        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
750    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
751        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
752            return name.upper()
753        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
754            return name.lower()
755        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
757    def indent(
758        self,
759        sql: str,
760        level: int = 0,
761        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
762        skip_first: bool = False,
763        skip_last: bool = False,
764    ) -> str:
765        if not self.pretty or not sql:
766            return sql
767
768        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
769        lines = sql.split("\n")
770
771        return "\n".join(
772            (
773                line
774                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
775                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
776            )
777            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
778        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
780    def sql(
781        self,
782        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
783        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
784        comment: bool = True,
785    ) -> str:
786        if not expression:
787            return ""
788
789        if isinstance(expression, str):
790            return expression
791
792        if key:
793            value = expression.args.get(key)
794            if value:
795                return self.sql(value)
796            return ""
797
798        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
799
800        if callable(transform):
801            sql = transform(self, expression)
802        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
803            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
804
805            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
806                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
807            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
808                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
809            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
810                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
811            else:
812                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
813        else:
814            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
815
816        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
818    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
819        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
820        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
821        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
823    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
824        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
825        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
826        options = expression.args.get("options")
827        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
828        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
829        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
830        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
831        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
833    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
834        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
835            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
836        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
837        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
839    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
840        return ".".join(
841            self.sql(part)
842            for part in (
843                expression.args.get("catalog"),
844                expression.args.get("db"),
845                expression.args.get("table"),
846                expression.args.get("this"),
847            )
848            if part
849        )
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
851    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
852        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
853
854        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
855            join_mark = ""
856            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
857
858        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
860    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
861        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
862        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
863        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
864        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
866    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
867        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
868        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
869        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
870        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
871        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
872        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
873        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
874        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
875
876        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
877            kind = ""
878
879        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
881    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
882        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
883        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
884        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
886    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
887        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
888        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
889            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
890        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
891            persisted = " PERSISTED"
892        else:
893            persisted = ""
894        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
896    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
897        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
899    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
900        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
901            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
902        else:
903            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
904
905        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
907    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
908        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
909    ) -> str:
910        this = ""
911        if expression.this is not None:
912            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
913            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
914
915        start = expression.args.get("start")
916        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
917        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
918        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
919        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
920        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
921        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
922        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
923        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
924        cycle_sql = ""
925
926        if cycle is not None:
927            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
928            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
929
930        sequence_opts = ""
931        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
932            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
933            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
934
935        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
936        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
937
938        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint) -> str:
940    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
941        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
942    ) -> str:
943        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
944        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
945        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint) -> str:
947    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
948        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
949    ) -> str:
950        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
952    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
953        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
955    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
956        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
958    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
959        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
960        if desc is not None:
961            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
962        return "PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
964    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
965        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
966        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
967        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
968        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
969        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
970        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
971        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
972        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: DefaultDict) -> str:
974    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
975        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
 977    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 978        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 979        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 980        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 981
 982        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 983
 984        properties_sql = ""
 985        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 986            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 987        ):
 988            properties_sql = self.sql(
 989                exp.Properties(
 990                    expressions=[
 991                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 992                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 993                    ]
 994                )
 995            )
 996
 997            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
 998                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
 999            elif not self.pretty:
1000                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
1001                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
1002
1003        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
1004        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
1005
1006        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1007        if expression_sql:
1008            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
1009
1010            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
1011                postalias_props_sql = ""
1012                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1013                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1014                        exp.Properties(
1015                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1016                        ),
1017                        wrapped=False,
1018                    )
1019                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1020                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1021
1022        postindex_props_sql = ""
1023        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1024            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1025                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1026                wrapped=False,
1027                prefix=" ",
1028            )
1029
1030        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1031        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1032        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1033
1034        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1035        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
1036        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1037
1038        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
1039        if clustered is None:
1040            clustered_sql = ""
1041        elif clustered:
1042            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1043        else:
1044            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1045
1046        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1047        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1048            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1049                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1050                sep=" ",
1051                prefix=" ",
1052                wrapped=False,
1053            )
1054
1055        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1056
1057        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1058        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1059            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1060                exp.Properties(
1061                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1062                ),
1063                sep=" ",
1064                prefix=" ",
1065                wrapped=False,
1066            )
1067
1068        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1069        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1070        no_schema_binding = (
1071            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1072        )
1073
1074        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1075        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1076
1077        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1078        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1080    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1081        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1082        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1083        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1084        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1085        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1086        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1087        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1088        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1089        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1090        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1091
1092        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1093        if cache is None:
1094            cache_str = ""
1095        elif cache is True:
1096            cache_str = " CACHE"
1097        else:
1098            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1099
1100        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1101        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1102
1103        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
1105    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1106        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1107        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1108        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1109        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
1111    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1112        style = expression.args.get("style")
1113        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1114        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def heredoc_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Heredoc) -> str:
1116    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1117        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1118        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1120    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1121        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1122        if with_:
1123            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1124        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
1126    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1127        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1128        recursive = (
1129            "RECURSIVE "
1130            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1131            else ""
1132        )
1133
1134        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
1136    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1137        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1138
1139        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1140        if materialized is False:
1141            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1142        elif materialized:
1143            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1144
1145        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
1147    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1148        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1149        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1150        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1151
1152        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1153            columns = ""
1154            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1155
1156        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1157            alias = self._next_name()
1158
1159        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
1161    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1162        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1163        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1164            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1165        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
1167    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1168        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1169        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1170            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1171        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
1173    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1174        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1175        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1176            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1177        return this
def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnicodeString) -> str:
1179    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1180        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1181        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1182
1183        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1184            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1185            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1186        else:
1187            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1188            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1189
1190        if escape:
1191            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1192            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1193        else:
1194            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1195            escape_sql = ""
1196
1197        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1198            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1199
1200        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str:
1202    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1203        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1204        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1206    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1207        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1208        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1209        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1210        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
1212    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1213        type_value = expression.this
1214
1215        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1216            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1217        else:
1218            type_sql = (
1219                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1220                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1221                else type_value
1222            )
1223
1224        nested = ""
1225        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1226        values = ""
1227
1228        if interior:
1229            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1230                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1231                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1232                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1233                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1234                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1235            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1236                nested = f" {interior}"
1237            else:
1238                nested = f"({interior})"
1239
1240        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1241        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1242            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1243            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1244        ):
1245            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1246
1247        return type_sql
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
1249    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1250        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1251        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1252        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1253        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
1255    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1256        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1257        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1258        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1259        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1260        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1261        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1262        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1263        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1264        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1265        if self.RETURNING_END:
1266            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1267        else:
1268            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1269        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
1271    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1272        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1273        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1274        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1275        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1276        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1277        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1278        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1279        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1280        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1281        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1282        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1283        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1284        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
def except_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1286    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1287        return self.set_operations(expression)
def except_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1289    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1290        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
1292    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1293        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1294        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1295        count = expression.args.get("count")
1296        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1297        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1298            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1299        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1300        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
1302    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1303        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1304            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1305            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1306            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1307
1308        agg = expression.this
1309        agg_arg = agg.this
1310        cond = expression.expression.this
1311        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1312        return self.sql(agg)
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
1314    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1315        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1316            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1317            return ""
1318
1319        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexParameters) -> str:
1321    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1322        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1323        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1324        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1325        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1326        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1327        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1328        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1329        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1330        if include:
1331            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1332        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1333        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1334        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1335        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1336        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1337        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1338
1339        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
1341    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1342        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1343        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1344        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1345        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1346        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1347        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1348        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1349
1350        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1351
1352        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1353        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
1355    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1356        text = expression.name
1357        lower = text.lower()
1358        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1359        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1360        if (
1361            expression.quoted
1362            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1363            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1364            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1365        ):
1366            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1367        return text
def hex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hex) -> str:
1369    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1370        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1371        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1372            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1373
1374        return text
def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LowerHex) -> str:
1376    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1377        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1378        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1379            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1380        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1382    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1383        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1384        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1385        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1386        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1387        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str:
1389    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1390        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1391        return f"{prefix}{string}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
1393    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1394        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1396    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1397        root_properties = []
1398        with_properties = []
1399
1400        for p in expression.expressions:
1401            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1402            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1403                with_properties.append(p)
1404            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1405                root_properties.append(p)
1406
1407        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1408        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1409
1410        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1411            with_props = " " + with_props
1412
1413        return root_props + with_props
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1415    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1416        if properties.expressions:
1417            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1418        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
1420    def properties(
1421        self,
1422        properties: exp.Properties,
1423        prefix: str = "",
1424        sep: str = ", ",
1425        suffix: str = "",
1426        wrapped: bool = True,
1427    ) -> str:
1428        if properties.expressions:
1429            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1430            if expressions:
1431                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1432                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1433        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1435    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1436        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
def locate_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> DefaultDict:
1438    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1439        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1440        for p in properties.expressions:
1441            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1442            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1443                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1444            else:
1445                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1446
1447        return properties_locs
def property_name( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1449    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1450        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1451            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1452        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
1454    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1455        property_cls = expression.__class__
1456        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1457            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1458
1459        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1460        if not property_name:
1461            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1462
1463        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
1465    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1466        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1467            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1468            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1469
1470            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1471            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1472                like = f"({like})"
1473
1474            return like
1475
1476        if expression.expressions:
1477            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1478
1479        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1480        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1482    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1483        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1484        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1485        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
1487    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1488        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1489        local = expression.args.get("local")
1490        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1491        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1492        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1493        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1494        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1496    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1497        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1498        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1499        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1501    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1502        if expression.args.get("default"):
1503            property = "DEFAULT"
1504        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1505            property = "ON"
1506        else:
1507            property = "OFF"
1508        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1510    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1511        if expression.args.get("no"):
1512            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1513        if expression.args.get("default"):
1514            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1515
1516        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1517        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1519    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1520        default = expression.args.get("default")
1521        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1522        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1523        if default or minimum or maximum:
1524            if default:
1525                prop = "DEFAULT"
1526            elif minimum:
1527                prop = "MINIMUM"
1528            else:
1529                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1530            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1531        units = expression.args.get("units")
1532        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1533        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1535    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1536        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1537        always = expression.args.get("always")
1538        default = expression.args.get("default")
1539        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1540        never = expression.args.get("never")
1541
1542        if autotemp is not None:
1543            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1544        elif always:
1545            prop = "ALWAYS"
1546        elif default:
1547            prop = "DEFAULT"
1548        elif manual:
1549            prop = "MANUAL"
1550        elif never:
1551            prop = "NEVER"
1552        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1554    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1555        no = expression.args.get("no")
1556        no = " NO" if no else ""
1557        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1558        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1559        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1560        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1561        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1563    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1564        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1565            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1566        if expression.this:
1567            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1568            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1569            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1570
1571        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1572        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1573        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1575    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1576        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1577
1578        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1579        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1580            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1581        else:
1582            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1583
1584        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1586    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1587        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1588        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1589        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1590        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1591        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1592        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1593        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1595    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1596        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1597        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1598        statistics_sql = ""
1599        if statistics is not None:
1600            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1601        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def withsystemversioningproperty_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1603    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1604        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1605        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1606        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1607        data_consistency = (
1608            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1609        )
1610        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1611        retention_period = (
1612            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1613        )
1614
1615        if this:
1616            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1617        else:
1618            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1619
1620        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1621
1622        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1624    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1625        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1626        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1627
1628        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1629            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1630        else:
1631            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1632
1633        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1634        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1635        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1636        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1637        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1638        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1639        if is_function:
1640            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1641        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1642
1643        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1644        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1645        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1646        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1647        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1648        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1649        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1650        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1651
1652        if self.RETURNING_END:
1653            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1654        else:
1655            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1656
1657        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{where}{expression_sql}"
1658        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def intersect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1660    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1661        return self.set_operations(expression)
def intersect_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1663    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1664        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1666    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1667        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def kill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kill) -> str:
1669    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1670        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1671        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1672        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1673        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1674        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1676    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1677        return expression.name
def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1679    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1680        return expression.name
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1682    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1683        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1684
1685        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1686        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1687
1688        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1689        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1690        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1691
1692        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1693        if expressions:
1694            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1695            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1696
1697        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1699    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1700        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1702    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1703        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1704        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1705        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1706        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1707        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1708        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1709        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1710        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1711        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1712        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1713        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1714        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1715        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint) -> str:
1717    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1718        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1720    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1721        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1722        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1723        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1724        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HistoricalData) -> str:
1726    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1727        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1728        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1729        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1730        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
def table_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table) -> str:
1732    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1733        return ".".join(
1734            self.sql(part)
1735            for part in (
1736                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1737                expression.args.get("db"),
1738                expression.args.get("this"),
1739            )
1740            if part is not None
1741        )
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1743    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1744        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1745        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1746        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1747        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1748        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1749        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1750        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1751        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1752        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1753        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1754        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
1755        joins = self.indent(
1756            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1757        )
1758        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1759
1760        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1761        if file_format:
1762            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1763            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1764            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1765
1766        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1767        if ordinality:
1768            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1769            alias = ""
1770
1771        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1772        if when:
1773            table = f"{table} {when}"
1774
1775        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
1776        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
1777
1778        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
1779        if rows_from:
1780            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
1781
1782        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, sep: str = ' AS ', tablesample_keyword: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
1784    def tablesample_sql(
1785        self,
1786        expression: exp.TableSample,
1787        sep: str = " AS ",
1788        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1789    ) -> str:
1790        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1791            table = expression.this.copy()
1792            table.set("alias", None)
1793            this = self.sql(table)
1794            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1795        else:
1796            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1797            alias = ""
1798
1799        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1800        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1801        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1802        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1803        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1804        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1805        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1806        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1807        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1808
1809        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1810        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1811            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1812
1813        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1814        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1815            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1816
1817        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1818        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1819            expr = f"({expr})"
1820
1821        return (
1822            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1823        )
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1825    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1826        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1827
1828        if expression.this:
1829            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1830            if not expressions:
1831                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1832
1833            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1834            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1835            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1836            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1837            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1838
1839        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1840        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1841        direction = self.seg("UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT")
1842
1843        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1844        if field and isinstance(expression.args.get("field"), exp.PivotAny):
1845            field = f"IN ({field})"
1846
1847        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1848        if include_nulls is not None:
1849            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1850        else:
1851            nulls = ""
1852
1853        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
1854        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
1855        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"
def version_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Version) -> str:
1857    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1858        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1859        kind = expression.text("kind")
1860        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1861        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
1863    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1864        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
1866    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1867        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1868        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1869        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1870        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1871        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1872        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1873        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1874        if self.RETURNING_END:
1875            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1876        else:
1877            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1878        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1879        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1881    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1882        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1883
1884        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1885        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1886            args = self.expressions(expression)
1887            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1888            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1889            values = (
1890                f"({values})"
1891                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1892                else values
1893            )
1894            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1895
1896        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1897        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1898        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1899
1900        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1901
1902        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1903            row = tup.expressions
1904
1905            if i == 0 and column_names:
1906                row = [
1907                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1908                ]
1909
1910            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1911
1912        if self.pretty:
1913            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1914            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1915            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1916            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1917            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1918
1919        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1920        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1921        return f"({unions}){alias}"
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
1923    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1924        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
1926    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1927        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1928        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1929        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
1931    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1932        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
1934    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1935        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1936        if group_by_all is True:
1937            modifier = " ALL"
1938        elif group_by_all is False:
1939            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1940        else:
1941            modifier = ""
1942
1943        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1944
1945        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1946        grouping_sets = (
1947            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1948        )
1949
1950        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1951        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1952            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1953        else:
1954            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1955            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1956
1957        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1958        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1959            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1960        else:
1961            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1962            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1963
1964        groupings = csv(
1965            grouping_sets,
1966            cube_sql,
1967            rollup_sql,
1968            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1969            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1970        )
1971
1972        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1973            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1974
1975        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
1977    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1978        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1979        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def connect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connect) -> str:
1981    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1982        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1983        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1984        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1985        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1986        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1987        return start + connect
def prior_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Prior) -> str:
1989    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1990        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
1992    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1993        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1994            side = None
1995        else:
1996            side = expression.side
1997
1998        op_sql = " ".join(
1999            op
2000            for op in (
2001                expression.method,
2002                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
2003                side,
2004                expression.kind,
2005                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
2006            )
2007            if op
2008        )
2009        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
2010        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
2011        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
2012        using = expression.args.get("using")
2013
2014        if not on_sql and using:
2015            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
2016
2017        this = expression.this
2018        this_sql = self.sql(this)
2019
2020        if on_sql:
2021            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
2022            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2023            if using:
2024                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2025            else:
2026                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2027        elif not op_sql:
2028            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2029                return f" {this_sql}"
2030
2031            return f", {this_sql}"
2032
2033        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2034            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2035
2036        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
2038    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2039        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2040        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2041        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
2043    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2044        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2045
2046        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2047        if cross_apply is True:
2048            op = "INNER JOIN "
2049        elif cross_apply is False:
2050            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2051        else:
2052            op = ""
2053
2054        return f"{op}LATERAL"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
2056    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2057        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2058
2059        if expression.args.get("view"):
2060            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2061            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2062            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2063            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2064            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2065            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2066
2067        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2068        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2069        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2071    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2072        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2073
2074        args = [
2075            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2076            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2077            if e
2078        ]
2079
2080        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2081        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2082        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2083        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2084
2085        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
2087    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2088        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2089        value = expression.expression
2090        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2091        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2092        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2093        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
2095    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2096        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2097        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2098        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2099        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2100        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2101        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2102        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2103        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
2105    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2106        expressions = (
2107            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2108        )
2109        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2110        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
2112    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2113        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
2115    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2116        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2117            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2118            return ""
2119
2120        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2121        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2122        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2123        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2124
2125        if wait is not None:
2126            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2127                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2128            else:
2129                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2130
2131        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
2133    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2134        text = expression.this or ""
2135        if expression.is_string:
2136            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2137        return text
def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2139    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2140        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2141            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2142            text = "".join(
2143                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2144            )
2145
2146        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2147            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2148        )
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
2150    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2151        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2152        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2153        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2154        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2155        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2156        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2157        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2158        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2159        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2160        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2161        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2163    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2164        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
2166    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2167        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2169    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2170        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2171        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2172        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2173        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2174        interpolated_values = [
2175            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2176            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2177        ]
2178        interpolate = (
2179            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2180        )
2181        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
def withfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithFill) -> str:
2183    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2184        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2185        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2186        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2187        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2188        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2189        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2190        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
2192    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2193        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
2195    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2196        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
2198    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2199        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
2201    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2202        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2203        asc = not desc
2204
2205        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2206        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2207        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2208        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2209        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2210
2211        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2212
2213        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2214        nulls_sort_change = ""
2215        if nulls_first and (
2216            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2217        ):
2218            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2219        elif (
2220            nulls_last
2221            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2222            and not nulls_are_last
2223        ):
2224            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2225
2226        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2227        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2228            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2229            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2230                self.unsupported(
2231                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2232                )
2233                nulls_sort_change = ""
2234            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2235                if expression.this.is_int:
2236                    self.unsupported(
2237                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2238                    )
2239                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2240                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2241                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2242                nulls_sort_change = ""
2243
2244        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2245        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2246
2247        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2249    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2250        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2251        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2252
2253        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2254
2255        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2257    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2258        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2259        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2260        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2261        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2262        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2263        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2264        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2265        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2266        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2267        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2268        definition_sqls = [
2269            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2270            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2271        ]
2272        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2273        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2274        body = "".join(
2275            (
2276                partition,
2277                order,
2278                measures,
2279                rows,
2280                after,
2281                pattern,
2282                define,
2283            )
2284        )
2285        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2286        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2287        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2289    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2290        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2291
2292        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2293            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2294        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2295            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2296
2297        return csv(
2298            *sqls,
2299            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2300            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2301            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2302            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2303            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2304            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2305            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2306            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2307            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2308            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2309            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2310            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2311            self.options_modifier(expression),
2312            sep="",
2313        )
def options_modifier(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> str:
2315    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2316        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2317        return f" {options}" if options else ""
def queryoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryOption) -> str:
2319    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2320        return ""
def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]:
2322    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2323        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2324    ) -> t.List[str]:
2325        return [
2326            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2327            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2328        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
2330    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2331        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2332        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2333        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
2335    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2336        into = expression.args.get("into")
2337        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2338            into.pop()
2339
2340        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2341        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2342        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2343        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2344
2345        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2346        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2347            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2348            limit.pop()
2349        else:
2350            top = ""
2351
2352        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2353
2354        if kind:
2355            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2356                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2357            else:
2358                if kind == "STRUCT":
2359                    expressions = self.expressions(
2360                        sqls=[
2361                            self.sql(
2362                                exp.Struct(
2363                                    expressions=[
2364                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2365                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2366                                        else e
2367                                        for e in expression.expressions
2368                                    ]
2369                                )
2370                            )
2371                        ]
2372                    )
2373                kind = ""
2374
2375        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2376        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2377        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2378        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2379        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2380            expression,
2381            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2382            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2383            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2384        )
2385
2386        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2387
2388        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2389            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2390                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2391            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2392                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2393            else:
2394                table_kind = ""
2395            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2396
2397        return sql
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2399    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2400        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2401        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2402        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2404    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2405        if expression.expressions:
2406            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2407        return ""
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
2409    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2410        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2411        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2412        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2413        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2414        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2415        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2416        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
2418    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2419        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2420        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
2422    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2423        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2424        kind = expression.text("kind")
2425        if kind:
2426            kind = f"{kind}."
2427        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
2429    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2430        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
2432    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2433        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2434        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2435        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2436        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2437        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
2439    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2440        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2441        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def set_operations(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation) -> str:
2443    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2444        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
2445            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2446            order = expression.args.get("order")
2447
2448            if limit or order:
2449                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
2450
2451                if limit:
2452                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
2453                if order:
2454                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
2455                return self.sql(select)
2456
2457        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2458        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2459
2460        while stack:
2461            node = stack.pop()
2462
2463            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
2464                stack.append(node.expression)
2465                stack.append(
2466                    self.maybe_comment(
2467                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2468                        comments=node.comments,
2469                        separated=True,
2470                    )
2471                )
2472                stack.append(node.this)
2473            else:
2474                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2475
2476        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2477        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2478        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
def union_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
2480    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2481        return self.set_operations(expression)
def union_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation) -> str:
2483    def union_op(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2484        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_SET_OP else ""
2485        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2486        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2487        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2489    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2490        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2491
2492        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2493        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2494
2495        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2496            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2497                alias.append("columns", offset)
2498
2499        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2500            columns = alias.columns
2501            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2502        else:
2503            alias = self.sql(alias)
2504
2505        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2506        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2507            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2508        else:
2509            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2510                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2511            elif offset:
2512                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2513            else:
2514                suffix = alias
2515
2516        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
def prewhere_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PreWhere) -> str:
2518    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2519        return ""
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
2521    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2522        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2523        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
2525    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2526        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2527        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2528        order = expression.args.get("order")
2529        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2530        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2531        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2532        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2533
2534        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2535
2536        first = expression.args.get("first")
2537        if first is None:
2538            first = ""
2539        else:
2540            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2541
2542        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2543            return f"{this} {alias}"
2544
2545        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2546        return f"{this} ({args})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2548    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2549        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2550        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
2552    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2553        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2554        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2555        end = (
2556            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2557            or "CURRENT ROW"
2558        )
2559        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
2561    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2562        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2563        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2564        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
2566    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2567        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2568        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2569        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2570        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_offset_expressions( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]:
2572    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2573        return apply_index_offset(
2574            expression.this,
2575            expression.expressions,
2576            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2577        )
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
2579    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2580        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2581        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2582        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
2584    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2585        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
2587    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2588        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2589        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2590            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2591                this = self.wrap(this)
2592            return f"ANY{this}"
2593        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
2595    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2596        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
2598    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2599        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2600        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2601
2602        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2603            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2604            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2605
2606        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2607
2608        if default:
2609            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2610
2611        statements.append("END")
2612
2613        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2614            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2615
2616        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
2618    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2619        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2620        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2621        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
2623    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2624        order = expression.args.get("order")
2625        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2626        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
2628    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2629        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2630        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2631        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
2633    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2634        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2635
2636        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2637            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2638        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2639            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2640        else:
2641            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
def convert_concat_args( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat | sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]:
2643    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2644        args = expression.expressions
2645        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2646            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2647
2648        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2649            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2650
2651        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2652            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2653
2654        return args
def concat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat) -> str:
2656    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2657        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2658
2659        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2660        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2661            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2662
2663        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
def concatws_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> str:
2665    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2666        return self.func(
2667            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2668        )
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
2670    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2671        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2672        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2674    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2675        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2676        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2677        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2678        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2679        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2680        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2681        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2682        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2684    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2685        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2686        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2687        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2688        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
2690    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2691        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2693    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2694        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2695        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2696        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2698    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2699        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONPath) -> str:
2701    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2702        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2703        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2704            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2705
2706        return path
def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2708    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2709        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2710            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2711            if not callable(transform):
2712                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2713                return ""
2714
2715            return transform(self, expression)
2716
2717        if isinstance(expression, int):
2718            return str(expression)
2719
2720        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2721            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2722            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2723        else:
2724            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2725            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2726
2727        return escaped
def formatjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FormatJson) -> str:
2729    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2730        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
def jsonobject_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject | sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2732    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2733        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2734        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2735
2736        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2737        if unique_keys is not None:
2738            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2739        else:
2740            unique_keys = ""
2741
2742        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2743        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2744        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2745        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2746
2747        return self.func(
2748            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2749            *expression.expressions,
2750            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2751        )
def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2753    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2754        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArray) -> str:
2756    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2757        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2758        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2759        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2760        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2761        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2762        return self.func(
2763            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2764        )
def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2766    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2767        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2768        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2769        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2770        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2771        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2772        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2773        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2774        return self.func(
2775            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2776            this,
2777            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2778        )
def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2780    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2781        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2782        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2783        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2784
2785        if nested_schema:
2786            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2787
2788        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2789        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2790        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2791        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONSchema) -> str:
2793    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2794        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
def jsontable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONTable) -> str:
2796    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2797        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2798        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2799        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2800        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2801        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2802        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2803        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2804        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2805        return self.func(
2806            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2807        )
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2809    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2810        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2811        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2812        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2813        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2814        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2815        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
2817    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2818        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2819        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2820        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2821        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2822        with_ = (
2823            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2824            if expressions
2825            else ""
2826        )
2827        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
2829    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2830        query = expression.args.get("query")
2831        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2832        field = expression.args.get("field")
2833        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2834
2835        if query:
2836            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2837        elif unnest:
2838            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2839        elif field:
2840            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2841        else:
2842            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2843
2844        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2846    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2847        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
2849    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2850        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2851        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2852            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2853        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2854
2855        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2856            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2857            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2858
2859        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2860        if this:
2861            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2862            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2863
2864        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
2866    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2867        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
2869    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2870        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2871        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2872        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2873        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2874        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2875        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
2877    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2878        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
2880    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2881        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2882        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
2884    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2885        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2886        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2887        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2888        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
2890    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2891        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
2893    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2894        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2895        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2896        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PivotAlias) -> str:
2898    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2899        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2900        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2901
2902        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2903            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2904        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2905            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2906
2907        return self.alias_sql(expression)
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
2909    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2910        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def atindex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2912    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2913        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2914        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2915        return f"{this} AT {index}"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2917    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2918        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2919        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2920        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2922    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2923        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2924        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2925        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
2927    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2928        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2930    def and_sql(
2931        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2932    ) -> str:
2933        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
def or_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2935    def or_sql(
2936        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2937    ) -> str:
2938        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
def xor_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Xor, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2940    def xor_sql(
2941        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2942    ) -> str:
2943        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
def connector_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2945    def connector_sql(
2946        self,
2947        expression: exp.Connector,
2948        op: str,
2949        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2950    ) -> str:
2951        if stack is not None:
2952            if expression.expressions:
2953                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2954            else:
2955                stack.append(expression.right)
2956                if expression.comments and self.comments:
2957                    for comment in expression.comments:
2958                        if comment:
2959                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2960                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2961            return op
2962
2963        stack = [expression]
2964        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2965        ops = set()
2966
2967        while stack:
2968            node = stack.pop()
2969            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2970                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2971            else:
2972                sql = self.sql(node)
2973                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2974                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2975                else:
2976                    sqls.append(sql)
2977
2978        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
2979        return sep.join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2981    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2982        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2984    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2985        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2987    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2988        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2990    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2991        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2993    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2994        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2996    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2997        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2999    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3000        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
3001        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
3002        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
3003        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
3004        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
3005        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
3006        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
3008    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
3009        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
3010        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
3012    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
3013        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
3014            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3015        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
3017    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
3018        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
3020    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
3021        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3022        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3023        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3024        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3025        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3026        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3028    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3029        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3030        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3031        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3032        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3033        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3034        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3035        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3036        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3037        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3039    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3040        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3041        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3042        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3043        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3044
3045        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3046            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3047
3048        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
3050    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3051        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
3053    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3054        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3055        if chain is not None:
3056            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3057
3058        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
3060    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3061        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3062        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3063        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
3065    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3066        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3067
3068        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3069        if dtype:
3070            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3071            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3072            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3073            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3074            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3075
3076        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3077        if default:
3078            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3079
3080        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3081        if comment:
3082            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3083
3084        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3085        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3086
3087        if not drop and not allow_null:
3088            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3089
3090        if allow_null is not None:
3091            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3092            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3093
3094        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3096    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3097        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3098        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3099            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3100        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3102    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3103        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3104        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3105        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3106        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3107        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str:
3109    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3110        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3111            # Remove db from tables
3112            expression = expression.transform(
3113                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3114            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3115        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3116        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameColumn) -> str:
3118    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3119        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3120        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3121        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3122        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
def alterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterSet) -> str:
3124    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3125        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3126        return f"SET {exprs}"
def altertable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
3128    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3129        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3130
3131        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3132            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3133        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3134            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3135        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3136            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3137        else:
3138            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3139
3140        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3141        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3142        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3143        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3144        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3145        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3146        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{options}"
def add_column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
3148    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3149        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3150            return self.expressions(
3151                expression,
3152                key="actions",
3153                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3154                skip_first=True,
3155            )
3156        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
3158    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3159        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3160        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3161        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
3163    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3164        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
3166    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3167        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3168
3169        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3170            case = exp.case()
3171            for arg in expression.expressions:
3172                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3173            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3174
3175        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3176
3177        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3178        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3179        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3181    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3182        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
3184    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3185        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
def havingmax_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HavingMax) -> str:
3187    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3188        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3189        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3190        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3191        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
3193    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3194        return self.sql(
3195            exp.Cast(
3196                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3197                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3198            )
3199        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
3201    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3202        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3203            return self.func(
3204                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3205            )
3206        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
3208    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3209        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3210
3211        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3212            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3213
3214        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3215            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3216                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3217
3218        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3219            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3220                return self.sql(
3221                    exp.cast(
3222                        l / r,
3223                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3224                    )
3225                )
3226
3227        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
3229    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3230        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
3232    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3233        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
3235    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3236        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
3238    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3239        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3241    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3242        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
3244    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3245        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
3247    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3248        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
3250    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3251        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
3253    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3254        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
3256    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3257        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
3259    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3260        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
3262    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3263        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3264            return self.sql(
3265                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3266            )
3267        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
3269    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3270        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
3272    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3273        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
3275    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3276        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
3278    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3279        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
3281    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3282        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
3284    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3285        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
3287    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3288        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
3290    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3291        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3293    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3294        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3296    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3297        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
3299    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3300        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
3302    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3303        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
3305    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3306        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
def try_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Try) -> str:
3308    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3309        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3310            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3311            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3312
3313        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
def log_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Log) -> str:
3315    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3316        this = expression.this
3317        expr = expression.expression
3318
3319        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3320            this, expr = expr, this
3321        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3322            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3323                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3324
3325            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3326
3327        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
3329    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3330        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3331        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3332        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3333        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3334        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3336    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3337        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3338        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
3340    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3341        args = []
3342
3343        for key in expression.arg_types:
3344            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3345
3346            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3347                for value in arg_value:
3348                    args.append(value)
3349            elif arg_value is not None:
3350                args.append(arg_value)
3351
3352        if self.normalize_functions:
3353            name = expression.sql_name()
3354        else:
3355            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3356
3357        return self.func(name, *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')') -> str:
3359    def func(
3360        self,
3361        name: str,
3362        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3363        prefix: str = "(",
3364        suffix: str = ")",
3365    ) -> str:
3366        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
3368    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3369        arg_sqls = tuple(
3370            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
3371        )
3372        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3373            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3374        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
def too_wide(self, args: Iterable) -> bool:
3376    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3377        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
def format_time( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, inverse_time_mapping: Optional[Dict[str, str]] = None, inverse_time_trie: Optional[Dict] = None) -> Optional[str]:
3379    def format_time(
3380        self,
3381        expression: exp.Expression,
3382        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3383        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3384    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3385        return format_time(
3386            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3387            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3388            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3389        )
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[Collection[Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression]]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '', dynamic: bool = False, new_line: bool = False) -> str:
3391    def expressions(
3392        self,
3393        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3394        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3395        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3396        flat: bool = False,
3397        indent: bool = True,
3398        skip_first: bool = False,
3399        skip_last: bool = False,
3400        sep: str = ", ",
3401        prefix: str = "",
3402        dynamic: bool = False,
3403        new_line: bool = False,
3404    ) -> str:
3405        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3406
3407        if not expressions:
3408            return ""
3409
3410        if flat:
3411            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3412
3413        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3414        result_sqls = []
3415
3416        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3417            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3418            if not sql:
3419                continue
3420
3421            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3422
3423            if self.pretty:
3424                if self.leading_comma:
3425                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3426                else:
3427                    result_sqls.append(
3428                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3429                    )
3430            else:
3431                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3432
3433        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3434            if new_line:
3435                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3436                result_sqls.append("")
3437            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
3438        else:
3439            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3440        return (
3441            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3442            if indent
3443            else result_sql
3444        )
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3446    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3447        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3448        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3449        if flat:
3450            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3451        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
3453    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3454        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3455        if not property_name:
3456            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3457        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
3459    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3460        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
3462    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3463        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3465    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3466        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3467        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3468        expressions = (
3469            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3470        )
3471        return f"{this}{expressions}"
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
3473    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3474        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3475        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3476        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
3478    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3479        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
3481    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3482        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3483        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3484        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3485        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3486
3487        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3488        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3489            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3490            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3491            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3492            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3493        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3494            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3495                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3496            else:
3497                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3498        else:
3499            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3500        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
3502    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3503        table = expression.this
3504        table_alias = ""
3505
3506        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3507        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3508            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3509            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3510
3511        this = self.sql(table)
3512        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3513        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3514        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3515        sep = self.sep()
3516
3517        return self.prepend_ctes(
3518            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}"
3519        )
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
3521    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3522        if expression.args.get("format"):
3523            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3524
3525        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
def tonumber_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToNumber) -> str:
3527    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3528        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3529            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3530            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3531
3532        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3533        if not fmt:
3534            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3535            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3536
3537        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str:
3539    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3540        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3541        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3542        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3543        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3544        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str:
3546    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3547        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3548        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3549        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3550        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3552    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3553        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str:
3555    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3556        return ""
def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3558    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3559        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3560        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3561        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3562        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3563        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue) -> str:
3565    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3566        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3567        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3568
3569        if having:
3570            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3571
3572        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
def querytransform_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryTransform) -> str:
3574    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3575        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3576        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3577        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3578        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3579        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3580        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3581        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3582        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3583        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3584        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3585        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3586        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3587        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3589    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3590        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3591        if key_block_size:
3592            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3593
3594        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3595        if using:
3596            return f"USING {using}"
3597
3598        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3599        if parser:
3600            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3601
3602        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3603        if comment:
3604            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3605
3606        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3607        if visible is not None:
3608            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3609
3610        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3611        if engine_attr:
3612            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3613
3614        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3615        if secondary_engine_attr:
3616            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3617
3618        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3619        return ""
def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3621    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3622        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3623        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3625    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3626        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3627        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3628        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3629        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3630        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3631        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3632        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3633        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3634        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3635        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3636        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
def nvl2_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Nvl2) -> str:
3638    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3639        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3640            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3641
3642        case = exp.Case().when(
3643            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3644            expression.args["true"],
3645            copy=False,
3646        )
3647        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3648        if else_cond:
3649            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3650
3651        return self.sql(case)
def comprehension_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comprehension) -> str:
3653    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3654        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3655        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3656        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3657        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3658        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3659        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3661    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3662        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def opclass_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Opclass) -> str:
3664    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3665        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def predict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Predict) -> str:
3667    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3668        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3669        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3670        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3671        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3672        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3673        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
def forin_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForIn) -> str:
3675    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3676        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3677        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3678        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
def refresh_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Refresh) -> str:
3680    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3681        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3682        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3683        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
def operator_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Operator) -> str:
3685    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3686        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
def toarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToArray) -> str:
3688    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3689        arg = expression.this
3690        if not arg.type:
3691            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3692
3693            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3694
3695        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3696            return self.sql(arg)
3697
3698        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3699        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3701    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3702        this = expression.this
3703        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3704            return self.sql(this)
3705
3706        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3708    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3709        this = expression.this
3710        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3711            return self.sql(this)
3712
3713        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3715    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3716        this = expression.this
3717        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3718
3719        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3720            return self.sql(
3721                exp.cast(
3722                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3723                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3724                )
3725            )
3726
3727        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3728            return self.sql(this)
3729
3730        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
def unixdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnixDate) -> str:
3732    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3733        return self.sql(
3734            exp.func(
3735                "DATEDIFF",
3736                expression.this,
3737                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3738                "day",
3739            )
3740        )
def lastday_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LastDay) -> str:
3742    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3743        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3744            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3745
3746        unit = expression.text("unit")
3747        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3748            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3749
3750        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
def dateadd_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd) -> str:
3752    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3753        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3754
3755        return self.func(
3756            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3757        )
def arrayany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayAny) -> str:
3759    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3760        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3761            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3762            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3763            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3764            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3765
3766        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3767
3768        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3769        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3770            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3771
3772        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def struct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Struct) -> str:
3774    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3775        expression.set(
3776            "expressions",
3777            [
3778                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3779                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3780                else e
3781                for e in expression.expressions
3782            ],
3783        )
3784
3785        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionRange) -> str:
3787    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3788        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3789        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3790
3791        return f"{low} TO {high}"
def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TruncateTable) -> str:
3793    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3794        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3795        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3796
3797        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3798
3799        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3800        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3801
3802        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3803        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3804
3805        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3806        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3807
3808        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3809        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3810
3811        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
def convert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Convert) -> str:
3815    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3816        to = expression.this
3817        value = expression.expression
3818        style = expression.args.get("style")
3819        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3820        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3821
3822        if not to or not value:
3823            return ""
3824
3825        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3826        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3827            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3828
3829        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3830        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3831
3832        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3833        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3834            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3835
3836            style_value = style.name
3837            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3838            if not converted_style:
3839                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3840
3841            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3842
3843            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3844                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3845            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3846                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3847            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3848                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3849            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3850                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3851
3852        if not transformed:
3853            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3854
3855        return self.sql(transformed)
def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CopyParameter) -> str:
3911    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
3912        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
3913
3914        if expression.expressions:
3915            upper = option.upper()
3916
3917            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
3918            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
3919
3920            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
3921            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
3922            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
3923            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
3924
3925        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3926
3927        if not value:
3928            return option
3929
3930        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
3931
3932        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
def credentials_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Credentials) -> str:
3934    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
3935        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
3936        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
3937            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
3938            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3939            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
3940        else:
3941            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
3942            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
3943            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
3944
3945        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
3946        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
3947
3948        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
3949        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
3950
3951        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
3952        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
3953
3954        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
3955        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
3956
3957        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
def copy_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Copy) -> str:
3959    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
3960        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3961        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
3962
3963        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3964        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
3965        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
3966        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
3967
3968        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
3969        params = self.expressions(
3970            expression,
3971            key="params",
3972            sep=sep,
3973            new_line=True,
3974            skip_last=True,
3975            skip_first=True,
3976            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
3977        )
3978
3979        if params:
3980            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
3981                params = f" WITH ({params})"
3982            elif not self.pretty:
3983                params = f" {params}"
3984
3985        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
def semicolon_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Semicolon) -> str:
3987    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
3988        return ""
def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
3990    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
3991        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
3992        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
3993        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
3994        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
3995        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
3996
3997        if filter_col or retention_period:
3998            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
3999
4000        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint) -> str:
4002    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
4003        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
4004    ) -> str:
4005        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4006        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4007        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4008        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
def gapfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GapFill) -> str:
4010    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
4011        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4012        this = f"TABLE {this}"
4013        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4015    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4016        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4018    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4019        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4020        expr = expression.expression
4021
4022        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4023            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4024            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4025        else:
4026            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4027
4028        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
def parsejson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ParseJSON) -> str:
4030    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4031        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4032            return self.sql(expression.this)
4033
4034        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
def rand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rand) -> str:
4036    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4037        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4038        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4039
4040        if lower and upper:
4041            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4042        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
def changes_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Changes) -> str:
4044    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4045        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4046        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4047        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4048        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4049        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4050        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4051
4052        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
def pad_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pad) -> str:
4054    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4055        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4056
4057        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4058        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4059            fill_pattern = "' '"
4060
4061        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
def summarize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Summarize) -> str:
4063    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
4064        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
4065        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4067    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4068        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
4069
4070        parent = expression.parent
4071        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
4072            parent = parent.parent
4073
4074        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
4075            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
4076
4077        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
4078            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
4079
4080        return self.sql(generate_series)
def arrayconcat_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayConcat, name: str = 'ARRAY_CONCAT') -> str:
4082    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
4083        exprs = expression.expressions
4084        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
4085            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
4086        else:
4087            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
4088
4089        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs)
def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4091    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4092        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
4093            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4094
4095        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
4096        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
4097        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
4098
4099        if source_tz and timestamp:
4100            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
4101                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
4102            )
4103
4104        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
4105
4106        return self.sql(expr)