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sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import typing as t
   5from collections import defaultdict
   6
   7from sqlglot import exp
   8from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
   9from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, seq_get
  10from sqlglot.time import format_time
  11from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  12
  13logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  14
  15
  16class Generator:
  17    """
  18    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  19
  20    Args:
  21        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  22            Default: False.
  23        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  24            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  25            True or 'always': Always quote.
  26            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  27        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  28            Default: False.
  29        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  30            Default: 2.
  31        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  32            Default: 2.
  33        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  34            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  35            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  36            False: Disables function name normalization.
  37        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  38            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  39        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  40            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  41            Default: 3
  42        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  43            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  44            Default: False
  45        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  46            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  47            line length.
  48            Default: 80
  49        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  50            Default: True
  51    """
  52
  53    TRANSFORMS = {
  54        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  55            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  56        ),
  57        exp.TsOrDsAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  58            "TS_OR_DS_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  59        ),
  60        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  61        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  62        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  63        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  64        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  65        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  66        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  67        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  68        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  69        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  70        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  71        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  72        exp.HeapProperty: lambda self, e: "HEAP",
  73        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  74        exp.IntervalDayToSecondSpan: "DAY TO SECOND",
  75        exp.IntervalYearToMonthSpan: "YEAR TO MONTH",
  76        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  77        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  78        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  79        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  80        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  81        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  82        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  83        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  84        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  85        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  86        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  87        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
  88        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
  89        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
  90        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
  91        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
  92        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
  94        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
  95        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
  96        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  97    }
  98
  99    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
 100    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
 101
 102    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 103    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 104
 105    # Always do union distinct or union all
 106    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 107
 108    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 109    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 110
 111    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 112    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 113
 114    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 115    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 116
 117    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 118    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 119
 120    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 121    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 122
 123    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 124    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 125
 126    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 127    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 128
 129    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 130    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 131
 132    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 133    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 134
 135    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 136    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 137
 138    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 139    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 140
 141    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 142    JOIN_HINTS = True
 143
 144    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 145    TABLE_HINTS = True
 146
 147    # Whether or not query hints should be generated
 148    QUERY_HINTS = True
 149
 150    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 151    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 152
 153    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 154    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 155
 156    # Whether or not to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 157    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 158
 159    # Whether or not to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 160    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 161
 162    # Whether or not to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 163    RETURNING_END = True
 164
 165    # Whether or not to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 166    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 167
 168    # Whether or not to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 169    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 170
 171    # Whether or not TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 172    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 173
 174    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 175    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 176
 177    # Whether or not VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 178    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 179    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 180    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 181
 182    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 183        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 184        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 185        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 186        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 187        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 188        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 189        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 190    }
 191
 192    STAR_MAPPING = {
 193        "except": "EXCEPT",
 194        "replace": "REPLACE",
 195    }
 196
 197    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 198        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 199        "seconds": "second",
 200        "minutes": "minute",
 201        "hours": "hour",
 202        "days": "day",
 203        "weeks": "week",
 204        "months": "month",
 205        "quarters": "quarter",
 206        "years": "year",
 207    }
 208
 209    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 210
 211    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 212
 213    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 214
 215    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 216        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 217        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 218        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 219        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 220        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 221        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 222        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 223        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 224        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 225        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 226        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 227        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 228        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 229        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 230        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 231        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 232        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 233        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 234        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 235        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 236        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 237        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 238        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 239        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 240        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 241        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 242        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 243        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 244        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 245        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 246        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 247        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 248        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 249        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 250        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 251        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 252        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 253        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 254        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 255        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 256        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 257        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 258        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 259        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 260        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 261        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 262        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 263        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 264        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 265        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 266        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 267        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 268        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 269        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 270        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 271        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 272    }
 273
 274    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 275    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 276
 277    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 278    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 279        exp.Create,
 280        exp.Delete,
 281        exp.Drop,
 282        exp.From,
 283        exp.Insert,
 284        exp.Join,
 285        exp.Select,
 286        exp.Update,
 287        exp.Where,
 288        exp.With,
 289    )
 290
 291    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 292    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 293        exp.Column,
 294        exp.Literal,
 295        exp.Neg,
 296        exp.Paren,
 297    )
 298
 299    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 300
 301    # Autofilled
 302    INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 303    INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: t.Dict = {}
 304    INDEX_OFFSET = 0
 305    UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
 306    ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
 307    IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
 308    STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
 309    NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = "upper"
 310    NULL_ORDERING = "nulls_are_small"
 311    ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK = False
 312
 313    can_identify: t.Callable[[str, str | bool], bool]
 314
 315    # Delimiters for quotes, identifiers and the corresponding escape characters
 316    QUOTE_START = "'"
 317    QUOTE_END = "'"
 318    IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
 319    IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
 320    STRING_ESCAPE = "'"
 321    IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE = '"'
 322
 323    # Delimiters for bit, hex, byte and raw literals
 324    BIT_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 325    BIT_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 326    HEX_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 327    HEX_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 328    BYTE_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 329    BYTE_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 330
 331    __slots__ = (
 332        "pretty",
 333        "identify",
 334        "normalize",
 335        "pad",
 336        "_indent",
 337        "normalize_functions",
 338        "unsupported_level",
 339        "max_unsupported",
 340        "leading_comma",
 341        "max_text_width",
 342        "comments",
 343        "unsupported_messages",
 344        "_escaped_quote_end",
 345        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 346        "_cache",
 347    )
 348
 349    def __init__(
 350        self,
 351        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 352        identify: str | bool = False,
 353        normalize: bool = False,
 354        pad: int = 2,
 355        indent: int = 2,
 356        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 357        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 358        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 359        leading_comma: bool = False,
 360        max_text_width: int = 80,
 361        comments: bool = True,
 362    ):
 363        import sqlglot
 364
 365        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 366        self.identify = identify
 367        self.normalize = normalize
 368        self.pad = pad
 369        self._indent = indent
 370        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 371        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 372        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 373        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 374        self.comments = comments
 375
 376        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 377        self.normalize_functions = (
 378            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 379        )
 380
 381        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 382        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.STRING_ESCAPE + self.QUOTE_END
 383        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = self.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE + self.IDENTIFIER_END
 384        self._cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
 385
 386    def generate(
 387        self,
 388        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
 389        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
 390    ) -> str:
 391        """
 392        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 393
 394        Args:
 395            expression: The syntax tree.
 396            cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression
 397                which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
 398
 399        Returns:
 400            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 401        """
 402        if cache is not None:
 403            self._cache = cache
 404
 405        self.unsupported_messages = []
 406        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 407        self._cache = None
 408
 409        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 410            return sql
 411
 412        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 413            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 414                logger.warning(msg)
 415        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 416            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 417
 418        if self.pretty:
 419            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 420        return sql
 421
 422    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 423        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 424            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 425        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 426
 427    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 428        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 429
 430    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 431        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 432
 433    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 434        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 435        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 436        return comment
 437
 438    def maybe_comment(
 439        self,
 440        sql: str,
 441        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 442        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 443    ) -> str:
 444        comments = (
 445            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 446            if self.comments
 447            else None
 448        )
 449
 450        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
 451            return sql
 452
 453        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
 454        comments_sql = sep.join(
 455            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 456        )
 457
 458        if not comments_sql:
 459            return sql
 460
 461        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 462            return (
 463                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 464                if sql[0].isspace()
 465                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 466            )
 467
 468        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 469
 470    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 471        this_sql = self.indent(
 472            self.sql(expression)
 473            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 474            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 475            level=1,
 476            pad=0,
 477        )
 478        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 479
 480    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 481        original = self.identify
 482        self.identify = False
 483        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 484        self.identify = original
 485        return result
 486
 487    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 488        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 489            return name.upper()
 490        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 491            return name.lower()
 492        return name
 493
 494    def indent(
 495        self,
 496        sql: str,
 497        level: int = 0,
 498        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 499        skip_first: bool = False,
 500        skip_last: bool = False,
 501    ) -> str:
 502        if not self.pretty:
 503            return sql
 504
 505        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 506        lines = sql.split("\n")
 507
 508        return "\n".join(
 509            line
 510            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 511            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 512            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 513        )
 514
 515    def sql(
 516        self,
 517        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 518        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 519        comment: bool = True,
 520    ) -> str:
 521        if not expression:
 522            return ""
 523
 524        if isinstance(expression, str):
 525            return expression
 526
 527        if key:
 528            value = expression.args.get(key)
 529            if value:
 530                return self.sql(value)
 531            return ""
 532
 533        if self._cache is not None:
 534            expression_id = hash(expression)
 535
 536            if expression_id in self._cache:
 537                return self._cache[expression_id]
 538
 539        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 540
 541        if callable(transform):
 542            sql = transform(self, expression)
 543        elif transform:
 544            sql = transform
 545        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 546            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 547
 548            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 549                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 550            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 551                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 552            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 553                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 554            else:
 555                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 556        else:
 557            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 558
 559        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 560
 561        if self._cache is not None:
 562            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
 563        return sql
 564
 565    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 566        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 567        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 568        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 569
 570    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 571        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 572        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 573        options = expression.args.get("options")
 574        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 575        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 576        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 577        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 578        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 579
 580    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 581        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 582            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 583        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 584        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 585
 586    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 587        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 588
 589        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 590            join_mark = ""
 591            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 592
 593        column = ".".join(
 594            self.sql(part)
 595            for part in (
 596                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 597                expression.args.get("db"),
 598                expression.args.get("table"),
 599                expression.args.get("this"),
 600            )
 601            if part
 602        )
 603
 604        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 605
 606    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 607        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 608        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 609        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 610        return f"{position}{this}"
 611
 612    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 613        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 614        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 615        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 616        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 617        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 618        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 619        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 620        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 621
 622        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 623
 624    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 625        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 626        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 627        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 628
 629    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 630        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 631
 632    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 633        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 634            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 635        else:
 636            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 637
 638        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 639
 640    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 641        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 642    ) -> str:
 643        this = ""
 644        if expression.this is not None:
 645            on_null = "ON NULL " if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 646            this = " ALWAYS " if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT {on_null}"
 647
 648        start = expression.args.get("start")
 649        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 650        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 651        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 652        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 653        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 654        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 655        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 656        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 657        cycle_sql = ""
 658
 659        if cycle is not None:
 660            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 661            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 662
 663        sequence_opts = ""
 664        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 665            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 666            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 667
 668        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 669        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 670
 671        return f"GENERATED{this}AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 672
 673    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 674        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 675
 676    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 677        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 678        if desc is not None:
 679            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 680        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 681
 682    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 683        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 684        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 685        return f"UNIQUE{this}"
 686
 687    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 688        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 689
 690    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 691        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 692        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 693        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 694
 695        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 696
 697        properties_sql = ""
 698        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 699            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 700        ):
 701            properties_sql = self.sql(
 702                exp.Properties(
 703                    expressions=[
 704                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 705                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 706                    ]
 707                )
 708            )
 709
 710        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 711        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 712        if expression_sql:
 713            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
 714
 715            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 716                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 717                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 718                        exp.Properties(
 719                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 720                        ),
 721                        wrapped=False,
 722                    )
 723                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 724                else:
 725                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 726
 727        postindex_props_sql = ""
 728        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 729            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 730                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 731                wrapped=False,
 732                prefix=" ",
 733            )
 734
 735        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 736        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 737        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 738
 739        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 740        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 741
 742        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 743        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 744            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 745                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 746                sep=" ",
 747                prefix=" ",
 748                wrapped=False,
 749            )
 750
 751        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 752
 753        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 754        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 755            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 756                exp.Properties(
 757                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 758                ),
 759                sep=" ",
 760                prefix=" ",
 761                wrapped=False,
 762            )
 763
 764        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 765        no_schema_binding = (
 766            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 767        )
 768
 769        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 770        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 771
 772        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 773        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 774
 775    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 776        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 777        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 778
 779        if when:
 780            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 781            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 782            return f"CLONE {this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 783
 784        return f"CLONE {this}"
 785
 786    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 787        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 788
 789    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 790        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 791        if with_:
 792            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 793        return sql
 794
 795    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 796        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 797        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
 798
 799        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 800
 801    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 802        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 803        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 804
 805    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 806        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 807        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 808        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 809        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 810
 811    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 812        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 813        if self.BIT_START:
 814            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
 815        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 816
 817    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 818        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 819        if self.HEX_START:
 820            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
 821        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 822
 823    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 824        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 825        if self.BYTE_START:
 826            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
 827        return this
 828
 829    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 830        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
 831        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
 832
 833    def datatypesize_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeSize) -> str:
 834        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 835        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 836        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
 837        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 838
 839    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 840        type_value = expression.this
 841
 842        type_sql = (
 843            self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 844            if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
 845            else type_value
 846        )
 847
 848        nested = ""
 849        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 850        values = ""
 851
 852        if interior:
 853            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 854                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 855                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 856                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 857                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 858                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 859            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
 860                nested = f" {interior}"
 861            else:
 862                nested = f"({interior})"
 863
 864        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 865        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
 866            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
 867            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
 868        ):
 869            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
 870
 871        return type_sql
 872
 873    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 874        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 875        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 876        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 877        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
 878
 879    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 880        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 881        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 882        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 883        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
 884        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
 885        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
 886        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
 887        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
 888        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
 889        if self.RETURNING_END:
 890            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
 891        else:
 892            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
 893        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
 894
 895    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
 896        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 897        kind = expression.args["kind"]
 898        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
 899        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
 900        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
 901        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
 902        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
 903        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
 904        return (
 905            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
 906        )
 907
 908    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 909        return self.prepend_ctes(
 910            expression,
 911            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
 912        )
 913
 914    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 915        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
 916
 917    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
 918        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
 919        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
 920        count = expression.args.get("count")
 921        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
 922        if expression.args.get("percent"):
 923            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
 924        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
 925        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
 926
 927    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
 928        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 929        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
 930        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
 931
 932    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
 933        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
 934            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
 935            return ""
 936
 937        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
 938
 939    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
 940        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 941        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
 942        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
 943        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
 944        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
 945        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
 946        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table} " if table else ""
 947        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 948        using = f"USING {using} " if using else ""
 949        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
 950        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 951        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 952        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
 953        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
 954        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}"
 955
 956    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
 957        text = expression.name
 958        lower = text.lower()
 959        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
 960        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
 961        if (
 962            expression.quoted
 963            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
 964            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
 965            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
 966        ):
 967            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
 968        return text
 969
 970    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
 971        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
 972        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
 973        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
 974        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
 975        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
 976
 977    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
 978        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
 979        return f"{prefix}{string}"
 980
 981    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
 982        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
 983
 984    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
 985        root_properties = []
 986        with_properties = []
 987
 988        for p in expression.expressions:
 989            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
 990            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
 991                with_properties.append(p.copy())
 992            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
 993                root_properties.append(p.copy())
 994
 995        return self.root_properties(
 996            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
 997        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
 998
 999    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1000        if properties.expressions:
1001            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1002        return ""
1003
1004    def properties(
1005        self,
1006        properties: exp.Properties,
1007        prefix: str = "",
1008        sep: str = ", ",
1009        suffix: str = "",
1010        wrapped: bool = True,
1011    ) -> str:
1012        if properties.expressions:
1013            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1014            if expressions:
1015                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1016                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1017        return ""
1018
1019    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1020        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1021
1022    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1023        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1024        for p in properties.expressions:
1025            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1026            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1027                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p.copy())
1028            else:
1029                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1030
1031        return properties_locs
1032
1033    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1034        property_cls = expression.__class__
1035        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1036            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1037
1038        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1039        if not property_name:
1040            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1041
1042        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1043
1044    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1045        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1046        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1047        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1048
1049    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1050        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1051        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1052        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1053
1054    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1055        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1056        local = expression.args.get("local")
1057        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1058        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1059        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1060        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1061        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1062
1063    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1064        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1065        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1066        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1067
1068    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1069        if expression.args.get("default"):
1070            property = "DEFAULT"
1071        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1072            property = "ON"
1073        else:
1074            property = "OFF"
1075        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1076
1077    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1078        if expression.args.get("no"):
1079            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1080        if expression.args.get("default"):
1081            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1082
1083        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1084        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1085
1086    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1087        default = expression.args.get("default")
1088        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1089        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1090        if default or minimum or maximum:
1091            if default:
1092                prop = "DEFAULT"
1093            elif minimum:
1094                prop = "MINIMUM"
1095            else:
1096                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1097            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1098        units = expression.args.get("units")
1099        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1100        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1101
1102    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1103        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1104        always = expression.args.get("always")
1105        default = expression.args.get("default")
1106        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1107        never = expression.args.get("never")
1108
1109        if autotemp is not None:
1110            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1111        elif always:
1112            prop = "ALWAYS"
1113        elif default:
1114            prop = "DEFAULT"
1115        elif manual:
1116            prop = "MANUAL"
1117        elif never:
1118            prop = "NEVER"
1119        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1120
1121    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1122        no = expression.args.get("no")
1123        no = " NO" if no else ""
1124        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1125        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1126
1127        for_ = ""
1128        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1129            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1130        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1131            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1132        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1133            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1134        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1135
1136    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1137        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1138        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1139        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1140        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1141        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1142        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1143
1144    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1145        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1146        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1147        statistics_sql = ""
1148        if statistics is not None:
1149            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1150        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1151
1152    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1153        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1154
1155        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1156            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1157        else:
1158            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1159
1160        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1161        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1162        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1163
1164        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1165
1166        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1167        partition_sql = (
1168            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1169        )
1170        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1171        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1172        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1173        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1174        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1175
1176        if self.RETURNING_END:
1177            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1178        else:
1179            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1180
1181        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1182        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1183
1184    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1185        return self.prepend_ctes(
1186            expression,
1187            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1188        )
1189
1190    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1191        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1192
1193    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1194        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1195
1196    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1197        return expression.name.upper()
1198
1199    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1200        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1201        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1202        if constraint:
1203            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1204        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1205        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1206        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1207        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1208        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1209        if expressions:
1210            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1211        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1212
1213    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1214        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1215
1216    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1217        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1218        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1219        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1220        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1221        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1222        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1223        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1224        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1225        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1226        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1227        null = expression.args.get("null")
1228        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1229        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1230
1231    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1232        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1233
1234    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1235        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1236        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1237        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1238        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1239
1240    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1241        table = ".".join(
1242            part
1243            for part in [
1244                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1245                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1246                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1247            ]
1248            if part
1249        )
1250
1251        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1252        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1253        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1254        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1255        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1256        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1257        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1258        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1259        system_time = expression.args.get("system_time")
1260        system_time = f" {self.sql(expression, 'system_time')}" if system_time else ""
1261
1262        return f"{table}{system_time}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
1263
1264    def tablesample_sql(
1265        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1266    ) -> str:
1267        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1268            table = expression.this.copy()
1269            table.set("alias", None)
1270            this = self.sql(table)
1271            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1272        else:
1273            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1274            alias = ""
1275        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1276        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1277        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1278        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1279        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1280        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1281        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1282        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1283        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1284        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1285        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1286        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1287        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1288            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1289        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1290        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1291        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1292        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
1293
1294    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1295        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1296
1297        if expression.this:
1298            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1299            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1300            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1301            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1302            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1303            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1304
1305        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1306        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1307        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1308        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1309        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1310        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1311        if include_nulls is not None:
1312            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1313        else:
1314            nulls = ""
1315        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1316
1317    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1318        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1319
1320    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1321        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1322        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1323        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1324        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1325        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1326        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1327        if self.RETURNING_END:
1328            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}{limit}"
1329        else:
1330            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}{limit}"
1331        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}"
1332        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1333
1334    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1335        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1336        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1337            args = self.expressions(expression)
1338            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1339            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1340            values = (
1341                f"({values})"
1342                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1343                else values
1344            )
1345            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1346
1347        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1348        # Note: If you have a lot of unions then this will result in a large number of recursive statements to
1349        # evaluate the expression. You may need to increase `sys.setrecursionlimit` to run and it can also be
1350        # very slow.
1351        expression = expression.copy()
1352        column_names = expression.alias and expression.args["alias"].columns
1353
1354        selects = []
1355
1356        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1357            row = tup.expressions
1358
1359            if i == 0 and column_names:
1360                row = [
1361                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1362                ]
1363
1364            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1365
1366        subquery_expression: exp.Select | exp.Union = selects[0]
1367        if len(selects) > 1:
1368            for select in selects[1:]:
1369                subquery_expression = exp.union(
1370                    subquery_expression, select, distinct=False, copy=False
1371                )
1372
1373        return self.subquery_sql(subquery_expression.subquery(expression.alias, copy=False))
1374
1375    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1376        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1377
1378    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1379        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1380        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1381        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1382
1383    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1384        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1385
1386    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1387        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1388
1389        if expression.args.get("all"):
1390            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1391
1392        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1393        grouping_sets = (
1394            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1395        )
1396
1397        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1398        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1399            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1400        else:
1401            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1402            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1403
1404        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1405        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1406            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1407        else:
1408            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1409            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1410
1411        groupings = csv(
1412            grouping_sets,
1413            cube_sql,
1414            rollup_sql,
1415            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1416            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1417        )
1418
1419        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1420            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1421
1422        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1423
1424    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1425        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1426        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1427
1428    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1429        op_sql = " ".join(
1430            op
1431            for op in (
1432                expression.method,
1433                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1434                expression.side,
1435                expression.kind,
1436                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1437            )
1438            if op
1439        )
1440        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1441        using = expression.args.get("using")
1442
1443        if not on_sql and using:
1444            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1445
1446        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1447
1448        if on_sql:
1449            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1450            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1451            if using:
1452                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1453            else:
1454                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1455        elif not op_sql:
1456            return f", {this_sql}"
1457
1458        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1459        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1460
1461    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1462        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1463        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1464        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1465
1466    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1467        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1468
1469        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1470            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1471
1472        if expression.args.get("view"):
1473            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1474            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1475            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1476            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1477            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1478            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1479
1480        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1481        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1482        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1483
1484    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1485        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1486        args = ", ".join(
1487            sql
1488            for sql in (
1489                self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1490                self.sql(expression, "expression"),
1491            )
1492            if sql
1493        )
1494        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args}"
1495
1496    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1497        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1498        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1499
1500    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1501        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1502        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1503        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1504        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1505        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1506        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1507        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1508        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1509
1510    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1511        expressions = (
1512            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1513        )
1514        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1515        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1516
1517    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1518        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1519
1520    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1521        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1522            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1523            return ""
1524
1525        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1526        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1527        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1528        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1529
1530        if wait is not None:
1531            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1532                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1533            else:
1534                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1535
1536        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1537
1538    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1539        text = expression.this or ""
1540        if expression.is_string:
1541            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1542        return text
1543
1544    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1545        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1546        if self.ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK:
1547            text = text.replace("\n", "\\n")
1548        elif self.pretty:
1549            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1550        return text
1551
1552    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1553        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1554        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1555        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1556        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1557        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1558        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1559        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1560        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1561        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1562        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1563        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1564
1565    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1566        return "NULL"
1567
1568    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1569        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1570
1571    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1572        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1573        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1574        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1575
1576    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1577        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1578
1579    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1580        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1581
1582    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1583        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1584
1585    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1586        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1587        asc = not desc
1588
1589        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1590        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1591        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1592        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1593        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1594
1595        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1596        nulls_sort_change = ""
1597        if nulls_first and (
1598            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1599        ):
1600            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1601        elif (
1602            nulls_last
1603            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1604            and not nulls_are_last
1605        ):
1606            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1607
1608        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1609            self.unsupported(
1610                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1611            )
1612            nulls_sort_change = ""
1613
1614        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1615
1616    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1617        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1618        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1619        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1620        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1621        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1622        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1623        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1624        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1625        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1626        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1627        definition_sqls = [
1628            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1629            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1630        ]
1631        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1632        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1633        body = "".join(
1634            (
1635                partition,
1636                order,
1637                measures,
1638                rows,
1639                after,
1640                pattern,
1641                define,
1642            )
1643        )
1644        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1645        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1646        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1647
1648    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1649        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1650
1651        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1652        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1653
1654        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1655            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1656        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1657            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1658
1659        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1660
1661        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1662            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1663            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1664            else []
1665        )
1666
1667        return csv(
1668            *sqls,
1669            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1670            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1671            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1672            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1673            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1674            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1675            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1676            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1677            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1678            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1679            sep="",
1680        )
1681
1682    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1683        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1684    ) -> t.List[str]:
1685        return [
1686            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1687            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1688        ]
1689
1690    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1691        return [
1692            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1693            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1694            if expression.args.get("windows")
1695            else "",
1696            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1697            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1698            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1699        ]
1700
1701    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1702        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1703        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1704        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1705
1706    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1707        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1708        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1709        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1710        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1711        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1712        top = (
1713            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1714            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1715            else ""
1716        )
1717
1718        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1719
1720        if kind:
1721            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1722                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1723            else:
1724                if kind == "STRUCT":
1725                    expressions = self.expressions(
1726                        sqls=[
1727                            self.sql(
1728                                exp.Struct(
1729                                    expressions=[
1730                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1731                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1732                                        )
1733                                        for e in expression.expressions
1734                                    ]
1735                                )
1736                            )
1737                        ]
1738                    )
1739                kind = ""
1740
1741        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1742        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1743            expression,
1744            f"SELECT{top}{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1745            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1746            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1747        )
1748        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1749
1750    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1751        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1752        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1753        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1754        return f"{this}{sql}"
1755
1756    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1757        return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1758
1759    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1760        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1761        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1762        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1763        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1764        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
1765
1766    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1767        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1768        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1769        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
1770
1771    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1772        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1773        kind = expression.text("kind")
1774        if kind:
1775            kind = f"{kind}."
1776        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
1777
1778    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1779        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
1780
1781    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1782        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1783        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1784
1785        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1786        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1787
1788        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1789        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1790
1791    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1792        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1793        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1794
1795    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1796        return self.prepend_ctes(
1797            expression,
1798            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1799        )
1800
1801    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1802        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1803        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1804        return f"UNION{kind}"
1805
1806    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1807        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1808        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1809        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1810            columns = alias.columns
1811            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1812        else:
1813            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1814        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1815        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1816        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1817        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1818        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
1819
1820    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1821        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1822        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1823
1824    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1825        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1826        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1827        order = expression.args.get("order")
1828        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1829        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1830        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1831        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1832
1833        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1834
1835        first = expression.args.get("first")
1836        if first is None:
1837            first = ""
1838        else:
1839            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1840
1841        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1842            return f"{this} {alias}"
1843
1844        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1845        return f"{this} ({args})"
1846
1847    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1848        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1849        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
1850
1851    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1852        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1853        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1854        end = (
1855            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1856            or "CURRENT ROW"
1857        )
1858        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
1859
1860    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1861        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1862        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1863        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
1864
1865    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1866        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1867        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1868        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1869        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
1870
1871    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1872        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
1873        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1874
1875        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
1876
1877    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
1878        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
1879
1880    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1881        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
1882
1883    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1884        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1885        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1886            this = self.wrap(this)
1887        return f"ANY {this}"
1888
1889    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1890        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
1891
1892    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1893        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1894        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1895
1896        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1897            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1898            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1899
1900        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1901
1902        if default:
1903            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1904
1905        statements.append("END")
1906
1907        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
1908            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1909
1910        return " ".join(statements)
1911
1912    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1913        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1914        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1915        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
1916
1917    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1918        order = expression.args.get("order")
1919        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1920        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
1921
1922    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1923        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
1924        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1925        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
1926
1927    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1928        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1929
1930        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1931            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1932        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1933            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1934        else:
1935            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
1936
1937    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
1938        expressions = expression.expressions
1939        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
1940            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
1941        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
1942
1943    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1944        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1945        return f"CHECK ({this})"
1946
1947    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1948        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1949        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1950        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1951        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
1952        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
1953        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
1954        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
1955        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
1956
1957    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1958        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1959        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1960        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1961        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
1962
1963    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
1964        expression = expression.copy()
1965        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
1966
1967    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1968        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
1969        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
1970        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
1971
1972    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1973        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1974
1975    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
1976        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
1977        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
1978        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
1979        if unique_keys is not None:
1980            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
1981        else:
1982            unique_keys = ""
1983        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
1984        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
1985        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
1986        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
1987        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
1988        return self.func(
1989            "JSON_OBJECT",
1990            *expression.expressions,
1991            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})",
1992        )
1993
1994    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
1995        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1996        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1997        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1998        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
1999        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2000        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2001
2002    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2003        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2004        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2005        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2006        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2007        with_ = (
2008            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2009            if expressions
2010            else ""
2011        )
2012        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2013
2014    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2015        query = expression.args.get("query")
2016        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2017        field = expression.args.get("field")
2018        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2019
2020        if query:
2021            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2022        elif unnest:
2023            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2024        elif field:
2025            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2026        else:
2027            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2028
2029        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2030
2031    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2032        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2033
2034    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2035        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2036        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2037            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
2038        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2039
2040        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2041            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2042            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2043
2044        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2045        if this:
2046            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2047            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2048
2049        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2050
2051    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2052        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2053
2054    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2055        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2056        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2057        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2058        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2059        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2060        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2061
2062    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2063        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
2064
2065    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2066        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2067            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2068        else:
2069            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2070            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2071
2072        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2073
2074    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2075        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2076        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2077        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2078        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2079
2080    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2081        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2082
2083    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2084        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2085        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2086        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2087
2088    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2089        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2090
2091    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2092        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2093        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2094        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2095
2096    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2097        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2098
2099    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2100        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
2101
2102    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2103        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
2104
2105    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2106        if not self.pretty:
2107            return self.binary(expression, op)
2108
2109        sqls = tuple(
2110            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2111            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2112        )
2113
2114        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2115        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
2116
2117    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2118        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2119
2120    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2121        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2122
2123    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2124        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2125
2126    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2127        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2128
2129    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2130        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2131
2132    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2133        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2134
2135    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2136        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2137        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2138        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')}{format_sql})"
2139
2140    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2141        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2142        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2143
2144    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2145        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2146
2147    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2148        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2149
2150    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2151        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2152        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2153        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2154        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2155        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2156
2157    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2158        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2159        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2160        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2161        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2162        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2163        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2164        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2165        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2166        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2167
2168    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2169        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2170        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2171        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2172        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2173
2174        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2175            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2176
2177        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2178
2179    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2180        return "BEGIN"
2181
2182    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2183        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2184        if chain is not None:
2185            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2186
2187        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2188
2189    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2190        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2191        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2192        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2193
2194    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2195        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2196
2197        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2198        if dtype:
2199            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2200            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2201            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2202            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2203            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2204
2205        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2206        if default:
2207            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2208
2209        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2210            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2211
2212        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2213
2214    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2215        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2216            # Remove db from tables
2217            expression = expression.transform(
2218                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2219            )
2220        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2221        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2222
2223    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2224        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2225
2226        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2227            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMN ")
2228        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2229            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2230        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2231            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2232        else:
2233            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2234
2235        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2236        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2237
2238    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2239        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2240        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2241        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2242
2243    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2244        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2245        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2246        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2247
2248        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2249        if enforced is not None:
2250            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2251
2252        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2253
2254    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2255        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2256        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2257
2258        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2259        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2260        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2261
2262    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2263        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2264
2265    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2266        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2267
2268    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2269        return self.sql(
2270            exp.Cast(
2271                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this.copy(), expression=expression.expression.copy()),
2272                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2273            )
2274        )
2275
2276    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2277        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2278
2279    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2280        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2281            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2282        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
2283
2284    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2285        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2286
2287    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2288        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2289
2290    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2291        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2292
2293    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2294        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2295
2296    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2297        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2298
2299    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2300        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2301
2302    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2303        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2304
2305    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2306        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2307
2308    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2309        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2310
2311    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2312        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2313
2314    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2315        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2316
2317    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2318        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2319            return self.sql(
2320                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2321            )
2322        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2323
2324    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2325        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2326
2327    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2328        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2329
2330    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2331        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2332
2333    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2334        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2335
2336    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2337        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2338
2339    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2340        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2341
2342    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2343        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2344
2345    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2346        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2347
2348    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2349        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2350
2351    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2352        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2353
2354    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2355        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2356
2357    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2358        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2359
2360    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2361        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2362
2363    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2364        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
2365
2366    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2367        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2368        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2369        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2370        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2371        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2372
2373    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2374        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2375        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2376
2377    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2378        args = []
2379
2380        for key in expression.arg_types:
2381            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2382
2383            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2384                for value in arg_value:
2385                    args.append(value)
2386            elif arg_value is not None:
2387                args.append(arg_value)
2388
2389        if self.normalize_functions:
2390            name = expression.sql_name()
2391        else:
2392            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2393
2394        return self.func(name, *args)
2395
2396    def func(
2397        self,
2398        name: str,
2399        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2400        prefix: str = "(",
2401        suffix: str = ")",
2402    ) -> str:
2403        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2404
2405    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2406        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2407        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2408            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2409        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2410
2411    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2412        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2413
2414    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2415        return format_time(
2416            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2417        )
2418
2419    def expressions(
2420        self,
2421        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2422        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2423        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2424        flat: bool = False,
2425        indent: bool = True,
2426        skip_first: bool = False,
2427        sep: str = ", ",
2428        prefix: str = "",
2429    ) -> str:
2430        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2431
2432        if not expressions:
2433            return ""
2434
2435        if flat:
2436            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2437
2438        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2439
2440        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2441        pad = " " * self.pad
2442        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2443
2444        result_sqls = []
2445        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2446            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2447            if not sql:
2448                continue
2449
2450            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2451
2452            if self.pretty:
2453                if self.leading_comma:
2454                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2455                else:
2456                    result_sqls.append(
2457                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2458                    )
2459            else:
2460                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2461
2462        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2463        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
2464
2465    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2466        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2467        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2468        if flat:
2469            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2470        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2471
2472    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2473        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2474        if not property_name:
2475            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2476        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2477
2478    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2479        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2480        op = self.seg(op)
2481        return self.query_modifiers(
2482            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2483        )
2484
2485    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2486        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2487
2488    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2489        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2490
2491    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2492        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2493        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2494        expressions = (
2495            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2496        )
2497        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2498
2499    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2500        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2501        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2502        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2503
2504    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2505        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2506
2507    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2508        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2509        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2510        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2511        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2512
2513        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2514        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2515            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2516            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2517                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2518        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2519            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2520                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2521            else:
2522                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2523        else:
2524            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2525        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2526
2527    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2528        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2529        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2530        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2531        return f"MERGE INTO {this} {using} {on} {self.expressions(expression, sep=' ')}"
2532
2533    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2534        if expression.args.get("format"):
2535            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2536
2537        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2538
2539    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2540        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2541        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2542        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2543        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2544        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2545
2546    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2547        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2548        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2549        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2550        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2551
2552    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2553        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
2554
2555    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2556        return ""
2557
2558    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2559        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2560        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2561        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2562        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2563        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
2564
2565    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2566        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2567        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2568
2569        if having:
2570            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2571
2572        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
2573
2574    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2575        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2576        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2577        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2578        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2579        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2580        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2581        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2582        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2583        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2584        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2585        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2586        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
2587        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
2588
2589    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2590        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
2591        if key_block_size:
2592            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
2593
2594        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2595        if using:
2596            return f"USING {using}"
2597
2598        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
2599        if parser:
2600            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
2601
2602        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2603        if comment:
2604            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
2605
2606        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
2607        if visible is not None:
2608            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
2609
2610        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
2611        if engine_attr:
2612            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
2613
2614        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
2615        if secondary_engine_attr:
2616            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
2617
2618        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
2619        return ""
2620
2621    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2622        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2623        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
2624        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2625        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2626        type_ = self.sql(expression, "type")
2627        type_ = f" USING {type_}" if type_ else ""
2628        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2629        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
2630        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
2631        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2632        return f"{kind}{this}{type_}{schema}{options}"
2633
2634
2635def cached_generator(
2636    cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
2637) -> t.Callable[[exp.Expression], str]:
2638    """Returns a cached generator."""
2639    cache = {} if cache is None else cache
2640    generator = Generator(normalize=True, identify="safe")
2641    return lambda e: generator.generate(e, cache)
logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
class Generator:
  17class Generator:
  18    """
  19    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  20
  21    Args:
  22        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  23            Default: False.
  24        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  25            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  26            True or 'always': Always quote.
  27            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  28        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  29            Default: False.
  30        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  31            Default: 2.
  32        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  33            Default: 2.
  34        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  35            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  36            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  37            False: Disables function name normalization.
  38        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  39            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  40        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  41            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  42            Default: 3
  43        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  44            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  45            Default: False
  46        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  47            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  48            line length.
  49            Default: 80
  50        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  51            Default: True
  52    """
  53
  54    TRANSFORMS = {
  55        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  56            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  57        ),
  58        exp.TsOrDsAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  59            "TS_OR_DS_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  60        ),
  61        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  62        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  63        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  64        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  65        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  66        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  67        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  68        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  69        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  70        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  71        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  72        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  73        exp.HeapProperty: lambda self, e: "HEAP",
  74        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  75        exp.IntervalDayToSecondSpan: "DAY TO SECOND",
  76        exp.IntervalYearToMonthSpan: "YEAR TO MONTH",
  77        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  78        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  79        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  80        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  81        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  82        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  83        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  84        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  85        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  86        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  87        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  88        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
  89        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
  90        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
  91        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
  92        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
  93        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
  95        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
  96        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
  97        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  98    }
  99
 100    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
 101    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
 102
 103    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 104    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 105
 106    # Always do union distinct or union all
 107    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 108
 109    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 110    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 111
 112    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 113    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 114
 115    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 116    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 117
 118    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 119    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 120
 121    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 122    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 123
 124    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 125    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 126
 127    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 128    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 129
 130    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 131    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 132
 133    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 134    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 135
 136    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 137    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 138
 139    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 140    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 141
 142    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 143    JOIN_HINTS = True
 144
 145    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 146    TABLE_HINTS = True
 147
 148    # Whether or not query hints should be generated
 149    QUERY_HINTS = True
 150
 151    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 152    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 153
 154    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 155    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 156
 157    # Whether or not to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 158    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 159
 160    # Whether or not to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 161    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 162
 163    # Whether or not to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 164    RETURNING_END = True
 165
 166    # Whether or not to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 167    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 168
 169    # Whether or not to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 170    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 171
 172    # Whether or not TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 173    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 174
 175    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 176    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 177
 178    # Whether or not VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 179    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 180    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 181    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 182
 183    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 184        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 185        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 186        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 187        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 188        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 189        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 190        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 191    }
 192
 193    STAR_MAPPING = {
 194        "except": "EXCEPT",
 195        "replace": "REPLACE",
 196    }
 197
 198    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 199        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 200        "seconds": "second",
 201        "minutes": "minute",
 202        "hours": "hour",
 203        "days": "day",
 204        "weeks": "week",
 205        "months": "month",
 206        "quarters": "quarter",
 207        "years": "year",
 208    }
 209
 210    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 211
 212    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 213
 214    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 215
 216    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 217        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 218        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 219        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 220        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 221        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 222        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 223        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 224        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 225        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 226        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 227        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 228        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 229        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 230        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 231        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 232        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 233        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 234        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 235        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 236        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 237        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 238        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 239        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 240        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 241        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 242        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 243        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 244        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 245        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 246        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 247        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 248        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 249        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 250        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 251        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 252        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 253        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 254        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 255        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 256        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 257        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 258        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 259        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 260        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 261        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 262        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 263        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 264        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 265        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 266        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 267        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 268        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 269        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 270        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 271        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 272        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 273    }
 274
 275    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 276    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 277
 278    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 279    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 280        exp.Create,
 281        exp.Delete,
 282        exp.Drop,
 283        exp.From,
 284        exp.Insert,
 285        exp.Join,
 286        exp.Select,
 287        exp.Update,
 288        exp.Where,
 289        exp.With,
 290    )
 291
 292    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 293    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 294        exp.Column,
 295        exp.Literal,
 296        exp.Neg,
 297        exp.Paren,
 298    )
 299
 300    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 301
 302    # Autofilled
 303    INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 304    INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: t.Dict = {}
 305    INDEX_OFFSET = 0
 306    UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
 307    ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
 308    IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
 309    STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
 310    NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = "upper"
 311    NULL_ORDERING = "nulls_are_small"
 312    ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK = False
 313
 314    can_identify: t.Callable[[str, str | bool], bool]
 315
 316    # Delimiters for quotes, identifiers and the corresponding escape characters
 317    QUOTE_START = "'"
 318    QUOTE_END = "'"
 319    IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
 320    IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
 321    STRING_ESCAPE = "'"
 322    IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE = '"'
 323
 324    # Delimiters for bit, hex, byte and raw literals
 325    BIT_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 326    BIT_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 327    HEX_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 328    HEX_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 329    BYTE_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 330    BYTE_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 331
 332    __slots__ = (
 333        "pretty",
 334        "identify",
 335        "normalize",
 336        "pad",
 337        "_indent",
 338        "normalize_functions",
 339        "unsupported_level",
 340        "max_unsupported",
 341        "leading_comma",
 342        "max_text_width",
 343        "comments",
 344        "unsupported_messages",
 345        "_escaped_quote_end",
 346        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 347        "_cache",
 348    )
 349
 350    def __init__(
 351        self,
 352        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 353        identify: str | bool = False,
 354        normalize: bool = False,
 355        pad: int = 2,
 356        indent: int = 2,
 357        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 358        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 359        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 360        leading_comma: bool = False,
 361        max_text_width: int = 80,
 362        comments: bool = True,
 363    ):
 364        import sqlglot
 365
 366        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 367        self.identify = identify
 368        self.normalize = normalize
 369        self.pad = pad
 370        self._indent = indent
 371        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 372        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 373        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 374        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 375        self.comments = comments
 376
 377        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 378        self.normalize_functions = (
 379            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 380        )
 381
 382        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 383        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.STRING_ESCAPE + self.QUOTE_END
 384        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = self.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE + self.IDENTIFIER_END
 385        self._cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
 386
 387    def generate(
 388        self,
 389        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
 390        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
 391    ) -> str:
 392        """
 393        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 394
 395        Args:
 396            expression: The syntax tree.
 397            cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression
 398                which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
 399
 400        Returns:
 401            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 402        """
 403        if cache is not None:
 404            self._cache = cache
 405
 406        self.unsupported_messages = []
 407        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 408        self._cache = None
 409
 410        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 411            return sql
 412
 413        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 414            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 415                logger.warning(msg)
 416        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 417            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 418
 419        if self.pretty:
 420            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 421        return sql
 422
 423    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 424        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 425            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 426        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 427
 428    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 429        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 430
 431    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 432        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 433
 434    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 435        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 436        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 437        return comment
 438
 439    def maybe_comment(
 440        self,
 441        sql: str,
 442        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 443        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 444    ) -> str:
 445        comments = (
 446            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 447            if self.comments
 448            else None
 449        )
 450
 451        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
 452            return sql
 453
 454        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
 455        comments_sql = sep.join(
 456            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 457        )
 458
 459        if not comments_sql:
 460            return sql
 461
 462        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 463            return (
 464                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 465                if sql[0].isspace()
 466                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 467            )
 468
 469        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 470
 471    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 472        this_sql = self.indent(
 473            self.sql(expression)
 474            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 475            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 476            level=1,
 477            pad=0,
 478        )
 479        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 480
 481    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 482        original = self.identify
 483        self.identify = False
 484        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 485        self.identify = original
 486        return result
 487
 488    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 489        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 490            return name.upper()
 491        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 492            return name.lower()
 493        return name
 494
 495    def indent(
 496        self,
 497        sql: str,
 498        level: int = 0,
 499        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 500        skip_first: bool = False,
 501        skip_last: bool = False,
 502    ) -> str:
 503        if not self.pretty:
 504            return sql
 505
 506        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 507        lines = sql.split("\n")
 508
 509        return "\n".join(
 510            line
 511            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 512            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 513            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 514        )
 515
 516    def sql(
 517        self,
 518        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 519        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 520        comment: bool = True,
 521    ) -> str:
 522        if not expression:
 523            return ""
 524
 525        if isinstance(expression, str):
 526            return expression
 527
 528        if key:
 529            value = expression.args.get(key)
 530            if value:
 531                return self.sql(value)
 532            return ""
 533
 534        if self._cache is not None:
 535            expression_id = hash(expression)
 536
 537            if expression_id in self._cache:
 538                return self._cache[expression_id]
 539
 540        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 541
 542        if callable(transform):
 543            sql = transform(self, expression)
 544        elif transform:
 545            sql = transform
 546        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 547            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 548
 549            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 550                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 551            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 552                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 553            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 554                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 555            else:
 556                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 557        else:
 558            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 559
 560        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 561
 562        if self._cache is not None:
 563            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
 564        return sql
 565
 566    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 567        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 568        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 569        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 570
 571    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 572        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 573        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 574        options = expression.args.get("options")
 575        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 576        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 577        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 578        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 579        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 580
 581    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 582        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 583            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 584        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 585        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 586
 587    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 588        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 589
 590        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 591            join_mark = ""
 592            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 593
 594        column = ".".join(
 595            self.sql(part)
 596            for part in (
 597                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 598                expression.args.get("db"),
 599                expression.args.get("table"),
 600                expression.args.get("this"),
 601            )
 602            if part
 603        )
 604
 605        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 606
 607    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 608        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 609        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 610        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 611        return f"{position}{this}"
 612
 613    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 614        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 615        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 616        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 617        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 618        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 619        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 620        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 621        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 622
 623        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 624
 625    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 626        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 627        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 628        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 629
 630    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 631        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 632
 633    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 634        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 635            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 636        else:
 637            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 638
 639        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 640
 641    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 642        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 643    ) -> str:
 644        this = ""
 645        if expression.this is not None:
 646            on_null = "ON NULL " if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 647            this = " ALWAYS " if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT {on_null}"
 648
 649        start = expression.args.get("start")
 650        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 651        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 652        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 653        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 654        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 655        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 656        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 657        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 658        cycle_sql = ""
 659
 660        if cycle is not None:
 661            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 662            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 663
 664        sequence_opts = ""
 665        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 666            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 667            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 668
 669        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 670        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 671
 672        return f"GENERATED{this}AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 673
 674    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 675        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 676
 677    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 678        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 679        if desc is not None:
 680            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 681        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 682
 683    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 684        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 685        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 686        return f"UNIQUE{this}"
 687
 688    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 689        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 690
 691    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 692        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 693        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 694        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 695
 696        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 697
 698        properties_sql = ""
 699        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 700            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 701        ):
 702            properties_sql = self.sql(
 703                exp.Properties(
 704                    expressions=[
 705                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 706                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 707                    ]
 708                )
 709            )
 710
 711        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 712        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 713        if expression_sql:
 714            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
 715
 716            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 717                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 718                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 719                        exp.Properties(
 720                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 721                        ),
 722                        wrapped=False,
 723                    )
 724                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 725                else:
 726                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 727
 728        postindex_props_sql = ""
 729        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 730            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 731                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 732                wrapped=False,
 733                prefix=" ",
 734            )
 735
 736        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 737        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 738        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 739
 740        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 741        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 742
 743        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 744        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 745            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 746                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 747                sep=" ",
 748                prefix=" ",
 749                wrapped=False,
 750            )
 751
 752        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 753
 754        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 755        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 756            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 757                exp.Properties(
 758                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 759                ),
 760                sep=" ",
 761                prefix=" ",
 762                wrapped=False,
 763            )
 764
 765        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 766        no_schema_binding = (
 767            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 768        )
 769
 770        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 771        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 772
 773        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 774        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 775
 776    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 777        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 778        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 779
 780        if when:
 781            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 782            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 783            return f"CLONE {this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 784
 785        return f"CLONE {this}"
 786
 787    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 788        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 789
 790    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 791        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 792        if with_:
 793            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 794        return sql
 795
 796    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 797        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 798        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
 799
 800        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 801
 802    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 803        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 804        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 805
 806    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 807        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 808        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 809        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 810        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 811
 812    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 813        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 814        if self.BIT_START:
 815            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
 816        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 817
 818    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 819        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 820        if self.HEX_START:
 821            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
 822        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 823
 824    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 825        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 826        if self.BYTE_START:
 827            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
 828        return this
 829
 830    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 831        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
 832        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
 833
 834    def datatypesize_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeSize) -> str:
 835        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 836        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 837        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
 838        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 839
 840    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 841        type_value = expression.this
 842
 843        type_sql = (
 844            self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 845            if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
 846            else type_value
 847        )
 848
 849        nested = ""
 850        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 851        values = ""
 852
 853        if interior:
 854            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 855                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 856                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 857                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 858                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 859                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 860            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
 861                nested = f" {interior}"
 862            else:
 863                nested = f"({interior})"
 864
 865        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 866        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
 867            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
 868            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
 869        ):
 870            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
 871
 872        return type_sql
 873
 874    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 875        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 876        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 877        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 878        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
 879
 880    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 881        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 882        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 883        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 884        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
 885        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
 886        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
 887        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
 888        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
 889        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
 890        if self.RETURNING_END:
 891            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
 892        else:
 893            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
 894        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
 895
 896    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
 897        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 898        kind = expression.args["kind"]
 899        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
 900        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
 901        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
 902        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
 903        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
 904        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
 905        return (
 906            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
 907        )
 908
 909    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 910        return self.prepend_ctes(
 911            expression,
 912            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
 913        )
 914
 915    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 916        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
 917
 918    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
 919        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
 920        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
 921        count = expression.args.get("count")
 922        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
 923        if expression.args.get("percent"):
 924            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
 925        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
 926        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
 927
 928    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
 929        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 930        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
 931        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
 932
 933    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
 934        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
 935            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
 936            return ""
 937
 938        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
 939
 940    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
 941        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 942        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
 943        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
 944        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
 945        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
 946        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
 947        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table} " if table else ""
 948        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 949        using = f"USING {using} " if using else ""
 950        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
 951        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 952        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 953        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
 954        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
 955        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}"
 956
 957    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
 958        text = expression.name
 959        lower = text.lower()
 960        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
 961        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
 962        if (
 963            expression.quoted
 964            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
 965            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
 966            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
 967        ):
 968            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
 969        return text
 970
 971    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
 972        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
 973        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
 974        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
 975        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
 976        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
 977
 978    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
 979        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
 980        return f"{prefix}{string}"
 981
 982    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
 983        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
 984
 985    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
 986        root_properties = []
 987        with_properties = []
 988
 989        for p in expression.expressions:
 990            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
 991            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
 992                with_properties.append(p.copy())
 993            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
 994                root_properties.append(p.copy())
 995
 996        return self.root_properties(
 997            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
 998        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
 999
1000    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1001        if properties.expressions:
1002            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1003        return ""
1004
1005    def properties(
1006        self,
1007        properties: exp.Properties,
1008        prefix: str = "",
1009        sep: str = ", ",
1010        suffix: str = "",
1011        wrapped: bool = True,
1012    ) -> str:
1013        if properties.expressions:
1014            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1015            if expressions:
1016                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1017                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1018        return ""
1019
1020    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1021        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1022
1023    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1024        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1025        for p in properties.expressions:
1026            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1027            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1028                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p.copy())
1029            else:
1030                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1031
1032        return properties_locs
1033
1034    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1035        property_cls = expression.__class__
1036        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1037            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1038
1039        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1040        if not property_name:
1041            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1042
1043        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1044
1045    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1046        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1047        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1048        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1049
1050    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1051        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1052        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1053        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1054
1055    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1056        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1057        local = expression.args.get("local")
1058        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1059        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1060        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1061        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1062        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1063
1064    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1065        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1066        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1067        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1068
1069    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1070        if expression.args.get("default"):
1071            property = "DEFAULT"
1072        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1073            property = "ON"
1074        else:
1075            property = "OFF"
1076        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1077
1078    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1079        if expression.args.get("no"):
1080            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1081        if expression.args.get("default"):
1082            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1083
1084        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1085        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1086
1087    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1088        default = expression.args.get("default")
1089        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1090        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1091        if default or minimum or maximum:
1092            if default:
1093                prop = "DEFAULT"
1094            elif minimum:
1095                prop = "MINIMUM"
1096            else:
1097                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1098            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1099        units = expression.args.get("units")
1100        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1101        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1102
1103    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1104        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1105        always = expression.args.get("always")
1106        default = expression.args.get("default")
1107        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1108        never = expression.args.get("never")
1109
1110        if autotemp is not None:
1111            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1112        elif always:
1113            prop = "ALWAYS"
1114        elif default:
1115            prop = "DEFAULT"
1116        elif manual:
1117            prop = "MANUAL"
1118        elif never:
1119            prop = "NEVER"
1120        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1121
1122    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1123        no = expression.args.get("no")
1124        no = " NO" if no else ""
1125        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1126        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1127
1128        for_ = ""
1129        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1130            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1131        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1132            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1133        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1134            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1135        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1136
1137    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1138        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1139        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1140        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1141        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1142        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1143        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1144
1145    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1146        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1147        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1148        statistics_sql = ""
1149        if statistics is not None:
1150            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1151        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1152
1153    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1154        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1155
1156        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1157            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1158        else:
1159            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1160
1161        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1162        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1163        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1164
1165        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1166
1167        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1168        partition_sql = (
1169            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1170        )
1171        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1172        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1173        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1174        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1175        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1176
1177        if self.RETURNING_END:
1178            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1179        else:
1180            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1181
1182        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1183        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1184
1185    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1186        return self.prepend_ctes(
1187            expression,
1188            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1189        )
1190
1191    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1192        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1193
1194    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1195        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1196
1197    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1198        return expression.name.upper()
1199
1200    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1201        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1202        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1203        if constraint:
1204            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1205        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1206        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1207        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1208        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1209        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1210        if expressions:
1211            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1212        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1213
1214    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1215        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1216
1217    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1218        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1219        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1220        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1221        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1222        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1223        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1224        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1225        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1226        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1227        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1228        null = expression.args.get("null")
1229        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1230        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1231
1232    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1233        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1234
1235    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1236        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1237        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1238        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1239        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1240
1241    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1242        table = ".".join(
1243            part
1244            for part in [
1245                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1246                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1247                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1248            ]
1249            if part
1250        )
1251
1252        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1253        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1254        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1255        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1256        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1257        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1258        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1259        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1260        system_time = expression.args.get("system_time")
1261        system_time = f" {self.sql(expression, 'system_time')}" if system_time else ""
1262
1263        return f"{table}{system_time}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
1264
1265    def tablesample_sql(
1266        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1267    ) -> str:
1268        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1269            table = expression.this.copy()
1270            table.set("alias", None)
1271            this = self.sql(table)
1272            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1273        else:
1274            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1275            alias = ""
1276        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1277        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1278        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1279        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1280        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1281        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1282        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1283        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1284        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1285        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1286        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1287        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1288        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1289            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1290        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1291        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1292        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1293        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
1294
1295    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1296        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1297
1298        if expression.this:
1299            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1300            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1301            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1302            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1303            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1304            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1305
1306        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1307        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1308        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1309        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1310        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1311        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1312        if include_nulls is not None:
1313            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1314        else:
1315            nulls = ""
1316        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1317
1318    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1319        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1320
1321    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1322        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1323        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1324        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1325        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1326        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1327        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1328        if self.RETURNING_END:
1329            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}{limit}"
1330        else:
1331            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}{limit}"
1332        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}"
1333        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1334
1335    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1336        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1337        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1338            args = self.expressions(expression)
1339            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1340            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1341            values = (
1342                f"({values})"
1343                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1344                else values
1345            )
1346            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1347
1348        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1349        # Note: If you have a lot of unions then this will result in a large number of recursive statements to
1350        # evaluate the expression. You may need to increase `sys.setrecursionlimit` to run and it can also be
1351        # very slow.
1352        expression = expression.copy()
1353        column_names = expression.alias and expression.args["alias"].columns
1354
1355        selects = []
1356
1357        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1358            row = tup.expressions
1359
1360            if i == 0 and column_names:
1361                row = [
1362                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1363                ]
1364
1365            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1366
1367        subquery_expression: exp.Select | exp.Union = selects[0]
1368        if len(selects) > 1:
1369            for select in selects[1:]:
1370                subquery_expression = exp.union(
1371                    subquery_expression, select, distinct=False, copy=False
1372                )
1373
1374        return self.subquery_sql(subquery_expression.subquery(expression.alias, copy=False))
1375
1376    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1377        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1378
1379    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1380        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1381        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1382        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1383
1384    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1385        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1386
1387    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1388        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1389
1390        if expression.args.get("all"):
1391            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1392
1393        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1394        grouping_sets = (
1395            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1396        )
1397
1398        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1399        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1400            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1401        else:
1402            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1403            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1404
1405        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1406        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1407            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1408        else:
1409            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1410            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1411
1412        groupings = csv(
1413            grouping_sets,
1414            cube_sql,
1415            rollup_sql,
1416            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1417            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1418        )
1419
1420        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1421            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1422
1423        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1424
1425    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1426        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1427        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1428
1429    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1430        op_sql = " ".join(
1431            op
1432            for op in (
1433                expression.method,
1434                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1435                expression.side,
1436                expression.kind,
1437                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1438            )
1439            if op
1440        )
1441        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1442        using = expression.args.get("using")
1443
1444        if not on_sql and using:
1445            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1446
1447        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1448
1449        if on_sql:
1450            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1451            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1452            if using:
1453                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1454            else:
1455                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1456        elif not op_sql:
1457            return f", {this_sql}"
1458
1459        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1460        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1461
1462    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1463        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1464        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1465        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1466
1467    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1468        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1469
1470        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1471            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1472
1473        if expression.args.get("view"):
1474            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1475            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1476            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1477            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1478            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1479            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1480
1481        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1482        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1483        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1484
1485    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1486        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1487        args = ", ".join(
1488            sql
1489            for sql in (
1490                self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1491                self.sql(expression, "expression"),
1492            )
1493            if sql
1494        )
1495        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args}"
1496
1497    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1498        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1499        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1500
1501    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1502        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1503        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1504        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1505        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1506        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1507        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1508        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1509        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1510
1511    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1512        expressions = (
1513            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1514        )
1515        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1516        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1517
1518    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1519        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1520
1521    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1522        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1523            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1524            return ""
1525
1526        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1527        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1528        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1529        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1530
1531        if wait is not None:
1532            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1533                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1534            else:
1535                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1536
1537        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1538
1539    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1540        text = expression.this or ""
1541        if expression.is_string:
1542            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1543        return text
1544
1545    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1546        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1547        if self.ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK:
1548            text = text.replace("\n", "\\n")
1549        elif self.pretty:
1550            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1551        return text
1552
1553    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1554        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1555        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1556        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1557        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1558        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1559        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1560        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1561        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1562        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1563        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1564        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1565
1566    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1567        return "NULL"
1568
1569    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1570        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1571
1572    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1573        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1574        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1575        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1576
1577    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1578        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1579
1580    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1581        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1582
1583    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1584        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1585
1586    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1587        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1588        asc = not desc
1589
1590        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1591        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1592        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1593        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1594        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1595
1596        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1597        nulls_sort_change = ""
1598        if nulls_first and (
1599            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1600        ):
1601            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1602        elif (
1603            nulls_last
1604            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1605            and not nulls_are_last
1606        ):
1607            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1608
1609        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1610            self.unsupported(
1611                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1612            )
1613            nulls_sort_change = ""
1614
1615        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1616
1617    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1618        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1619        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1620        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1621        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1622        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1623        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1624        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1625        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1626        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1627        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1628        definition_sqls = [
1629            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1630            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1631        ]
1632        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1633        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1634        body = "".join(
1635            (
1636                partition,
1637                order,
1638                measures,
1639                rows,
1640                after,
1641                pattern,
1642                define,
1643            )
1644        )
1645        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1646        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1647        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1648
1649    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1650        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1651
1652        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1653        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1654
1655        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1656            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1657        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1658            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1659
1660        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1661
1662        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1663            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1664            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1665            else []
1666        )
1667
1668        return csv(
1669            *sqls,
1670            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1671            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1672            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1673            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1674            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1675            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1676            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1677            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1678            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1679            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1680            sep="",
1681        )
1682
1683    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1684        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1685    ) -> t.List[str]:
1686        return [
1687            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1688            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1689        ]
1690
1691    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1692        return [
1693            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1694            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1695            if expression.args.get("windows")
1696            else "",
1697            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1698            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1699            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1700        ]
1701
1702    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1703        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1704        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1705        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1706
1707    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1708        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1709        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1710        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1711        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1712        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1713        top = (
1714            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1715            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1716            else ""
1717        )
1718
1719        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1720
1721        if kind:
1722            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1723                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1724            else:
1725                if kind == "STRUCT":
1726                    expressions = self.expressions(
1727                        sqls=[
1728                            self.sql(
1729                                exp.Struct(
1730                                    expressions=[
1731                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1732                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1733                                        )
1734                                        for e in expression.expressions
1735                                    ]
1736                                )
1737                            )
1738                        ]
1739                    )
1740                kind = ""
1741
1742        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1743        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1744            expression,
1745            f"SELECT{top}{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1746            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1747            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1748        )
1749        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1750
1751    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1752        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1753        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1754        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1755        return f"{this}{sql}"
1756
1757    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1758        return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1759
1760    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1761        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1762        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1763        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1764        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1765        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
1766
1767    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1768        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1769        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1770        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
1771
1772    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1773        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1774        kind = expression.text("kind")
1775        if kind:
1776            kind = f"{kind}."
1777        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
1778
1779    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1780        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
1781
1782    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1783        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1784        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1785
1786        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1787        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1788
1789        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1790        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1791
1792    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1793        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1794        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1795
1796    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1797        return self.prepend_ctes(
1798            expression,
1799            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1800        )
1801
1802    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1803        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1804        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1805        return f"UNION{kind}"
1806
1807    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1808        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1809        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1810        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1811            columns = alias.columns
1812            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1813        else:
1814            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1815        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1816        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1817        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1818        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1819        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
1820
1821    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1822        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1823        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1824
1825    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1826        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1827        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1828        order = expression.args.get("order")
1829        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1830        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1831        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1832        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1833
1834        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1835
1836        first = expression.args.get("first")
1837        if first is None:
1838            first = ""
1839        else:
1840            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1841
1842        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1843            return f"{this} {alias}"
1844
1845        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1846        return f"{this} ({args})"
1847
1848    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1849        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1850        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
1851
1852    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1853        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1854        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1855        end = (
1856            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1857            or "CURRENT ROW"
1858        )
1859        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
1860
1861    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1862        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1863        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1864        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
1865
1866    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1867        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1868        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1869        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1870        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
1871
1872    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1873        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
1874        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1875
1876        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
1877
1878    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
1879        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
1880
1881    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1882        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
1883
1884    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1885        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1886        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1887            this = self.wrap(this)
1888        return f"ANY {this}"
1889
1890    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1891        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
1892
1893    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1894        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1895        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1896
1897        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1898            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1899            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1900
1901        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1902
1903        if default:
1904            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1905
1906        statements.append("END")
1907
1908        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
1909            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1910
1911        return " ".join(statements)
1912
1913    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1914        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1915        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1916        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
1917
1918    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1919        order = expression.args.get("order")
1920        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1921        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
1922
1923    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1924        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
1925        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1926        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
1927
1928    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1929        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1930
1931        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1932            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1933        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1934            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1935        else:
1936            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
1937
1938    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
1939        expressions = expression.expressions
1940        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
1941            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
1942        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
1943
1944    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1945        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1946        return f"CHECK ({this})"
1947
1948    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1949        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1950        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1951        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1952        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
1953        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
1954        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
1955        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
1956        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
1957
1958    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1959        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1960        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1961        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1962        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
1963
1964    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
1965        expression = expression.copy()
1966        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
1967
1968    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1969        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
1970        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
1971        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
1972
1973    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1974        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1975
1976    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
1977        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
1978        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
1979        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
1980        if unique_keys is not None:
1981            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
1982        else:
1983            unique_keys = ""
1984        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
1985        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
1986        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
1987        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
1988        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
1989        return self.func(
1990            "JSON_OBJECT",
1991            *expression.expressions,
1992            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})",
1993        )
1994
1995    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
1996        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1997        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1998        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1999        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2000        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2001        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2002
2003    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2004        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2005        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2006        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2007        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2008        with_ = (
2009            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2010            if expressions
2011            else ""
2012        )
2013        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2014
2015    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2016        query = expression.args.get("query")
2017        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2018        field = expression.args.get("field")
2019        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2020
2021        if query:
2022            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2023        elif unnest:
2024            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2025        elif field:
2026            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2027        else:
2028            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2029
2030        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2031
2032    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2033        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2034
2035    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2036        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2037        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2038            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
2039        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2040
2041        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2042            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2043            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2044
2045        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2046        if this:
2047            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2048            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2049
2050        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2051
2052    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2053        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2054
2055    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2056        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2057        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2058        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2059        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2060        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2061        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2062
2063    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2064        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
2065
2066    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2067        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2068            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2069        else:
2070            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2071            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2072
2073        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2074
2075    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2076        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2077        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2078        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2079        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2080
2081    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2082        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2083
2084    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2085        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2086        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2087        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2088
2089    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2090        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2091
2092    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2093        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2094        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2095        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2096
2097    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2098        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2099
2100    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2101        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
2102
2103    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2104        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
2105
2106    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2107        if not self.pretty:
2108            return self.binary(expression, op)
2109
2110        sqls = tuple(
2111            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2112            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2113        )
2114
2115        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2116        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
2117
2118    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2119        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2120
2121    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2122        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2123
2124    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2125        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2126
2127    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2128        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2129
2130    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2131        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2132
2133    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2134        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2135
2136    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2137        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2138        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2139        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')}{format_sql})"
2140
2141    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2142        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2143        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2144
2145    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2146        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2147
2148    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2149        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2150
2151    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2152        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2153        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2154        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2155        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2156        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2157
2158    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2159        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2160        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2161        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2162        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2163        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2164        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2165        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2166        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2167        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2168
2169    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2170        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2171        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2172        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2173        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2174
2175        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2176            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2177
2178        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2179
2180    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2181        return "BEGIN"
2182
2183    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2184        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2185        if chain is not None:
2186            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2187
2188        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2189
2190    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2191        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2192        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2193        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2194
2195    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2196        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2197
2198        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2199        if dtype:
2200            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2201            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2202            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2203            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2204            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2205
2206        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2207        if default:
2208            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2209
2210        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2211            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2212
2213        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2214
2215    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2216        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2217            # Remove db from tables
2218            expression = expression.transform(
2219                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2220            )
2221        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2222        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2223
2224    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2225        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2226
2227        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2228            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMN ")
2229        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2230            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2231        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2232            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2233        else:
2234            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2235
2236        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2237        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2238
2239    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2240        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2241        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2242        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2243
2244    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2245        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2246        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2247        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2248
2249        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2250        if enforced is not None:
2251            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2252
2253        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2254
2255    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2256        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2257        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2258
2259        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2260        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2261        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2262
2263    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2264        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2265
2266    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2267        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2268
2269    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2270        return self.sql(
2271            exp.Cast(
2272                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this.copy(), expression=expression.expression.copy()),
2273                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2274            )
2275        )
2276
2277    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2278        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2279
2280    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2281        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2282            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2283        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
2284
2285    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2286        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2287
2288    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2289        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2290
2291    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2292        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2293
2294    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2295        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2296
2297    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2298        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2299
2300    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2301        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2302
2303    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2304        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2305
2306    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2307        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2308
2309    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2310        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2311
2312    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2313        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2314
2315    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2316        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2317
2318    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2319        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2320            return self.sql(
2321                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2322            )
2323        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2324
2325    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2326        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2327
2328    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2329        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2330
2331    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2332        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2333
2334    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2335        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2336
2337    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2338        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2339
2340    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2341        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2342
2343    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2344        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2345
2346    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2347        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2348
2349    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2350        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2351
2352    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2353        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2354
2355    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2356        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2357
2358    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2359        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2360
2361    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2362        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2363
2364    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2365        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
2366
2367    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2368        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2369        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2370        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2371        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2372        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2373
2374    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2375        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2376        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2377
2378    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2379        args = []
2380
2381        for key in expression.arg_types:
2382            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2383
2384            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2385                for value in arg_value:
2386                    args.append(value)
2387            elif arg_value is not None:
2388                args.append(arg_value)
2389
2390        if self.normalize_functions:
2391            name = expression.sql_name()
2392        else:
2393            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2394
2395        return self.func(name, *args)
2396
2397    def func(
2398        self,
2399        name: str,
2400        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2401        prefix: str = "(",
2402        suffix: str = ")",
2403    ) -> str:
2404        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2405
2406    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2407        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2408        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2409            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2410        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2411
2412    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2413        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2414
2415    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2416        return format_time(
2417            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2418        )
2419
2420    def expressions(
2421        self,
2422        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2423        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2424        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2425        flat: bool = False,
2426        indent: bool = True,
2427        skip_first: bool = False,
2428        sep: str = ", ",
2429        prefix: str = "",
2430    ) -> str:
2431        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2432
2433        if not expressions:
2434            return ""
2435
2436        if flat:
2437            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2438
2439        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2440
2441        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2442        pad = " " * self.pad
2443        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2444
2445        result_sqls = []
2446        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2447            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2448            if not sql:
2449                continue
2450
2451            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2452
2453            if self.pretty:
2454                if self.leading_comma:
2455                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2456                else:
2457                    result_sqls.append(
2458                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2459                    )
2460            else:
2461                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2462
2463        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2464        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
2465
2466    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2467        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2468        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2469        if flat:
2470            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2471        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2472
2473    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2474        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2475        if not property_name:
2476            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2477        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2478
2479    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2480        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2481        op = self.seg(op)
2482        return self.query_modifiers(
2483            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2484        )
2485
2486    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2487        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2488
2489    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2490        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2491
2492    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2493        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2494        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2495        expressions = (
2496            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2497        )
2498        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2499
2500    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2501        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2502        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2503        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2504
2505    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2506        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2507
2508    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2509        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2510        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2511        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2512        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2513
2514        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2515        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2516            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2517            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2518                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2519        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2520            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2521                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2522            else:
2523                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2524        else:
2525            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2526        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2527
2528    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2529        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2530        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2531        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2532        return f"MERGE INTO {this} {using} {on} {self.expressions(expression, sep=' ')}"
2533
2534    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2535        if expression.args.get("format"):
2536            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2537
2538        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2539
2540    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2541        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2542        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2543        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2544        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2545        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2546
2547    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2548        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2549        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2550        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2551        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2552
2553    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2554        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
2555
2556    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2557        return ""
2558
2559    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2560        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2561        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2562        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2563        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2564        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
2565
2566    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2567        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2568        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2569
2570        if having:
2571            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2572
2573        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
2574
2575    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2576        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2577        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2578        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2579        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2580        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2581        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2582        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2583        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2584        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2585        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2586        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2587        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
2588        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
2589
2590    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2591        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
2592        if key_block_size:
2593            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
2594
2595        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2596        if using:
2597            return f"USING {using}"
2598
2599        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
2600        if parser:
2601            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
2602
2603        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2604        if comment:
2605            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
2606
2607        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
2608        if visible is not None:
2609            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
2610
2611        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
2612        if engine_attr:
2613            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
2614
2615        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
2616        if secondary_engine_attr:
2617            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
2618
2619        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
2620        return ""
2621
2622    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2623        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2624        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
2625        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2626        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2627        type_ = self.sql(expression, "type")
2628        type_ = f" USING {type_}" if type_ else ""
2629        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2630        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
2631        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
2632        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2633        return f"{kind}{this}{type_}{schema}{options}"

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

Arguments:
  • pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
  • identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  • normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
  • pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
  • unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True)
350    def __init__(
351        self,
352        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
353        identify: str | bool = False,
354        normalize: bool = False,
355        pad: int = 2,
356        indent: int = 2,
357        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
358        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
359        max_unsupported: int = 3,
360        leading_comma: bool = False,
361        max_text_width: int = 80,
362        comments: bool = True,
363    ):
364        import sqlglot
365
366        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
367        self.identify = identify
368        self.normalize = normalize
369        self.pad = pad
370        self._indent = indent
371        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
372        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
373        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
374        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
375        self.comments = comments
376
377        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
378        self.normalize_functions = (
379            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
380        )
381
382        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
383        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.STRING_ESCAPE + self.QUOTE_END
384        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = self.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE + self.IDENTIFIER_END
385        self._cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
TRANSFORMS = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsAdd'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalDayToSecondSpan'>: 'DAY TO SECOND', <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalYearToMonthSpan'>: 'YEAR TO MONTH', <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXPLICIT_UNION = False
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINT_SEP = ', '
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
RETURNING_END = True
COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET'}
STAR_MAPPING = {'except': 'EXCEPT', 'replace': 'REPLACE'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'microseconds': 'microsecond', 'seconds': 'second', 'minutes': 'minute', 'hours': 'hour', 'days': 'day', 'weeks': 'week', 'months': 'month', 'quarters': 'quarter', 'years': 'year'}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: Dict[str, str] = {}
INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: Dict = {}
INDEX_OFFSET = 0
UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = 'upper'
NULL_ORDERING = 'nulls_are_small'
ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK = False
@classmethod
def can_identify(text: str, identify: str | bool = 'safe') -> bool:
257    @classmethod
258    def can_identify(cls, text: str, identify: str | bool = "safe") -> bool:
259        """Checks if text can be identified given an identify option.
260
261        Args:
262            text: The text to check.
263            identify:
264                "always" or `True`: Always returns true.
265                "safe": True if the identifier is case-insensitive.
266
267        Returns:
268            Whether or not the given text can be identified.
269        """
270        if identify is True or identify == "always":
271            return True
272
273        if identify == "safe":
274            return not cls.case_sensitive(text)
275
276        return False

Checks if text can be identified given an identify option.

Arguments:
  • text: The text to check.
  • identify: "always" or True: Always returns true. "safe": True if the identifier is case-insensitive.
Returns:

Whether or not the given text can be identified.

QUOTE_START = "'"
QUOTE_END = "'"
IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
STRING_ESCAPE = "'"
IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE = '"'
BIT_START: Optional[str] = None
BIT_END: Optional[str] = None
HEX_START: Optional[str] = None
HEX_END: Optional[str] = None
BYTE_START: Optional[str] = None
BYTE_END: Optional[str] = None
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], cache: Optional[Dict[int, str]] = None) -> str:
387    def generate(
388        self,
389        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
390        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
391    ) -> str:
392        """
393        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
394
395        Args:
396            expression: The syntax tree.
397            cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression
398                which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
399
400        Returns:
401            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
402        """
403        if cache is not None:
404            self._cache = cache
405
406        self.unsupported_messages = []
407        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
408        self._cache = None
409
410        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
411            return sql
412
413        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
414            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
415                logger.warning(msg)
416        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
417            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
418
419        if self.pretty:
420            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
421        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

Arguments:
  • expression: The syntax tree.
  • cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
Returns:

The SQL string corresponding to expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
423    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
424        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
425            raise UnsupportedError(message)
426        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
428    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
429        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
431    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
432        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
434    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
435        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
436        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
437        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None) -> str:
439    def maybe_comment(
440        self,
441        sql: str,
442        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
443        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
444    ) -> str:
445        comments = (
446            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
447            if self.comments
448            else None
449        )
450
451        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
452            return sql
453
454        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
455        comments_sql = sep.join(
456            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
457        )
458
459        if not comments_sql:
460            return sql
461
462        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
463            return (
464                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
465                if sql[0].isspace()
466                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
467            )
468
469        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
471    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
472        this_sql = self.indent(
473            self.sql(expression)
474            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
475            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
476            level=1,
477            pad=0,
478        )
479        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
481    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
482        original = self.identify
483        self.identify = False
484        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
485        self.identify = original
486        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
488    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
489        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
490            return name.upper()
491        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
492            return name.lower()
493        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
495    def indent(
496        self,
497        sql: str,
498        level: int = 0,
499        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
500        skip_first: bool = False,
501        skip_last: bool = False,
502    ) -> str:
503        if not self.pretty:
504            return sql
505
506        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
507        lines = sql.split("\n")
508
509        return "\n".join(
510            line
511            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
512            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
513            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
514        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
516    def sql(
517        self,
518        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
519        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
520        comment: bool = True,
521    ) -> str:
522        if not expression:
523            return ""
524
525        if isinstance(expression, str):
526            return expression
527
528        if key:
529            value = expression.args.get(key)
530            if value:
531                return self.sql(value)
532            return ""
533
534        if self._cache is not None:
535            expression_id = hash(expression)
536
537            if expression_id in self._cache:
538                return self._cache[expression_id]
539
540        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
541
542        if callable(transform):
543            sql = transform(self, expression)
544        elif transform:
545            sql = transform
546        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
547            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
548
549            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
550                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
551            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
552                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
553            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
554                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
555            else:
556                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
557        else:
558            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
559
560        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
561
562        if self._cache is not None:
563            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
564        return sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
566    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
567        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
568        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
569        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
571    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
572        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
573        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
574        options = expression.args.get("options")
575        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
576        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
577        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
578        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
579        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
581    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
582        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
583            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
584        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
585        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
587    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
588        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
589
590        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
591            join_mark = ""
592            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
593
594        column = ".".join(
595            self.sql(part)
596            for part in (
597                expression.args.get("catalog"),
598                expression.args.get("db"),
599                expression.args.get("table"),
600                expression.args.get("this"),
601            )
602            if part
603        )
604
605        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
607    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
608        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
609        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
610        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
611        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
613    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
614        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
615        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
616        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
617        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
618        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
619        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
620        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
621        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
622
623        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
625    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
626        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
627        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
628        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
630    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
631        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
633    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
634        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
635            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
636        else:
637            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
638
639        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
641    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
642        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
643    ) -> str:
644        this = ""
645        if expression.this is not None:
646            on_null = "ON NULL " if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
647            this = " ALWAYS " if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT {on_null}"
648
649        start = expression.args.get("start")
650        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
651        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
652        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
653        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
654        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
655        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
656        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
657        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
658        cycle_sql = ""
659
660        if cycle is not None:
661            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
662            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
663
664        sequence_opts = ""
665        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
666            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
667            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
668
669        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
670        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
671
672        return f"GENERATED{this}AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
674    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
675        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
677    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
678        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
679        if desc is not None:
680            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
681        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
683    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
684        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
685        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
686        return f"UNIQUE{this}"
def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: DefaultDict) -> str:
688    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
689        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
691    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
692        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
693        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
694        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
695
696        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
697
698        properties_sql = ""
699        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
700            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
701        ):
702            properties_sql = self.sql(
703                exp.Properties(
704                    expressions=[
705                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
706                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
707                    ]
708                )
709            )
710
711        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
712        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
713        if expression_sql:
714            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
715
716            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
717                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
718                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
719                        exp.Properties(
720                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
721                        ),
722                        wrapped=False,
723                    )
724                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
725                else:
726                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
727
728        postindex_props_sql = ""
729        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
730            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
731                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
732                wrapped=False,
733                prefix=" ",
734            )
735
736        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
737        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
738        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
739
740        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
741        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
742
743        postcreate_props_sql = ""
744        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
745            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
746                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
747                sep=" ",
748                prefix=" ",
749                wrapped=False,
750            )
751
752        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
753
754        postexpression_props_sql = ""
755        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
756            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
757                exp.Properties(
758                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
759                ),
760                sep=" ",
761                prefix=" ",
762                wrapped=False,
763            )
764
765        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
766        no_schema_binding = (
767            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
768        )
769
770        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
771        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
772
773        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
774        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
776    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
777        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
778        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
779
780        if when:
781            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
782            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
783            return f"CLONE {this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
784
785        return f"CLONE {this}"
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
787    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
788        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
790    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
791        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
792        if with_:
793            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
794        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
796    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
797        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
798        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
799
800        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
802    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
803        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
804        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
806    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
807        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
808        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
809        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
810        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
812    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
813        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
814        if self.BIT_START:
815            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
816        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
818    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
819        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
820        if self.HEX_START:
821            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
822        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
824    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
825        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
826        if self.BYTE_START:
827            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
828        return this
def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str:
830    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
831        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
832        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
def datatypesize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeSize) -> str:
834    def datatypesize_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeSize) -> str:
835        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
836        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
837        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
838        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
840    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
841        type_value = expression.this
842
843        type_sql = (
844            self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
845            if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
846            else type_value
847        )
848
849        nested = ""
850        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
851        values = ""
852
853        if interior:
854            if expression.args.get("nested"):
855                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
856                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
857                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
858                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
859                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
860            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
861                nested = f" {interior}"
862            else:
863                nested = f"({interior})"
864
865        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
866        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
867            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
868            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
869        ):
870            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
871
872        return type_sql
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
874    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
875        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
876        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
877        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
878        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
880    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
881        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
882        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
883        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
884        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
885        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
886        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
887        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
888        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
889        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
890        if self.RETURNING_END:
891            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
892        else:
893            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
894        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
896    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
897        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
898        kind = expression.args["kind"]
899        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
900        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
901        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
902        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
903        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
904        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
905        return (
906            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
907        )
def except_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
909    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
910        return self.prepend_ctes(
911            expression,
912            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
913        )
def except_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
915    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
916        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
918    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
919        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
920        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
921        count = expression.args.get("count")
922        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
923        if expression.args.get("percent"):
924            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
925        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
926        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
928    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
929        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
930        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
931        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
933    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
934        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
935            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
936            return ""
937
938        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
940    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
941        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
942        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
943        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
944        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
945        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
946        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
947        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table} " if table else ""
948        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
949        using = f"USING {using} " if using else ""
950        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
951        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
952        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
953        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
954        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
955        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
957    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
958        text = expression.name
959        lower = text.lower()
960        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
961        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
962        if (
963            expression.quoted
964            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
965            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
966            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
967        ):
968            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
969        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
971    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
972        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
973        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
974        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
975        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
976        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str:
978    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
979        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
980        return f"{prefix}{string}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
982    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
983        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
985    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
986        root_properties = []
987        with_properties = []
988
989        for p in expression.expressions:
990            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
991            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
992                with_properties.append(p.copy())
993            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
994                root_properties.append(p.copy())
995
996        return self.root_properties(
997            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
998        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1000    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1001        if properties.expressions:
1002            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1003        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
1005    def properties(
1006        self,
1007        properties: exp.Properties,
1008        prefix: str = "",
1009        sep: str = ", ",
1010        suffix: str = "",
1011        wrapped: bool = True,
1012    ) -> str:
1013        if properties.expressions:
1014            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1015            if expressions:
1016                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1017                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1018        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1020    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1021        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
def locate_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> DefaultDict:
1023    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1024        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1025        for p in properties.expressions:
1026            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1027            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1028                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p.copy())
1029            else:
1030                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1031
1032        return properties_locs
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
1034    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1035        property_cls = expression.__class__
1036        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1037            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1038
1039        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1040        if not property_name:
1041            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1042
1043        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
1045    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1046        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1047        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1048        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1050    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1051        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1052        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1053        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
1055    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1056        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1057        local = expression.args.get("local")
1058        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1059        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1060        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1061        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1062        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1064    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1065        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1066        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1067        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1069    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1070        if expression.args.get("default"):
1071            property = "DEFAULT"
1072        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1073            property = "ON"
1074        else:
1075            property = "OFF"
1076        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1078    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1079        if expression.args.get("no"):
1080            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1081        if expression.args.get("default"):
1082            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1083
1084        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1085        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1087    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1088        default = expression.args.get("default")
1089        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1090        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1091        if default or minimum or maximum:
1092            if default:
1093                prop = "DEFAULT"
1094            elif minimum:
1095                prop = "MINIMUM"
1096            else:
1097                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1098            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1099        units = expression.args.get("units")
1100        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1101        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1103    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1104        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1105        always = expression.args.get("always")
1106        default = expression.args.get("default")
1107        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1108        never = expression.args.get("never")
1109
1110        if autotemp is not None:
1111            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1112        elif always:
1113            prop = "ALWAYS"
1114        elif default:
1115            prop = "DEFAULT"
1116        elif manual:
1117            prop = "MANUAL"
1118        elif never:
1119            prop = "NEVER"
1120        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1122    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1123        no = expression.args.get("no")
1124        no = " NO" if no else ""
1125        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1126        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1127
1128        for_ = ""
1129        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1130            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1131        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1132            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1133        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1134            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1135        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1137    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1138        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1139        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1140        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1141        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1142        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1143        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1145    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1146        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1147        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1148        statistics_sql = ""
1149        if statistics is not None:
1150            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1151        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1153    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1154        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1155
1156        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1157            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1158        else:
1159            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1160
1161        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1162        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1163        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1164
1165        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1166
1167        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1168        partition_sql = (
1169            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1170        )
1171        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1172        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1173        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1174        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1175        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1176
1177        if self.RETURNING_END:
1178            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1179        else:
1180            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1181
1182        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1183        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def intersect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1185    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1186        return self.prepend_ctes(
1187            expression,
1188            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1189        )
def intersect_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1191    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1192        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1194    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1195        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1197    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1198        return expression.name.upper()
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1200    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1201        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1202        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1203        if constraint:
1204            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1205        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1206        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1207        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1208        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1209        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1210        if expressions:
1211            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1212        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1214    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1215        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1217    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1218        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1219        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1220        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1221        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1222        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1223        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1224        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1225        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1226        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1227        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1228        null = expression.args.get("null")
1229        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1230        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint) -> str:
1232    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1233        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1235    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1236        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1237        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1238        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1239        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1241    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1242        table = ".".join(
1243            part
1244            for part in [
1245                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1246                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1247                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1248            ]
1249            if part
1250        )
1251
1252        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1253        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1254        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1255        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1256        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1257        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1258        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1259        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1260        system_time = expression.args.get("system_time")
1261        system_time = f" {self.sql(expression, 'system_time')}" if system_time else ""
1262
1263        return f"{table}{system_time}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = 'SEED', sep=' AS ') -> str:
1265    def tablesample_sql(
1266        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1267    ) -> str:
1268        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1269            table = expression.this.copy()
1270            table.set("alias", None)
1271            this = self.sql(table)
1272            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1273        else:
1274            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1275            alias = ""
1276        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1277        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1278        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1279        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1280        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1281        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1282        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1283        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1284        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1285        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1286        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1287        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1288        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1289            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1290        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1291        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1292        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1293        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1295    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1296        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1297
1298        if expression.this:
1299            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1300            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1301            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1302            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1303            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1304            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1305
1306        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1307        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1308        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1309        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1310        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1311        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1312        if include_nulls is not None:
1313            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1314        else:
1315            nulls = ""
1316        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
1318    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1319        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
1321    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1322        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1323        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1324        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1325        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1326        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1327        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1328        if self.RETURNING_END:
1329            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}{limit}"
1330        else:
1331            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}{limit}"
1332        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}"
1333        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values) -> str:
1335    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1336        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1337        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1338            args = self.expressions(expression)
1339            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1340            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1341            values = (
1342                f"({values})"
1343                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1344                else values
1345            )
1346            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1347
1348        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1349        # Note: If you have a lot of unions then this will result in a large number of recursive statements to
1350        # evaluate the expression. You may need to increase `sys.setrecursionlimit` to run and it can also be
1351        # very slow.
1352        expression = expression.copy()
1353        column_names = expression.alias and expression.args["alias"].columns
1354
1355        selects = []
1356
1357        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1358            row = tup.expressions
1359
1360            if i == 0 and column_names:
1361                row = [
1362                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1363                ]
1364
1365            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1366
1367        subquery_expression: exp.Select | exp.Union = selects[0]
1368        if len(selects) > 1:
1369            for select in selects[1:]:
1370                subquery_expression = exp.union(
1371                    subquery_expression, select, distinct=False, copy=False
1372                )
1373
1374        return self.subquery_sql(subquery_expression.subquery(expression.alias, copy=False))
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
1376    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1377        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
1379    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1380        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1381        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1382        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
1384    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1385        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
1387    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1388        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1389
1390        if expression.args.get("all"):
1391            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1392
1393        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1394        grouping_sets = (
1395            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1396        )
1397
1398        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1399        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1400            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1401        else:
1402            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1403            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1404
1405        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1406        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1407            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1408        else:
1409            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1410            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1411
1412        groupings = csv(
1413            grouping_sets,
1414            cube_sql,
1415            rollup_sql,
1416            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1417            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1418        )
1419
1420        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1421            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1422
1423        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
1425    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1426        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1427        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
1429    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1430        op_sql = " ".join(
1431            op
1432            for op in (
1433                expression.method,
1434                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1435                expression.side,
1436                expression.kind,
1437                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1438            )
1439            if op
1440        )
1441        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1442        using = expression.args.get("using")
1443
1444        if not on_sql and using:
1445            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1446
1447        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1448
1449        if on_sql:
1450            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1451            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1452            if using:
1453                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1454            else:
1455                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1456        elif not op_sql:
1457            return f", {this_sql}"
1458
1459        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1460        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
1462    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1463        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1464        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1465        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
1467    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1468        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1469
1470        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1471            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1472
1473        if expression.args.get("view"):
1474            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1475            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1476            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1477            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1478            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1479            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1480
1481        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1482        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1483        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1485    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1486        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1487        args = ", ".join(
1488            sql
1489            for sql in (
1490                self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1491                self.sql(expression, "expression"),
1492            )
1493            if sql
1494        )
1495        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
1497    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1498        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1499        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
1501    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1502        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1503        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1504        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1505        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1506        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1507        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1508        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1509        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
1511    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1512        expressions = (
1513            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1514        )
1515        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1516        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
1518    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1519        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
1521    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1522        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1523            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1524            return ""
1525
1526        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1527        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1528        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1529        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1530
1531        if wait is not None:
1532            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1533                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1534            else:
1535                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1536
1537        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
1539    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1540        text = expression.this or ""
1541        if expression.is_string:
1542            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1543        return text
def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1545    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1546        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1547        if self.ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK:
1548            text = text.replace("\n", "\\n")
1549        elif self.pretty:
1550            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1551        return text
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
1553    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1554        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1555        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1556        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1557        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1558        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1559        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1560        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1561        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1562        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1563        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1564        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1566    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1567        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
1569    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1570        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1572    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1573        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1574        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1575        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
1577    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1578        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
1580    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1581        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
1583    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1584        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
1586    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1587        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1588        asc = not desc
1589
1590        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1591        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1592        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1593        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1594        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1595
1596        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1597        nulls_sort_change = ""
1598        if nulls_first and (
1599            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1600        ):
1601            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1602        elif (
1603            nulls_last
1604            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1605            and not nulls_are_last
1606        ):
1607            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1608
1609        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1610            self.unsupported(
1611                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1612            )
1613            nulls_sort_change = ""
1614
1615        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1617    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1618        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1619        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1620        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1621        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1622        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1623        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1624        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1625        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1626        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1627        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1628        definition_sqls = [
1629            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1630            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1631        ]
1632        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1633        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1634        body = "".join(
1635            (
1636                partition,
1637                order,
1638                measures,
1639                rows,
1640                after,
1641                pattern,
1642                define,
1643            )
1644        )
1645        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1646        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1647        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1649    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1650        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1651
1652        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1653        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1654
1655        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1656            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1657        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1658            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1659
1660        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1661
1662        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1663            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1664            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1665            else []
1666        )
1667
1668        return csv(
1669            *sqls,
1670            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1671            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1672            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1673            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1674            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1675            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1676            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1677            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1678            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1679            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1680            sep="",
1681        )
def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]:
1683    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1684        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1685    ) -> t.List[str]:
1686        return [
1687            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1688            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1689        ]
def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
1691    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1692        return [
1693            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1694            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1695            if expression.args.get("windows")
1696            else "",
1697            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1698            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1699            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1700        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
1702    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1703        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1704        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1705        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
1707    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1708        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1709        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1710        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1711        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1712        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1713        top = (
1714            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1715            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1716            else ""
1717        )
1718
1719        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1720
1721        if kind:
1722            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1723                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1724            else:
1725                if kind == "STRUCT":
1726                    expressions = self.expressions(
1727                        sqls=[
1728                            self.sql(
1729                                exp.Struct(
1730                                    expressions=[
1731                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1732                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1733                                        )
1734                                        for e in expression.expressions
1735                                    ]
1736                                )
1737                            )
1738                        ]
1739                    )
1740                kind = ""
1741
1742        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1743        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1744            expression,
1745            f"SELECT{top}{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1746            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1747            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1748        )
1749        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
1751    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1752        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1753        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1754        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1755        return f"{this}{sql}"
def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
1757    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1758        return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
1760    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1761        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1762        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1763        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1764        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1765        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
1767    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1768        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1769        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1770        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
1772    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1773        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1774        kind = expression.text("kind")
1775        if kind:
1776            kind = f"{kind}."
1777        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
1779    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1780        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1782    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1783        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1784        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1785
1786        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1787        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1788
1789        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1790        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
1792    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1793        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1794        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def union_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
1796    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1797        return self.prepend_ctes(
1798            expression,
1799            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1800        )
def union_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
1802    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1803        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1804        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1805        return f"UNION{kind}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
1807    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1808        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1809        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1810        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1811            columns = alias.columns
1812            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1813        else:
1814            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1815        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1816        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1817        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1818        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1819        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
1821    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1822        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1823        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
1825    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1826        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1827        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1828        order = expression.args.get("order")
1829        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1830        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1831        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1832        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1833
1834        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1835
1836        first = expression.args.get("first")
1837        if first is None:
1838            first = ""
1839        else:
1840            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1841
1842        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1843            return f"{this} {alias}"
1844
1845        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1846        return f"{this} ({args})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1848    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1849        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1850        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
1852    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1853        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1854        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1855        end = (
1856            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1857            or "CURRENT ROW"
1858        )
1859        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
1861    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1862        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1863        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1864        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
1866    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1867        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1868        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1869        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1870        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
1872    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1873        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
1874        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1875
1876        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def safebracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeBracket) -> str:
1878    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
1879        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
1881    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1882        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
1884    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1885        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1886        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1887            this = self.wrap(this)
1888        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
1890    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1891        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
1893    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1894        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1895        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1896
1897        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1898            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1899            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1900
1901        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1902
1903        if default:
1904            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1905
1906        statements.append("END")
1907
1908        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
1909            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1910
1911        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
1913    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1914        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1915        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1916        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
1918    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1919        order = expression.args.get("order")
1920        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1921        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
1923    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1924        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
1925        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1926        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
1928    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1929        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1930
1931        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1932            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1933        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1934            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1935        else:
1936            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeConcat) -> str:
1938    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
1939        expressions = expression.expressions
1940        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
1941            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
1942        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
1944    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1945        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1946        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
1948    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1949        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1950        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1951        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1952        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
1953        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
1954        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
1955        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
1956        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
1958    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1959        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1960        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1961        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1962        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
1964    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
1965        expression = expression.copy()
1966        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1968    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1969        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
1970        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
1971        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1973    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1974        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject) -> str:
1976    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
1977        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
1978        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
1979        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
1980        if unique_keys is not None:
1981            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
1982        else:
1983            unique_keys = ""
1984        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
1985        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
1986        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
1987        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
1988        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
1989        return self.func(
1990            "JSON_OBJECT",
1991            *expression.expressions,
1992            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})",
1993        )
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
1995    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
1996        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1997        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1998        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1999        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2000        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2001        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
2003    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2004        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2005        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2006        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2007        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2008        with_ = (
2009            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2010            if expressions
2011            else ""
2012        )
2013        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
2015    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2016        query = expression.args.get("query")
2017        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2018        field = expression.args.get("field")
2019        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2020
2021        if query:
2022            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2023        elif unnest:
2024            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2025        elif field:
2026            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2027        else:
2028            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2029
2030        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2032    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2033        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
2035    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2036        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2037        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2038            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
2039        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2040
2041        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2042            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2043            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2044
2045        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2046        if this:
2047            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2048            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2049
2050        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
2052    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2053        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
2055    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2056        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2057        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2058        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2059        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2060        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2061        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
2063    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2064        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
2066    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2067        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2068            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2069        else:
2070            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2071            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2072
2073        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
2075    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2076        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2077        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2078        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2079        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
2081    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2082        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
2084    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2085        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2086        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2087        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
2089    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2090        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2092    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2093        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2094        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2095        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
2097    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2098        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And) -> str:
2100    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2101        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
def xor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Xor) -> str:
2103    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2104        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
def connector_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2106    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2107        if not self.pretty:
2108            return self.binary(expression, op)
2109
2110        sqls = tuple(
2111            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2112            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2113        )
2114
2115        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2116        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2118    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2119        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2121    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2122        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2124    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2125        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2127    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2128        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2130    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2131        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2133    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2134        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2136    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2137        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2138        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2139        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')}{format_sql})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
2141    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2142        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2143        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
2145    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2146        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
2148    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2149        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
2151    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2152        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2153        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2154        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2155        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2156        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2158    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2159        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2160        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2161        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2162        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2163        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2164        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2165        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2166        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2167        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2169    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2170        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2171        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2172        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2173        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2174
2175        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2176            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2177
2178        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
2180    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2181        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
2183    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2184        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2185        if chain is not None:
2186            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2187
2188        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
2190    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2191        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2192        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2193        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
2195    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2196        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2197
2198        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2199        if dtype:
2200            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2201            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2202            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2203            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2204            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2205
2206        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2207        if default:
2208            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2209
2210        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2211            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2212
2213        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str:
2215    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2216        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2217            # Remove db from tables
2218            expression = expression.transform(
2219                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2220            )
2221        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2222        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def altertable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
2224    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2225        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2226
2227        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2228            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMN ")
2229        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2230            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2231        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2232            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2233        else:
2234            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2235
2236        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2237        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
2239    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2240        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2241        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2242        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
2244    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2245        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2246        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2247        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2248
2249        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2250        if enforced is not None:
2251            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2252
2253        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
2255    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2256        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2257        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2258
2259        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2260        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2261        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2263    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2264        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
2266    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2267        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
2269    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2270        return self.sql(
2271            exp.Cast(
2272                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this.copy(), expression=expression.expression.copy()),
2273                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2274            )
2275        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
2277    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2278        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2280    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2281        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2282            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2283        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
2285    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2286        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
2288    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2289        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
2291    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2292        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
2294    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2295        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
2297    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2298        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
2300    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2301        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
2303    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2304        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
2306    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2307        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
2309    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2310        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
2312    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2313        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
2315    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2316        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
2318    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2319        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2320            return self.sql(
2321                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2322            )
2323        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
2325    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2326        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
2328    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2329        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
2331    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2332        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
2334    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2335        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
2337    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2338        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
2340    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2341        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
2343    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2344        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
2346    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2347        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2349    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2350        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2352    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2353        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def or_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or) -> str:
2355    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2356        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
2358    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2359        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
2361    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2362        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
2364    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2365        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
2367    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2368        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2369        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2370        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2371        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2372        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2374    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2375        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2376        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
2378    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2379        args = []
2380
2381        for key in expression.arg_types:
2382            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2383
2384            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2385                for value in arg_value:
2386                    args.append(value)
2387            elif arg_value is not None:
2388                args.append(arg_value)
2389
2390        if self.normalize_functions:
2391            name = expression.sql_name()
2392        else:
2393            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2394
2395        return self.func(name, *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')') -> str:
2397    def func(
2398        self,
2399        name: str,
2400        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2401        prefix: str = "(",
2402        suffix: str = ")",
2403    ) -> str:
2404        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
2406    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2407        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2408        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2409            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2410        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
def text_width(self, args: Iterable) -> int:
2412    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2413        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
def format_time(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> Optional[str]:
2415    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2416        return format_time(
2417            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2418        )
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[List[str]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, skip_first: bool = False, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '') -> str:
2420    def expressions(
2421        self,
2422        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2423        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2424        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2425        flat: bool = False,
2426        indent: bool = True,
2427        skip_first: bool = False,
2428        sep: str = ", ",
2429        prefix: str = "",
2430    ) -> str:
2431        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2432
2433        if not expressions:
2434            return ""
2435
2436        if flat:
2437            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2438
2439        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2440
2441        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2442        pad = " " * self.pad
2443        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2444
2445        result_sqls = []
2446        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2447            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2448            if not sql:
2449                continue
2450
2451            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2452
2453            if self.pretty:
2454                if self.leading_comma:
2455                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2456                else:
2457                    result_sqls.append(
2458                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2459                    )
2460            else:
2461                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2462
2463        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2464        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2466    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2467        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2468        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2469        if flat:
2470            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2471        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
2473    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2474        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2475        if not property_name:
2476            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2477        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def set_operation(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2479    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2480        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2481        op = self.seg(op)
2482        return self.query_modifiers(
2483            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2484        )
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
2486    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2487        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
2489    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2490        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2492    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2493        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2494        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2495        expressions = (
2496            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2497        )
2498        return f"{this}{expressions}"
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
2500    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2501        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2502        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2503        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
2505    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2506        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
2508    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2509        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2510        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2511        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2512        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2513
2514        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2515        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2516            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2517            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2518                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2519        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2520            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2521                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2522            else:
2523                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2524        else:
2525            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2526        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
2528    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2529        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2530        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2531        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2532        return f"MERGE INTO {this} {using} {on} {self.expressions(expression, sep=' ')}"
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
2534    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2535        if expression.args.get("format"):
2536            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2537
2538        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str:
2540    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2541        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2542        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2543        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2544        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2545        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str:
2547    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2548        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2549        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2550        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2551        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2553    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2554        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str:
2556    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2557        return ""
def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2559    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2560        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2561        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2562        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2563        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2564        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue) -> str:
2566    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2567        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2568        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2569
2570        if having:
2571            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2572
2573        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
def querytransform_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryTransform) -> str:
2575    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2576        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2577        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2578        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2579        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2580        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2581        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2582        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2583        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2584        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2585        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2586        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2587        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
2588        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2590    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2591        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
2592        if key_block_size:
2593            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
2594
2595        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2596        if using:
2597            return f"USING {using}"
2598
2599        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
2600        if parser:
2601            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
2602
2603        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2604        if comment:
2605            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
2606
2607        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
2608        if visible is not None:
2609            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
2610
2611        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
2612        if engine_attr:
2613            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
2614
2615        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
2616        if secondary_engine_attr:
2617            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
2618
2619        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
2620        return ""
def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2622    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2623        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2624        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
2625        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2626        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2627        type_ = self.sql(expression, "type")
2628        type_ = f" USING {type_}" if type_ else ""
2629        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2630        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
2631        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
2632        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2633        return f"{kind}{this}{type_}{schema}{options}"
def cached_generator( cache: Optional[Dict[int, str]] = None) -> Callable[[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], str]:
2636def cached_generator(
2637    cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
2638) -> t.Callable[[exp.Expression], str]:
2639    """Returns a cached generator."""
2640    cache = {} if cache is None else cache
2641    generator = Generator(normalize=True, identify="safe")
2642    return lambda e: generator.generate(e, cache)

Returns a cached generator.