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sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import re
   5import typing as t
   6from collections import defaultdict
   7from functools import reduce
   8
   9from sqlglot import exp
  10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, name_sequence, seq_get
  12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
  13from sqlglot.time import format_time
  14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  15
  16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  17    from sqlglot._typing import E
  18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  19
  20logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  21
  22ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
  23
  24
  25class _Generator(type):
  26    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
  27        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
  28
  29        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
  30        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
  31            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
  32
  33        return klass
  34
  35
  36class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  37    """
  38    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  39
  40    Args:
  41        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  42            Default: False.
  43        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  44            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  45            True or 'always': Always quote.
  46            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  47        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  48            Default: False.
  49        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  50            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  51            Default: 2.
  52        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  53            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  54            Default: 2.
  55        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  56            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  57            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  58            False: Disables function name normalization.
  59        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  60            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  61        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  62            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  63            Default: 3
  64        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  65            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  66            Default: False
  67        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  68            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  69            line length.
  70            Default: 80
  71        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  72            Default: True
  73    """
  74
  75    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
  76        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
  77        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
  78        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
  79        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  80        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  81        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
  82        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  83        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  84        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
  85        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  86        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  87        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  88        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  89        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.ConnectByRoot: lambda self, e: f"CONNECT_BY_ROOT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
  92        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
  95        exp.EmptyProperty: lambda *_: "EMPTY",
  96        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  97        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  98        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
  99        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
 100        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 101        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
 102        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 103        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 104        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 105        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 106        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 107        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 108        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 109        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 110        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 111        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 112        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 113        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 114        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 115        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 116        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 117        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 118        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 119        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 120        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 121        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 122        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 123        exp.PivotAny: lambda self, e: f"ANY{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 124        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 125        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 126        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 127        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 128        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
 129            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
 130        ),
 131        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 132        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
 133        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 134        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 135        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 136        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 137        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 138        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 139        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 140        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 141        exp.Stream: lambda self, e: f"STREAM {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 142        exp.StreamingTableProperty: lambda *_: "STREAMING",
 143        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
 144        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 145        exp.TagColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 146        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 147        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 148        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 149        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 150        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 151        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 152        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 153        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 154        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 155        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 156        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 157        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH SCHEMA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 158        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 159    }
 160
 161    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 162    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
 163    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 164
 165    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 166    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 167    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 168
 169    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 170    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 171
 172    # Always do <set op> distinct or <set op> all
 173    EXPLICIT_SET_OP = False
 174
 175    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 176    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 177
 178    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 179    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 180
 181    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 182    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 183
 184    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 185    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 186
 187    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 188    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 189
 190    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 191    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 192
 193    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 194    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 195
 196    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 197    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 198
 199    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 200    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 201
 202    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 203    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 204
 205    # Whether join hints should be generated
 206    JOIN_HINTS = True
 207
 208    # Whether table hints should be generated
 209    TABLE_HINTS = True
 210
 211    # Whether query hints should be generated
 212    QUERY_HINTS = True
 213
 214    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 215    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 216
 217    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 218    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 219
 220    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 221    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 222
 223    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 224    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 225
 226    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 227    RETURNING_END = True
 228
 229    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 230    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 231
 232    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 233    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 234
 235    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 236    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 237
 238    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 239    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 240
 241    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 242    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 243    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 244    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 245
 246    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 247    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 248
 249    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 250    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 251
 252    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 253    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 254
 255    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 256    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 257
 258    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 259    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 260
 261    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 262    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 263
 264    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 265    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 266
 267    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 268    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 269
 270    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 271    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 272
 273    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 274    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 275
 276    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 277    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 278
 279    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 280    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 281
 282    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 283    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 284
 285    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 286    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 287
 288    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 289    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 290
 291    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 292    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 293
 294    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 295    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 296
 297    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 298    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 299
 300    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 301    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 302
 303    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 304    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 305
 306    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 307    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 308
 309    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 310    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 311
 312    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 313    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 314
 315    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 316    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 317
 318    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 319    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 320
 321    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 322    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 323    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 324
 325    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 326    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 327
 328    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 329    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 330
 331    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 332    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 333
 334    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 335    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 336
 337    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 338    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 339
 340    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 341    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 342
 343    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
 344    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 345    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
 346    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
 347
 348    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 349    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 350
 351    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 352    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 353
 354    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 355    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 356
 357    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 358    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 359
 360    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
 361    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
 362
 363    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 364    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 365
 366    # The HEX function name
 367    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 368
 369    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
 370    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
 371
 372    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
 373    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
 374
 375    # Whether the text pattern/fill (3rd) parameter of RPAD()/LPAD() is optional (defaults to space)
 376    PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
 377
 378    # Whether a projection can explode into multiple rows, e.g. by unnesting an array.
 379    SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
 380
 381    # Whether ARRAY_CONCAT can be generated with varlen args or if it should be reduced to 2-arg version
 382    ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
 383
 384    # Whether CONVERT_TIMEZONE() is supported; if not, it will be generated as exp.AtTimeZone
 385    SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
 386
 387    # Whether nullable types can be constructed, e.g. `Nullable(Int64)`
 388    SUPPORTS_NULLABLE_TYPES = True
 389
 390    # The name to generate for the JSONPath expression. If `None`, only `this` will be generated
 391    PARSE_JSON_NAME: t.Optional[str] = "PARSE_JSON"
 392
 393    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 394        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 395        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 396        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 397        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 398        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 399        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 400        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 401        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 402        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 403        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 404    }
 405
 406    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 407        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 408        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 409        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 410        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 411        "DAYS": "DAY",
 412        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 413        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 414        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 415        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 416    }
 417
 418    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 419        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 420        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 421        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 422        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 423            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 424            if e.args.get("windows")
 425            else ""
 426        ),
 427        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 428    }
 429
 430    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 431
 432    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 433
 434    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 435    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 436
 437    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 438        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 439        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 440        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 441        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 442        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 443        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 444        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 445        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 446        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 447        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 448        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 449        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 450        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 451        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 452        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 453        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 454        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 455        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 456        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 457        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 458        exp.EmptyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 459        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 460        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 461        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 462        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 463        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 464        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 465        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 466        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 467        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 468        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 469        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 470        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 471        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 472        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 473        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 474        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 475        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 476        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 477        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 478        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 479        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 480        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 481        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 482        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 483        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 484        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 485        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 486        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 487        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 488        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 489        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 490        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 491        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 492        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 493        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 494        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 495        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 496        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 497        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 498        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 499        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 500        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 501        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 502        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 503        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 504        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 505        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 506        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 507        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 508        exp.StreamingTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 509        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 510        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 511        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 512        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 513        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 514        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 515        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 516        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 517        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 518        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 519        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 520        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 521        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 522    }
 523
 524    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 525    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 526
 527    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 528    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 529        exp.Command,
 530        exp.Create,
 531        exp.Delete,
 532        exp.Drop,
 533        exp.From,
 534        exp.Insert,
 535        exp.Join,
 536        exp.Select,
 537        exp.SetOperation,
 538        exp.Update,
 539        exp.Where,
 540        exp.With,
 541    )
 542
 543    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 544    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 545        exp.Binary,
 546        exp.SetOperation,
 547    )
 548
 549    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 550    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 551        exp.Column,
 552        exp.Literal,
 553        exp.Neg,
 554        exp.Paren,
 555    )
 556
 557    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 558        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 559        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 560        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 561        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 562    }
 563
 564    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 565    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 566
 567    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 568
 569    __slots__ = (
 570        "pretty",
 571        "identify",
 572        "normalize",
 573        "pad",
 574        "_indent",
 575        "normalize_functions",
 576        "unsupported_level",
 577        "max_unsupported",
 578        "leading_comma",
 579        "max_text_width",
 580        "comments",
 581        "dialect",
 582        "unsupported_messages",
 583        "_escaped_quote_end",
 584        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 585        "_next_name",
 586    )
 587
 588    def __init__(
 589        self,
 590        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 591        identify: str | bool = False,
 592        normalize: bool = False,
 593        pad: int = 2,
 594        indent: int = 2,
 595        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 596        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 597        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 598        leading_comma: bool = False,
 599        max_text_width: int = 80,
 600        comments: bool = True,
 601        dialect: DialectType = None,
 602    ):
 603        import sqlglot
 604        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 605
 606        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 607        self.identify = identify
 608        self.normalize = normalize
 609        self.pad = pad
 610        self._indent = indent
 611        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 612        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 613        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 614        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 615        self.comments = comments
 616        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 617
 618        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 619        self.normalize_functions = (
 620            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 621        )
 622
 623        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 624        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 625            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 626        )
 627        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 628            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 629        )
 630
 631        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 632
 633    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 634        """
 635        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 636
 637        Args:
 638            expression: The syntax tree.
 639            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 640                it is safer to copy.
 641
 642        Returns:
 643            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 644        """
 645        if copy:
 646            expression = expression.copy()
 647
 648        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 649
 650        self.unsupported_messages = []
 651        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 652
 653        if self.pretty:
 654            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 655
 656        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 657            return sql
 658
 659        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 660            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 661                logger.warning(msg)
 662        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 663            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 664
 665        return sql
 666
 667    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 668        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 669        if (
 670            not expression.parent
 671            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 672            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 673        ):
 674            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 675
 676            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 677
 678        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 679            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 680
 681            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 682
 683        return expression
 684
 685    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 686        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 687            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 688        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 689
 690    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 691        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 692
 693    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 694        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 695
 696    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 697        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 698        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 699        return comment
 700
 701    def maybe_comment(
 702        self,
 703        sql: str,
 704        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 705        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 706        separated: bool = False,
 707    ) -> str:
 708        comments = (
 709            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 710            if self.comments
 711            else None
 712        )
 713
 714        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 715            return sql
 716
 717        comments_sql = " ".join(
 718            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 719        )
 720
 721        if not comments_sql:
 722            return sql
 723
 724        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 725
 726        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 727            return (
 728                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 729                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 730                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 731            )
 732
 733        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 734
 735    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 736        this_sql = (
 737            self.sql(expression)
 738            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 739            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 740        )
 741        if not this_sql:
 742            return "()"
 743
 744        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 745        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 746
 747    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 748        original = self.identify
 749        self.identify = False
 750        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 751        self.identify = original
 752        return result
 753
 754    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 755        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 756            return name.upper()
 757        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 758            return name.lower()
 759        return name
 760
 761    def indent(
 762        self,
 763        sql: str,
 764        level: int = 0,
 765        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 766        skip_first: bool = False,
 767        skip_last: bool = False,
 768    ) -> str:
 769        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 770            return sql
 771
 772        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 773        lines = sql.split("\n")
 774
 775        return "\n".join(
 776            (
 777                line
 778                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 779                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 780            )
 781            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 782        )
 783
 784    def sql(
 785        self,
 786        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 787        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 788        comment: bool = True,
 789    ) -> str:
 790        if not expression:
 791            return ""
 792
 793        if isinstance(expression, str):
 794            return expression
 795
 796        if key:
 797            value = expression.args.get(key)
 798            if value:
 799                return self.sql(value)
 800            return ""
 801
 802        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 803
 804        if callable(transform):
 805            sql = transform(self, expression)
 806        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 807            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 808
 809            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 810                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 811            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 812                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 813            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 814                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 815            else:
 816                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 817        else:
 818            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 819
 820        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 821
 822    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 823        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 824        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 825        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 826
 827    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 828        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 829        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 830        options = expression.args.get("options")
 831        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 832        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 833        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 834        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 835        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 836
 837    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 838        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 839            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 840        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 841        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 842
 843    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 844        return ".".join(
 845            self.sql(part)
 846            for part in (
 847                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 848                expression.args.get("db"),
 849                expression.args.get("table"),
 850                expression.args.get("this"),
 851            )
 852            if part
 853        )
 854
 855    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 856        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 857
 858        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
 859            join_mark = ""
 860            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 861
 862        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 863
 864    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 865        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 866        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 867        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 868        return f"{position}{this}"
 869
 870    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 871        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 872        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 873        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 874        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 875        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 876        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 877        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 878        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 879
 880        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 881            kind = ""
 882
 883        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 884
 885    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 886        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 887        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 888        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 889
 890    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 891        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 892        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 893            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 894        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 895            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 896        else:
 897            persisted = ""
 898        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 899
 900    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 901        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 902
 903    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 904        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 905            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 906        else:
 907            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 908
 909        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 910
 911    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 912        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 913    ) -> str:
 914        this = ""
 915        if expression.this is not None:
 916            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 917            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 918
 919        start = expression.args.get("start")
 920        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 921        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 922        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 923        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 924        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 925        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 926        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 927        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 928        cycle_sql = ""
 929
 930        if cycle is not None:
 931            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 932            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 933
 934        sequence_opts = ""
 935        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 936            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 937            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 938
 939        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 940        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 941
 942        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 943
 944    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 945        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 946    ) -> str:
 947        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
 948        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 949        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 950
 951    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 952        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 953    ) -> str:
 954        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 955
 956    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 957        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 958
 959    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 960        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 961
 962    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 963        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 964        if desc is not None:
 965            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 966        return "PRIMARY KEY"
 967
 968    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 969        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 970        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 971        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 972        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 973        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
 974        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
 975        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
 976        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
 977
 978    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 979        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 980
 981    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 982        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 983        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 984        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 985
 986        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 987
 988        properties_sql = ""
 989        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 990            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 991        ):
 992            properties_sql = self.sql(
 993                exp.Properties(
 994                    expressions=[
 995                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 996                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 997                    ]
 998                )
 999            )
1000
1001            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
1002                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
1003            elif not self.pretty:
1004                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
1005                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
1006
1007        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
1008        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
1009
1010        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1011        if expression_sql:
1012            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
1013
1014            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
1015                postalias_props_sql = ""
1016                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1017                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1018                        exp.Properties(
1019                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1020                        ),
1021                        wrapped=False,
1022                    )
1023                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1024                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1025
1026        postindex_props_sql = ""
1027        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1028            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1029                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1030                wrapped=False,
1031                prefix=" ",
1032            )
1033
1034        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1035        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1036        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1037
1038        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1039        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
1040        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1041
1042        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
1043        if clustered is None:
1044            clustered_sql = ""
1045        elif clustered:
1046            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1047        else:
1048            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1049
1050        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1051        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1052            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1053                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1054                sep=" ",
1055                prefix=" ",
1056                wrapped=False,
1057            )
1058
1059        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1060
1061        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1062        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1063            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1064                exp.Properties(
1065                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1066                ),
1067                sep=" ",
1068                prefix=" ",
1069                wrapped=False,
1070            )
1071
1072        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1073        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1074        no_schema_binding = (
1075            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1076        )
1077
1078        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1079        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1080
1081        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1082        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1083
1084    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1085        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1086        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1087        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1088        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1089        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1090        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1091        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1092        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1093        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1094        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1095
1096        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1097        if cache is None:
1098            cache_str = ""
1099        elif cache is True:
1100            cache_str = " CACHE"
1101        else:
1102            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1103
1104        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1105        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1106
1107        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1108
1109    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1110        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1111        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1112        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1113        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1114
1115    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1116        style = expression.args.get("style")
1117        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1118        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1119
1120    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1121        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1122        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1123
1124    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1125        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1126        if with_:
1127            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1128        return sql
1129
1130    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1131        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1132        recursive = (
1133            "RECURSIVE "
1134            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1135            else ""
1136        )
1137
1138        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1139
1140    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1141        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1142
1143        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1144        if materialized is False:
1145            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1146        elif materialized:
1147            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1148
1149        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1150
1151    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1152        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1153        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1154        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1155
1156        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1157            columns = ""
1158            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1159
1160        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1161            alias = self._next_name()
1162
1163        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1164
1165    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1166        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1167        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1168            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1169        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1170
1171    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1172        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1173        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1174            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1175        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1176
1177    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1178        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1179        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1180            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1181        return this
1182
1183    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1184        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1185        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1186
1187        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1188            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1189            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1190        else:
1191            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1192            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1193
1194        if escape:
1195            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1196            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1197        else:
1198            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1199            escape_sql = ""
1200
1201        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1202            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1203
1204        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
1205
1206    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1207        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1208        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1209
1210    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1211        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1212        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1213        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1214        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1215
1216    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1217        nested = ""
1218        values = ""
1219        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1220
1221        type_value = expression.this
1222        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1223            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1224        elif type_value != exp.DataType.Type.NULLABLE or self.SUPPORTS_NULLABLE_TYPES:
1225            type_sql = (
1226                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1227                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1228                else type_value
1229            )
1230        else:
1231            return interior
1232
1233        if interior:
1234            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1235                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1236                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1237                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1238                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1239                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1240            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1241                nested = f" {interior}"
1242            else:
1243                nested = f"({interior})"
1244
1245        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1246        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1247            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1248            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1249        ):
1250            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1251
1252        return type_sql
1253
1254    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1255        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1256        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1257        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1258        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1259
1260    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1261        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1262        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1263        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1264        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1265        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1266        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1267        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1268        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1269        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1270        if self.RETURNING_END:
1271            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1272        else:
1273            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1274        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1275
1276    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1277        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1278        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1279        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1280        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1281        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1282        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1283        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1284        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1285        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1286        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1287        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1288        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1289        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1290
1291    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1292        return self.set_operations(expression)
1293
1294    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1295        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1296
1297    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1298        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1299        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1300        count = expression.args.get("count")
1301        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1302        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1303            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1304        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1305        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1306
1307    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1308        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1309            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1310            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1311            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1312
1313        agg = expression.this
1314        agg_arg = agg.this
1315        cond = expression.expression.this
1316        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1317        return self.sql(agg)
1318
1319    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1320        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1321            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1322            return ""
1323
1324        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1325
1326    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1327        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1328        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1329        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1330        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1331        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1332        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1333        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1334        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1335        if include:
1336            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1337        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1338        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1339        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1340        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1341        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1342        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1343
1344        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
1345
1346    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1347        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1348        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1349        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1350        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1351        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1352        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1353        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1354
1355        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1356
1357        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1358        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1359
1360    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1361        text = expression.name
1362        lower = text.lower()
1363        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1364        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1365        if (
1366            expression.quoted
1367            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1368            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1369            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1370        ):
1371            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1372        return text
1373
1374    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1375        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1376        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1377            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1378
1379        return text
1380
1381    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1382        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1383        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1384            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1385        return text
1386
1387    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1388        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1389        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1390        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1391        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1392        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1393
1394    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1395        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1396        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1397
1398    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1399        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1400
1401    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1402        root_properties = []
1403        with_properties = []
1404
1405        for p in expression.expressions:
1406            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1407            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1408                with_properties.append(p)
1409            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1410                root_properties.append(p)
1411
1412        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1413        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1414
1415        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1416            with_props = " " + with_props
1417
1418        return root_props + with_props
1419
1420    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1421        if properties.expressions:
1422            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1423        return ""
1424
1425    def properties(
1426        self,
1427        properties: exp.Properties,
1428        prefix: str = "",
1429        sep: str = ", ",
1430        suffix: str = "",
1431        wrapped: bool = True,
1432    ) -> str:
1433        if properties.expressions:
1434            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1435            if expressions:
1436                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1437                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1438        return ""
1439
1440    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1441        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
1442
1443    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1444        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1445        for p in properties.expressions:
1446            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1447            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1448                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1449            else:
1450                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1451
1452        return properties_locs
1453
1454    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1455        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1456            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1457        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1458
1459    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1460        property_cls = expression.__class__
1461        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1462            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1463
1464        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1465        if not property_name:
1466            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1467
1468        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1469
1470    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1471        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1472            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1473            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1474
1475            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1476            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1477                like = f"({like})"
1478
1479            return like
1480
1481        if expression.expressions:
1482            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1483
1484        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1485        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1486
1487    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1488        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1489        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1490        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1491
1492    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1493        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1494        local = expression.args.get("local")
1495        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1496        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1497        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1498        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1499        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1500
1501    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1502        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1503        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1504        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1505
1506    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1507        if expression.args.get("default"):
1508            property = "DEFAULT"
1509        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1510            property = "ON"
1511        else:
1512            property = "OFF"
1513        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1514
1515    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1516        if expression.args.get("no"):
1517            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1518        if expression.args.get("default"):
1519            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1520
1521        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1522        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1523
1524    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1525        default = expression.args.get("default")
1526        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1527        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1528        if default or minimum or maximum:
1529            if default:
1530                prop = "DEFAULT"
1531            elif minimum:
1532                prop = "MINIMUM"
1533            else:
1534                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1535            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1536        units = expression.args.get("units")
1537        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1538        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1539
1540    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1541        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1542        always = expression.args.get("always")
1543        default = expression.args.get("default")
1544        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1545        never = expression.args.get("never")
1546
1547        if autotemp is not None:
1548            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1549        elif always:
1550            prop = "ALWAYS"
1551        elif default:
1552            prop = "DEFAULT"
1553        elif manual:
1554            prop = "MANUAL"
1555        elif never:
1556            prop = "NEVER"
1557        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1558
1559    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1560        no = expression.args.get("no")
1561        no = " NO" if no else ""
1562        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1563        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1564        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1565        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1566        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1567
1568    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1569        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1570            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1571        if expression.this:
1572            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1573            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1574            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1575
1576        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1577        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1578        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1579
1580    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1581        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1582
1583        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1584        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1585            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1586        else:
1587            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1588
1589        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1590
1591    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1592        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1593        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1594        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1595        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1596        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1597        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1598        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1599
1600    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1601        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1602        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1603        statistics_sql = ""
1604        if statistics is not None:
1605            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1606        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1607
1608    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1609        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1610        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1611        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1612        data_consistency = (
1613            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1614        )
1615        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1616        retention_period = (
1617            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1618        )
1619
1620        if this:
1621            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1622        else:
1623            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1624
1625        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1626
1627        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
1628
1629    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1630        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1631        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1632
1633        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1634            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1635        else:
1636            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1637
1638        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1639        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1640        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1641        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1642        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1643        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1644        if is_function:
1645            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1646        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1647
1648        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1649        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1650        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1651        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1652        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1653        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1654        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1655        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1656
1657        if self.RETURNING_END:
1658            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1659        else:
1660            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1661
1662        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1663        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1664        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
1665        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
1666
1667        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}"
1668        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1669
1670    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1671        return self.set_operations(expression)
1672
1673    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1674        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1675
1676    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1677        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1678
1679    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1680        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1681        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1682        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1683        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1684        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1685
1686    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1687        return expression.name
1688
1689    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1690        return expression.name
1691
1692    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1693        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1694
1695        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1696        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1697
1698        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1699        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1700        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1701
1702        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1703        if expressions:
1704            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1705            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1706
1707        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1708
1709    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1710        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1711
1712    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1713        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1714        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1715        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1716        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1717        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1718        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1719        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1720        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1721        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1722        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1723        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1724        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1725        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1726
1727    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1728        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1729
1730    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1731        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1732        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1733        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1734        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1735
1736    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1737        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1738        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1739        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1740        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1741
1742    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1743        return ".".join(
1744            self.sql(part)
1745            for part in (
1746                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1747                expression.args.get("db"),
1748                expression.args.get("this"),
1749            )
1750            if part is not None
1751        )
1752
1753    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1754        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1755        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1756        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1757        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1758        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1759        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1760        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1761        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1762        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1763        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1764        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
1765        joins = self.indent(
1766            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1767        )
1768        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1769
1770        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1771        if file_format:
1772            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1773            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1774            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1775
1776        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1777        if ordinality:
1778            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1779            alias = ""
1780
1781        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1782        if when:
1783            table = f"{table} {when}"
1784
1785        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
1786        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
1787
1788        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
1789        if rows_from:
1790            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
1791
1792        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1793
1794    def tablesample_sql(
1795        self,
1796        expression: exp.TableSample,
1797        sep: str = " AS ",
1798        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1799    ) -> str:
1800        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1801            table = expression.this.copy()
1802            table.set("alias", None)
1803            this = self.sql(table)
1804            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1805        else:
1806            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1807            alias = ""
1808
1809        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1810        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1811        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1812        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1813        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1814        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1815        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1816        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1817        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1818
1819        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1820        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1821            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1822
1823        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1824        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1825            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1826
1827        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1828        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1829            expr = f"({expr})"
1830
1831        return (
1832            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1833        )
1834
1835    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1836        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1837
1838        if expression.this:
1839            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1840            if not expressions:
1841                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1842
1843            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1844            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1845            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1846            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1847            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1848
1849        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1850        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1851        direction = self.seg("UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT")
1852
1853        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1854        if field and isinstance(expression.args.get("field"), exp.PivotAny):
1855            field = f"IN ({field})"
1856
1857        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1858        if include_nulls is not None:
1859            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1860        else:
1861            nulls = ""
1862
1863        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
1864        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
1865        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"
1866
1867    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1868        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1869        kind = expression.text("kind")
1870        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1871        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1872
1873    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1874        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
1875
1876    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1877        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1878        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1879        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1880        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1881        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1882        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1883        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1884        if self.RETURNING_END:
1885            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1886        else:
1887            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1888        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1889        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1890
1891    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1892        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1893
1894        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1895        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1896            args = self.expressions(expression)
1897            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1898            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1899            values = (
1900                f"({values})"
1901                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1902                else values
1903            )
1904            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1905
1906        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1907        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1908        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1909
1910        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1911
1912        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1913            row = tup.expressions
1914
1915            if i == 0 and column_names:
1916                row = [
1917                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1918                ]
1919
1920            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1921
1922        if self.pretty:
1923            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1924            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1925            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1926            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1927            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1928
1929        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1930        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1931        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1932
1933    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1934        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1935
1936    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1937        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1938        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1939        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1940
1941    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1942        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1943
1944    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1945        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1946        if group_by_all is True:
1947            modifier = " ALL"
1948        elif group_by_all is False:
1949            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1950        else:
1951            modifier = ""
1952
1953        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1954
1955        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1956        grouping_sets = (
1957            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1958        )
1959
1960        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1961        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1962            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1963        else:
1964            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1965            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1966
1967        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1968        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1969            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1970        else:
1971            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1972            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1973
1974        groupings = csv(
1975            grouping_sets,
1976            cube_sql,
1977            rollup_sql,
1978            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1979            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1980        )
1981
1982        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1983            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1984
1985        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1986
1987    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1988        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1989        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1990
1991    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1992        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1993        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1994        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1995        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1996        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1997        return start + connect
1998
1999    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
2000        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2001
2002    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
2003        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
2004            side = None
2005        else:
2006            side = expression.side
2007
2008        op_sql = " ".join(
2009            op
2010            for op in (
2011                expression.method,
2012                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
2013                side,
2014                expression.kind,
2015                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
2016            )
2017            if op
2018        )
2019        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
2020        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
2021        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
2022        using = expression.args.get("using")
2023
2024        if not on_sql and using:
2025            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
2026
2027        this = expression.this
2028        this_sql = self.sql(this)
2029
2030        if on_sql:
2031            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
2032            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2033            if using:
2034                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2035            else:
2036                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2037        elif not op_sql:
2038            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2039                return f" {this_sql}"
2040
2041            return f", {this_sql}"
2042
2043        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2044            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2045
2046        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
2047
2048    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2049        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2050        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2051        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2052
2053    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2054        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2055
2056        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2057        if cross_apply is True:
2058            op = "INNER JOIN "
2059        elif cross_apply is False:
2060            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2061        else:
2062            op = ""
2063
2064        return f"{op}LATERAL"
2065
2066    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2067        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2068
2069        if expression.args.get("view"):
2070            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2071            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2072            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2073            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2074            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2075            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2076
2077        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2078        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2079        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
2080
2081    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2082        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2083
2084        args = [
2085            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2086            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2087            if e
2088        ]
2089
2090        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2091        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2092        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2093        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2094
2095        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
2096
2097    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2098        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2099        value = expression.expression
2100        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2101        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2102        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2103        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2104
2105    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2106        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2107        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2108        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2109        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2110        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2111        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2112        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2113        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2114
2115    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2116        expressions = (
2117            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2118        )
2119        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2120        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2121
2122    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2123        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2124
2125    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2126        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2127            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2128            return ""
2129
2130        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2131        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2132        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2133        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2134
2135        if wait is not None:
2136            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2137                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2138            else:
2139                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2140
2141        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2142
2143    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2144        text = expression.this or ""
2145        if expression.is_string:
2146            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2147        return text
2148
2149    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2150        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2151            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2152            text = "".join(
2153                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2154            )
2155
2156        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2157            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2158        )
2159
2160    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2161        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2162        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2163        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2164        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2165        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2166        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2167        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2168        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2169        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2170        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2171        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2172
2173    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2174        return "NULL"
2175
2176    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2177        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2178
2179    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2180        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2181        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2182        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2183        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2184        interpolated_values = [
2185            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2186            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2187        ]
2188        interpolate = (
2189            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2190        )
2191        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
2192
2193    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2194        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2195        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2196        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2197        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2198        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2199        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2200        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
2201
2202    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2203        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2204
2205    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2206        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2207
2208    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2209        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2210
2211    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2212        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2213        asc = not desc
2214
2215        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2216        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2217        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2218        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2219        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2220
2221        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2222
2223        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2224        nulls_sort_change = ""
2225        if nulls_first and (
2226            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2227        ):
2228            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2229        elif (
2230            nulls_last
2231            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2232            and not nulls_are_last
2233        ):
2234            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2235
2236        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2237        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2238            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2239            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2240                self.unsupported(
2241                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2242                )
2243                nulls_sort_change = ""
2244            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2245                if expression.this.is_int:
2246                    self.unsupported(
2247                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2248                    )
2249                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2250                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2251                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2252                nulls_sort_change = ""
2253
2254        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2255        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2256
2257        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2258
2259    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2260        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2261        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2262
2263        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2264
2265        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2266
2267    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2268        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2269        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2270        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2271        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2272        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2273        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2274        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2275        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2276        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2277        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2278        definition_sqls = [
2279            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2280            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2281        ]
2282        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2283        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2284        body = "".join(
2285            (
2286                partition,
2287                order,
2288                measures,
2289                rows,
2290                after,
2291                pattern,
2292                define,
2293            )
2294        )
2295        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2296        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2297        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2298
2299    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2300        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2301
2302        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2303            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2304        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2305            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2306
2307        return csv(
2308            *sqls,
2309            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2310            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2311            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2312            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2313            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2314            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2315            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2316            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2317            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2318            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2319            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2320            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2321            self.options_modifier(expression),
2322            sep="",
2323        )
2324
2325    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2326        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2327        return f" {options}" if options else ""
2328
2329    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2330        return ""
2331
2332    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2333        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2334    ) -> t.List[str]:
2335        return [
2336            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2337            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2338        ]
2339
2340    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2341        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2342        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2343        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2344
2345    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2346        into = expression.args.get("into")
2347        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2348            into.pop()
2349
2350        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2351        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2352        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2353        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2354
2355        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2356        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2357            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2358            limit.pop()
2359        else:
2360            top = ""
2361
2362        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2363
2364        if kind:
2365            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2366                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2367            else:
2368                if kind == "STRUCT":
2369                    expressions = self.expressions(
2370                        sqls=[
2371                            self.sql(
2372                                exp.Struct(
2373                                    expressions=[
2374                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2375                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2376                                        else e
2377                                        for e in expression.expressions
2378                                    ]
2379                                )
2380                            )
2381                        ]
2382                    )
2383                kind = ""
2384
2385        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2386        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2387        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2388        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2389        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2390            expression,
2391            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2392            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2393            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2394        )
2395
2396        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2397
2398        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2399            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2400                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2401            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2402                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2403            else:
2404                table_kind = ""
2405            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2406
2407        return sql
2408
2409    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2410        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2411        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2412        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2413
2414    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2415        if expression.expressions:
2416            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2417        return ""
2418
2419    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2420        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2421        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2422        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2423        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2424        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2425        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2426        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2427
2428    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2429        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2430        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2431
2432    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2433        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2434        kind = expression.text("kind")
2435        if kind:
2436            kind = f"{kind}."
2437        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2438
2439    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2440        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2441
2442    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2443        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2444        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2445        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2446        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2447        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2448
2449    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2450        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2451        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2452
2453    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2454        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
2455            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2456            order = expression.args.get("order")
2457
2458            if limit or order:
2459                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
2460
2461                if limit:
2462                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
2463                if order:
2464                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
2465                return self.sql(select)
2466
2467        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2468        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2469
2470        while stack:
2471            node = stack.pop()
2472
2473            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
2474                stack.append(node.expression)
2475                stack.append(
2476                    self.maybe_comment(
2477                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2478                        comments=node.comments,
2479                        separated=True,
2480                    )
2481                )
2482                stack.append(node.this)
2483            else:
2484                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2485
2486        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2487        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2488        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
2489
2490    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2491        return self.set_operations(expression)
2492
2493    def union_op(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2494        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_SET_OP else ""
2495        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2496        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2497        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2498
2499    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2500        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2501
2502        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2503        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2504
2505        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2506            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2507                alias.append("columns", offset)
2508
2509        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2510            columns = alias.columns
2511            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2512        else:
2513            alias = self.sql(alias)
2514
2515        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2516        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2517            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2518        else:
2519            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2520                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2521            elif offset:
2522                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2523            else:
2524                suffix = alias
2525
2526        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2527
2528    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2529        return ""
2530
2531    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2532        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2533        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2534
2535    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2536        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2537        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2538        order = expression.args.get("order")
2539        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2540        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2541        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2542        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2543
2544        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2545
2546        first = expression.args.get("first")
2547        if first is None:
2548            first = ""
2549        else:
2550            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2551
2552        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2553            return f"{this} {alias}"
2554
2555        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2556        return f"{this} ({args})"
2557
2558    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2559        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2560        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2561
2562    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2563        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2564        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2565        end = (
2566            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2567            or "CURRENT ROW"
2568        )
2569        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2570
2571    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2572        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2573        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2574        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2575
2576    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2577        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2578        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2579        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2580        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2581
2582    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2583        return apply_index_offset(
2584            expression.this,
2585            expression.expressions,
2586            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2587        )
2588
2589    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2590        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2591        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2592        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2593
2594    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2595        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2596
2597    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2598        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2599        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2600            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2601                this = self.wrap(this)
2602            return f"ANY{this}"
2603        return f"ANY {this}"
2604
2605    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2606        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2607
2608    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2609        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2610        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2611
2612        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2613            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2614            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2615
2616        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2617
2618        if default:
2619            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2620
2621        statements.append("END")
2622
2623        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2624            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2625
2626        return " ".join(statements)
2627
2628    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2629        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2630        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2631        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2632
2633    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2634        order = expression.args.get("order")
2635        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2636        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2637
2638    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2639        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2640        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2641        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2642
2643    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2644        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2645
2646        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2647            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2648        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2649            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2650        else:
2651            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2652
2653    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2654        args = expression.expressions
2655        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2656            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2657
2658        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2659            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2660
2661        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2662            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2663
2664        return args
2665
2666    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2667        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2668
2669        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2670        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2671            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2672
2673        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2674
2675    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2676        return self.func(
2677            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2678        )
2679
2680    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2681        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2682        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2683
2684    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2685        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2686        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2687        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2688        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2689        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2690        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2691        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2692        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2693
2694    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2695        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2696        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2697        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2698        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2699
2700    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2701        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2702
2703    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2704        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2705        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2706        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2707
2708    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2709        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2710
2711    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2712        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2713        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2714            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2715
2716        return path
2717
2718    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2719        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2720            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2721            if not callable(transform):
2722                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2723                return ""
2724
2725            return transform(self, expression)
2726
2727        if isinstance(expression, int):
2728            return str(expression)
2729
2730        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2731            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2732            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2733        else:
2734            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2735            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2736
2737        return escaped
2738
2739    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2740        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2741
2742    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2743        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2744        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2745
2746        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2747        if unique_keys is not None:
2748            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2749        else:
2750            unique_keys = ""
2751
2752        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2753        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2754        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2755        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2756
2757        return self.func(
2758            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2759            *expression.expressions,
2760            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2761        )
2762
2763    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2764        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2765
2766    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2767        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2768        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2769        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2770        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2771        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2772        return self.func(
2773            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2774        )
2775
2776    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2777        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2778        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2779        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2780        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2781        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2782        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2783        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2784        return self.func(
2785            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2786            this,
2787            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2788        )
2789
2790    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2791        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2792        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2793        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2794
2795        if nested_schema:
2796            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2797
2798        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2799        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2800        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2801        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2802
2803    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2804        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2805
2806    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2807        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2808        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2809        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2810        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2811        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2812        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2813        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2814        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2815        return self.func(
2816            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2817        )
2818
2819    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2820        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2821        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2822        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2823        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2824        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2825        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2826
2827    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2828        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2829        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2830        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2831        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2832        with_ = (
2833            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2834            if expressions
2835            else ""
2836        )
2837        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2838
2839    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2840        query = expression.args.get("query")
2841        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2842        field = expression.args.get("field")
2843        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2844
2845        if query:
2846            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2847        elif unnest:
2848            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2849        elif field:
2850            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2851        else:
2852            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2853
2854        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2855
2856    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2857        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2858
2859    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2860        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2861        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2862            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2863        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2864
2865        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2866            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2867            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2868
2869        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2870        if this:
2871            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2872            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2873
2874        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2875
2876    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2877        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2878
2879    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2880        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2881        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2882        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2883        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2884        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2885        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2886
2887    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2888        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
2889
2890    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2891        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2892        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2893
2894    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2895        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2896        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2897        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2898        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2899
2900    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2901        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2902
2903    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2904        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2905        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2906        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2907
2908    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2909        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2910        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2911
2912        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2913            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2914        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2915            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2916
2917        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2918
2919    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2920        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2921
2922    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2923        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2924        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2925        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2926
2927    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2928        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2929        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2930        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2931
2932    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2933        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2934        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2935        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
2936
2937    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2938        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2939
2940    def and_sql(
2941        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2942    ) -> str:
2943        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
2944
2945    def or_sql(
2946        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2947    ) -> str:
2948        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
2949
2950    def xor_sql(
2951        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2952    ) -> str:
2953        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
2954
2955    def connector_sql(
2956        self,
2957        expression: exp.Connector,
2958        op: str,
2959        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2960    ) -> str:
2961        if stack is not None:
2962            if expression.expressions:
2963                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2964            else:
2965                stack.append(expression.right)
2966                if expression.comments and self.comments:
2967                    for comment in expression.comments:
2968                        if comment:
2969                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2970                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2971            return op
2972
2973        stack = [expression]
2974        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2975        ops = set()
2976
2977        while stack:
2978            node = stack.pop()
2979            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2980                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2981            else:
2982                sql = self.sql(node)
2983                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2984                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2985                else:
2986                    sqls.append(sql)
2987
2988        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
2989        return sep.join(sqls)
2990
2991    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2992        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2993
2994    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2995        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2996
2997    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2998        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2999
3000    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
3001        return self.binary(expression, "|")
3002
3003    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3004        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
3005
3006    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3007        return self.binary(expression, "^")
3008
3009    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3010        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
3011        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
3012        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
3013        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
3014        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
3015        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
3016        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
3017
3018    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
3019        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
3020        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
3021
3022    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
3023        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
3024            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3025        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
3026
3027    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
3028        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
3029
3030    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
3031        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3032        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3033        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3034        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3035        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3036        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
3037
3038    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3039        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3040        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3041        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3042        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3043        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3044        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3045        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3046        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3047        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
3048
3049    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3050        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3051        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3052        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3053        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3054
3055        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3056            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3057
3058        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
3059
3060    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3061        return "BEGIN"
3062
3063    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3064        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3065        if chain is not None:
3066            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3067
3068        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
3069
3070    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3071        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3072        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3073        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
3074
3075    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3076        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3077
3078        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3079        if dtype:
3080            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3081            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3082            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3083            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3084            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3085
3086        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3087        if default:
3088            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3089
3090        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3091        if comment:
3092            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3093
3094        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3095        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3096
3097        if not drop and not allow_null:
3098            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3099
3100        if allow_null is not None:
3101            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3102            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3103
3104        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3105
3106    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3107        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3108        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3109            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3110        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3111
3112    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3113        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3114        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3115        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3116        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3117        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3118
3119    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3120        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3121            # Remove db from tables
3122            expression = expression.transform(
3123                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3124            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3125        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3126        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3127
3128    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3129        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3130        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3131        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3132        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3133
3134    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3135        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3136        return f"SET {exprs}"
3137
3138    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3139        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3140
3141        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3142            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3143        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3144            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3145        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3146            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3147        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Query):
3148            actions = "AS " + self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
3149        else:
3150            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3151
3152        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3153        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3154        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3155        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3156        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3157        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3158        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3159        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{options}"
3160
3161    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3162        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3163            return self.expressions(
3164                expression,
3165                key="actions",
3166                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3167                skip_first=True,
3168            )
3169        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3170
3171    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3172        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3173        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3174        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3175
3176    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3177        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3178
3179    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3180        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3181
3182        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3183            case = exp.case()
3184            for arg in expression.expressions:
3185                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3186            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3187
3188        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3189
3190        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3191        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3192        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3193
3194    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3195        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3196
3197    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3198        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3199
3200    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3201        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3202        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3203        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3204        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3205
3206    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3207        return self.sql(
3208            exp.Cast(
3209                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3210                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3211            )
3212        )
3213
3214    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3215        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3216            return self.func(
3217                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3218            )
3219        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3220
3221    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3222        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3223
3224        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3225            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3226
3227        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3228            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3229                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3230
3231        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3232            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3233                return self.sql(
3234                    exp.cast(
3235                        l / r,
3236                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3237                    )
3238                )
3239
3240        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3241
3242    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3243        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3244
3245    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3246        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3247
3248    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3249        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3250
3251    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3252        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3253
3254    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3255        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3256
3257    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3258        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3259
3260    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3261        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3262
3263    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3264        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3265
3266    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3267        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3268
3269    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3270        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3271
3272    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3273        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3274
3275    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3276        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3277            return self.sql(
3278                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3279            )
3280        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3281
3282    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3283        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3284
3285    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3286        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3287
3288    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3289        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3290
3291    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3292        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3293
3294    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3295        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3296
3297    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3298        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3299
3300    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3301        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3302
3303    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3304        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3305
3306    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3307        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3308
3309    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3310        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3311
3312    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3313        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3314
3315    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3316        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3317
3318    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3319        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3320
3321    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3322        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3323            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3324            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3325
3326        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3327
3328    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3329        this = expression.this
3330        expr = expression.expression
3331
3332        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3333            this, expr = expr, this
3334        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3335            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3336                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3337
3338            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3339
3340        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3341
3342    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3343        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3344        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3345        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3346        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3347        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3348
3349    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3350        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3351        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3352
3353    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3354        args = []
3355
3356        for key in expression.arg_types:
3357            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3358
3359            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3360                for value in arg_value:
3361                    args.append(value)
3362            elif arg_value is not None:
3363                args.append(arg_value)
3364
3365        if self.normalize_functions:
3366            name = expression.sql_name()
3367        else:
3368            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3369
3370        return self.func(name, *args)
3371
3372    def func(
3373        self,
3374        name: str,
3375        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3376        prefix: str = "(",
3377        suffix: str = ")",
3378    ) -> str:
3379        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3380
3381    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3382        arg_sqls = tuple(
3383            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
3384        )
3385        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3386            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3387        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3388
3389    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3390        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3391
3392    def format_time(
3393        self,
3394        expression: exp.Expression,
3395        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3396        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3397    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3398        return format_time(
3399            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3400            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3401            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3402        )
3403
3404    def expressions(
3405        self,
3406        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3407        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3408        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3409        flat: bool = False,
3410        indent: bool = True,
3411        skip_first: bool = False,
3412        skip_last: bool = False,
3413        sep: str = ", ",
3414        prefix: str = "",
3415        dynamic: bool = False,
3416        new_line: bool = False,
3417    ) -> str:
3418        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3419
3420        if not expressions:
3421            return ""
3422
3423        if flat:
3424            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3425
3426        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3427        result_sqls = []
3428
3429        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3430            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3431            if not sql:
3432                continue
3433
3434            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3435
3436            if self.pretty:
3437                if self.leading_comma:
3438                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3439                else:
3440                    result_sqls.append(
3441                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3442                    )
3443            else:
3444                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3445
3446        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3447            if new_line:
3448                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3449                result_sqls.append("")
3450            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
3451        else:
3452            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3453        return (
3454            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3455            if indent
3456            else result_sql
3457        )
3458
3459    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3460        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3461        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3462        if flat:
3463            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3464        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3465
3466    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3467        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3468        if not property_name:
3469            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3470        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3471
3472    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3473        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3474
3475    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3476        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3477
3478    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3479        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3480        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3481        expressions = (
3482            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3483        )
3484        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3485
3486    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3487        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3488        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3489        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3490
3491    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3492        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3493
3494    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3495        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3496        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3497        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3498        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3499
3500        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3501        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3502            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3503            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3504            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3505            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3506        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3507            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3508                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3509            else:
3510                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3511        else:
3512            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3513        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3514
3515    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3516        table = expression.this
3517        table_alias = ""
3518
3519        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3520        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3521            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3522            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3523
3524        this = self.sql(table)
3525        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3526        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3527        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3528        sep = self.sep()
3529
3530        return self.prepend_ctes(
3531            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}"
3532        )
3533
3534    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3535        if expression.args.get("format"):
3536            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3537
3538        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3539
3540    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3541        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3542            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3543            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3544
3545        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3546        if not fmt:
3547            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3548            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3549
3550        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3551
3552    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3553        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3554        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3555        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3556        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3557        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3558
3559    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3560        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3561        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3562        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3563        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3564
3565    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3566        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3567
3568    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3569        return ""
3570
3571    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3572        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3573        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3574        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3575        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3576        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3577
3578    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3579        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3580        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3581
3582        if having:
3583            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3584
3585        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3586
3587    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3588        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3589        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3590        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3591        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3592        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3593        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3594        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3595        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3596        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3597        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3598        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3599        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3600        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3601
3602    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3603        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3604        if key_block_size:
3605            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3606
3607        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3608        if using:
3609            return f"USING {using}"
3610
3611        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3612        if parser:
3613            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3614
3615        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3616        if comment:
3617            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3618
3619        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3620        if visible is not None:
3621            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3622
3623        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3624        if engine_attr:
3625            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3626
3627        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3628        if secondary_engine_attr:
3629            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3630
3631        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3632        return ""
3633
3634    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3635        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3636        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3637
3638    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3639        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3640        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3641        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3642        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3643        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3644        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3645        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3646        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3647        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3648        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3649        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3650
3651    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3652        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3653            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3654
3655        case = exp.Case().when(
3656            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3657            expression.args["true"],
3658            copy=False,
3659        )
3660        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3661        if else_cond:
3662            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3663
3664        return self.sql(case)
3665
3666    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3667        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3668        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3669        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3670        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3671        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3672        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3673
3674    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3675        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3676
3677    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3678        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3679
3680    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3681        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3682        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3683        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3684        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3685        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3686        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3687
3688    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3689        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3690        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3691        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3692
3693    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3694        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3695        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3696        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3697
3698    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3699        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3700
3701    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3702        arg = expression.this
3703        if not arg.type:
3704            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3705
3706            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3707
3708        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3709            return self.sql(arg)
3710
3711        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3712        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3713
3714    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3715        this = expression.this
3716        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3717            return self.sql(this)
3718
3719        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3720
3721    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3722        this = expression.this
3723        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3724            return self.sql(this)
3725
3726        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
3727
3728    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3729        this = expression.this
3730        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3731
3732        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3733            return self.sql(
3734                exp.cast(
3735                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3736                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3737                )
3738            )
3739
3740        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3741            return self.sql(this)
3742
3743        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3744
3745    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3746        return self.sql(
3747            exp.func(
3748                "DATEDIFF",
3749                expression.this,
3750                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3751                "day",
3752            )
3753        )
3754
3755    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3756        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3757            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3758
3759        unit = expression.text("unit")
3760        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3761            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3762
3763        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3764
3765    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3766        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3767
3768        return self.func(
3769            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3770        )
3771
3772    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3773        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3774            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3775            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3776            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3777            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3778
3779        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3780
3781        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3782        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3783            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3784
3785        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3786
3787    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3788        expression.set(
3789            "expressions",
3790            [
3791                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3792                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3793                else e
3794                for e in expression.expressions
3795            ],
3796        )
3797
3798        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3799
3800    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3801        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3802        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3803
3804        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3805
3806    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3807        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3808        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3809
3810        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3811
3812        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3813        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3814
3815        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3816        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3817
3818        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3819        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3820
3821        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3822        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3823
3824        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3825
3826    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3827    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3828    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3829        to = expression.this
3830        value = expression.expression
3831        style = expression.args.get("style")
3832        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3833        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3834
3835        if not to or not value:
3836            return ""
3837
3838        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3839        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3840            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3841
3842        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3843        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3844
3845        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3846        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3847            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3848
3849            style_value = style.name
3850            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3851            if not converted_style:
3852                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3853
3854            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3855
3856            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3857                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3858            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3859                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3860            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3861                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3862            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3863                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3864
3865        if not transformed:
3866            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3867
3868        return self.sql(transformed)
3869
3870    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
3871        this = expression.this
3872        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
3873            this = self.json_path_part(this)
3874            return f".{this}" if this else ""
3875
3876        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
3877            return f".{this}"
3878
3879        this = self.json_path_part(this)
3880        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
3881
3882    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
3883        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
3884        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
3885
3886    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3887        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3888            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3889
3890            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3891
3892        return expression
3893
3894    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
3895        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
3896            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
3897            mods = sorted(
3898                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
3899                key=lambda x: 0
3900                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
3901                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
3902            )
3903
3904            if mods:
3905                mod = mods[0]
3906                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
3907                this.meta["inline"] = True
3908                mod.this.replace(this)
3909                return self.sql(expression.this)
3910
3911            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
3912
3913            if agg_func:
3914                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
3915
3916        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
3917
3918    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
3919        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
3920        if self.pretty:
3921            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
3922        return string
3923
3924    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
3925        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
3926
3927        if expression.expressions:
3928            upper = option.upper()
3929
3930            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
3931            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
3932
3933            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
3934            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
3935            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
3936            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
3937
3938        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3939
3940        if not value:
3941            return option
3942
3943        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
3944
3945        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
3946
3947    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
3948        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
3949        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
3950            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
3951            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3952            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
3953        else:
3954            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
3955            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
3956            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
3957
3958        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
3959        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
3960
3961        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
3962        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
3963
3964        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
3965        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
3966
3967        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
3968        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
3969
3970        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
3971
3972    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
3973        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3974        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
3975
3976        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3977        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
3978        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
3979        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
3980
3981        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
3982        params = self.expressions(
3983            expression,
3984            key="params",
3985            sep=sep,
3986            new_line=True,
3987            skip_last=True,
3988            skip_first=True,
3989            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
3990        )
3991
3992        if params:
3993            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
3994                params = f" WITH ({params})"
3995            elif not self.pretty:
3996                params = f" {params}"
3997
3998        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
3999
4000    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
4001        return ""
4002
4003    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4004        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
4005        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
4006        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
4007        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
4008        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
4009
4010        if filter_col or retention_period:
4011            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
4012
4013        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
4014
4015    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
4016        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
4017    ) -> str:
4018        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4019        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4020        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4021        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
4022
4023    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
4024        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4025        this = f"TABLE {this}"
4026        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
4027
4028    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4029        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
4030
4031    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4032        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4033        expr = expression.expression
4034
4035        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4036            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4037            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4038        else:
4039            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4040
4041        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
4042
4043    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4044        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4045            return self.sql(expression.this)
4046
4047        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
4048
4049    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4050        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4051        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4052
4053        if lower and upper:
4054            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4055        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
4056
4057    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4058        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4059        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4060        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4061        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4062        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4063        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4064
4065        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
4066
4067    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4068        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4069
4070        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4071        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4072            fill_pattern = "' '"
4073
4074        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
4075
4076    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
4077        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
4078        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
4079
4080    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4081        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
4082
4083        parent = expression.parent
4084        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
4085            parent = parent.parent
4086
4087        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
4088            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
4089
4090        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
4091            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
4092
4093        return self.sql(generate_series)
4094
4095    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
4096        exprs = expression.expressions
4097        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
4098            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
4099        else:
4100            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
4101
4102        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs)
4103
4104    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4105        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
4106            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4107
4108        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
4109        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
4110        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
4111
4112        if source_tz and timestamp:
4113            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
4114                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
4115            )
4116
4117        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
4118
4119        return self.sql(expr)
logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile('\\\\(\\d+)')
class Generator:
  37class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  38    """
  39    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  40
  41    Args:
  42        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  43            Default: False.
  44        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  45            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  46            True or 'always': Always quote.
  47            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  48        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  49            Default: False.
  50        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  51            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  52            Default: 2.
  53        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  54            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  55            Default: 2.
  56        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  57            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  58            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  59            False: Disables function name normalization.
  60        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  61            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  62        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  63            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  64            Default: 3
  65        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  66            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  67            Default: False
  68        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  69            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  70            line length.
  71            Default: 80
  72        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  73            Default: True
  74    """
  75
  76    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
  77        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
  78        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
  79        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
  80        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  81        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  82        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
  83        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  84        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  85        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
  86        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  87        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  88        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  89        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.ConnectByRoot: lambda self, e: f"CONNECT_BY_ROOT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  92        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
  93        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  95        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
  96        exp.EmptyProperty: lambda *_: "EMPTY",
  97        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  98        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  99        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
 100        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
 101        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 102        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
 103        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 104        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 105        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 106        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 107        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 108        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 109        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 110        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 111        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 112        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 113        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 114        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 115        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 116        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 117        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 118        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 119        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 120        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 121        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 122        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 123        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 124        exp.PivotAny: lambda self, e: f"ANY{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 125        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 126        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 127        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 128        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 129        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
 130            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
 131        ),
 132        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 133        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
 134        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 135        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 136        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 137        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 138        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 139        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 140        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 141        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 142        exp.Stream: lambda self, e: f"STREAM {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 143        exp.StreamingTableProperty: lambda *_: "STREAMING",
 144        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
 145        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 146        exp.TagColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 147        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 148        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 149        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 150        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 151        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 152        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 153        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 154        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 155        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 156        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 157        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 158        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH SCHEMA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 159        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 160    }
 161
 162    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 163    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
 164    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 165
 166    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 167    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 168    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 169
 170    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 171    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 172
 173    # Always do <set op> distinct or <set op> all
 174    EXPLICIT_SET_OP = False
 175
 176    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 177    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 178
 179    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 180    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 181
 182    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 183    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 184
 185    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 186    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 187
 188    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 189    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 190
 191    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 192    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 193
 194    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 195    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 196
 197    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 198    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 199
 200    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 201    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 202
 203    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 204    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 205
 206    # Whether join hints should be generated
 207    JOIN_HINTS = True
 208
 209    # Whether table hints should be generated
 210    TABLE_HINTS = True
 211
 212    # Whether query hints should be generated
 213    QUERY_HINTS = True
 214
 215    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 216    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 217
 218    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 219    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 220
 221    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 222    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 223
 224    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 225    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 226
 227    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 228    RETURNING_END = True
 229
 230    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 231    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 232
 233    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 234    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 235
 236    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 237    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 238
 239    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 240    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 241
 242    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 243    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 244    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 245    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 246
 247    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 248    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 249
 250    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 251    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 252
 253    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 254    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 255
 256    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 257    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 258
 259    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 260    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 261
 262    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 263    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 264
 265    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 266    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 267
 268    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 269    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 270
 271    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 272    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 273
 274    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 275    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 276
 277    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 278    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 279
 280    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 281    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 282
 283    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 284    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 285
 286    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 287    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 288
 289    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 290    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 291
 292    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 293    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 294
 295    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 296    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 297
 298    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 299    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 300
 301    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 302    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 303
 304    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 305    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 306
 307    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 308    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 309
 310    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 311    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 312
 313    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 314    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 315
 316    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 317    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 318
 319    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 320    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 321
 322    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 323    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 324    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 325
 326    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 327    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 328
 329    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 330    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 331
 332    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 333    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 334
 335    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 336    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 337
 338    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 339    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 340
 341    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 342    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 343
 344    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
 345    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 346    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
 347    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
 348
 349    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 350    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 351
 352    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 353    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 354
 355    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 356    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 357
 358    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 359    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 360
 361    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
 362    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
 363
 364    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 365    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 366
 367    # The HEX function name
 368    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 369
 370    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
 371    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
 372
 373    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
 374    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
 375
 376    # Whether the text pattern/fill (3rd) parameter of RPAD()/LPAD() is optional (defaults to space)
 377    PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
 378
 379    # Whether a projection can explode into multiple rows, e.g. by unnesting an array.
 380    SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
 381
 382    # Whether ARRAY_CONCAT can be generated with varlen args or if it should be reduced to 2-arg version
 383    ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
 384
 385    # Whether CONVERT_TIMEZONE() is supported; if not, it will be generated as exp.AtTimeZone
 386    SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
 387
 388    # Whether nullable types can be constructed, e.g. `Nullable(Int64)`
 389    SUPPORTS_NULLABLE_TYPES = True
 390
 391    # The name to generate for the JSONPath expression. If `None`, only `this` will be generated
 392    PARSE_JSON_NAME: t.Optional[str] = "PARSE_JSON"
 393
 394    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 395        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 396        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 397        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 398        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 399        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 400        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 401        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 402        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 403        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 404        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 405    }
 406
 407    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 408        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 409        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 410        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 411        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 412        "DAYS": "DAY",
 413        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 414        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 415        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 416        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 417    }
 418
 419    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 420        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 421        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 422        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 423        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 424            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 425            if e.args.get("windows")
 426            else ""
 427        ),
 428        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 429    }
 430
 431    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 432
 433    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 434
 435    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 436    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 437
 438    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 439        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 440        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 441        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 442        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 443        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 444        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 445        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 446        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 447        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 448        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 449        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 450        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 451        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 452        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 453        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 454        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 455        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 456        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 457        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 458        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 459        exp.EmptyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 460        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 461        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 462        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 463        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 464        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 465        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 466        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 467        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 468        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 469        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 470        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 471        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 472        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 473        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 474        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 475        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 476        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 477        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 478        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 479        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 480        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 481        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 482        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 483        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 484        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 485        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 486        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 487        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 488        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 489        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 490        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 491        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 492        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 493        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 494        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 495        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 496        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 497        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 498        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 499        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 500        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 501        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 502        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 503        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 504        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 505        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 506        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 507        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 508        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 509        exp.StreamingTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 510        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 511        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 512        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 513        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 514        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 515        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 516        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 517        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 518        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 519        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 520        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 521        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 522        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 523    }
 524
 525    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 526    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 527
 528    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 529    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 530        exp.Command,
 531        exp.Create,
 532        exp.Delete,
 533        exp.Drop,
 534        exp.From,
 535        exp.Insert,
 536        exp.Join,
 537        exp.Select,
 538        exp.SetOperation,
 539        exp.Update,
 540        exp.Where,
 541        exp.With,
 542    )
 543
 544    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 545    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 546        exp.Binary,
 547        exp.SetOperation,
 548    )
 549
 550    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 551    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 552        exp.Column,
 553        exp.Literal,
 554        exp.Neg,
 555        exp.Paren,
 556    )
 557
 558    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 559        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 560        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 561        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 562        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 563    }
 564
 565    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 566    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 567
 568    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 569
 570    __slots__ = (
 571        "pretty",
 572        "identify",
 573        "normalize",
 574        "pad",
 575        "_indent",
 576        "normalize_functions",
 577        "unsupported_level",
 578        "max_unsupported",
 579        "leading_comma",
 580        "max_text_width",
 581        "comments",
 582        "dialect",
 583        "unsupported_messages",
 584        "_escaped_quote_end",
 585        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 586        "_next_name",
 587    )
 588
 589    def __init__(
 590        self,
 591        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 592        identify: str | bool = False,
 593        normalize: bool = False,
 594        pad: int = 2,
 595        indent: int = 2,
 596        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 597        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 598        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 599        leading_comma: bool = False,
 600        max_text_width: int = 80,
 601        comments: bool = True,
 602        dialect: DialectType = None,
 603    ):
 604        import sqlglot
 605        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 606
 607        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 608        self.identify = identify
 609        self.normalize = normalize
 610        self.pad = pad
 611        self._indent = indent
 612        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 613        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 614        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 615        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 616        self.comments = comments
 617        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 618
 619        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 620        self.normalize_functions = (
 621            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 622        )
 623
 624        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 625        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 626            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 627        )
 628        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 629            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 630        )
 631
 632        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 633
 634    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 635        """
 636        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 637
 638        Args:
 639            expression: The syntax tree.
 640            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 641                it is safer to copy.
 642
 643        Returns:
 644            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 645        """
 646        if copy:
 647            expression = expression.copy()
 648
 649        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 650
 651        self.unsupported_messages = []
 652        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 653
 654        if self.pretty:
 655            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 656
 657        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 658            return sql
 659
 660        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 661            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 662                logger.warning(msg)
 663        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 664            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 665
 666        return sql
 667
 668    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 669        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 670        if (
 671            not expression.parent
 672            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 673            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 674        ):
 675            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 676
 677            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 678
 679        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 680            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 681
 682            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 683
 684        return expression
 685
 686    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 687        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 688            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 689        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 690
 691    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 692        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 693
 694    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 695        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 696
 697    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 698        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 699        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 700        return comment
 701
 702    def maybe_comment(
 703        self,
 704        sql: str,
 705        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 706        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 707        separated: bool = False,
 708    ) -> str:
 709        comments = (
 710            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 711            if self.comments
 712            else None
 713        )
 714
 715        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 716            return sql
 717
 718        comments_sql = " ".join(
 719            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 720        )
 721
 722        if not comments_sql:
 723            return sql
 724
 725        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 726
 727        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 728            return (
 729                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 730                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 731                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 732            )
 733
 734        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 735
 736    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 737        this_sql = (
 738            self.sql(expression)
 739            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 740            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 741        )
 742        if not this_sql:
 743            return "()"
 744
 745        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 746        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 747
 748    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 749        original = self.identify
 750        self.identify = False
 751        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 752        self.identify = original
 753        return result
 754
 755    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 756        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 757            return name.upper()
 758        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 759            return name.lower()
 760        return name
 761
 762    def indent(
 763        self,
 764        sql: str,
 765        level: int = 0,
 766        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 767        skip_first: bool = False,
 768        skip_last: bool = False,
 769    ) -> str:
 770        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 771            return sql
 772
 773        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 774        lines = sql.split("\n")
 775
 776        return "\n".join(
 777            (
 778                line
 779                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 780                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 781            )
 782            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 783        )
 784
 785    def sql(
 786        self,
 787        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 788        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 789        comment: bool = True,
 790    ) -> str:
 791        if not expression:
 792            return ""
 793
 794        if isinstance(expression, str):
 795            return expression
 796
 797        if key:
 798            value = expression.args.get(key)
 799            if value:
 800                return self.sql(value)
 801            return ""
 802
 803        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 804
 805        if callable(transform):
 806            sql = transform(self, expression)
 807        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 808            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 809
 810            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 811                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 812            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 813                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 814            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 815                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 816            else:
 817                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 818        else:
 819            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 820
 821        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 822
 823    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 824        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 825        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 826        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 827
 828    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 829        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 830        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 831        options = expression.args.get("options")
 832        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 833        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 834        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 835        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 836        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 837
 838    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 839        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 840            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 841        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 842        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 843
 844    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 845        return ".".join(
 846            self.sql(part)
 847            for part in (
 848                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 849                expression.args.get("db"),
 850                expression.args.get("table"),
 851                expression.args.get("this"),
 852            )
 853            if part
 854        )
 855
 856    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 857        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 858
 859        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
 860            join_mark = ""
 861            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 862
 863        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 864
 865    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 866        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 867        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 868        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 869        return f"{position}{this}"
 870
 871    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 872        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 873        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 874        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 875        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 876        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 877        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 878        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 879        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 880
 881        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 882            kind = ""
 883
 884        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 885
 886    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 887        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 888        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 889        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 890
 891    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 892        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 893        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 894            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 895        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 896            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 897        else:
 898            persisted = ""
 899        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 900
 901    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 902        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 903
 904    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 905        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 906            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 907        else:
 908            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 909
 910        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 911
 912    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 913        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 914    ) -> str:
 915        this = ""
 916        if expression.this is not None:
 917            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 918            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 919
 920        start = expression.args.get("start")
 921        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 922        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 923        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 924        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 925        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 926        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 927        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 928        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 929        cycle_sql = ""
 930
 931        if cycle is not None:
 932            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 933            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 934
 935        sequence_opts = ""
 936        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 937            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 938            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 939
 940        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 941        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 942
 943        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 944
 945    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 946        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 947    ) -> str:
 948        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
 949        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 950        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 951
 952    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 953        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 954    ) -> str:
 955        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 956
 957    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 958        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 959
 960    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 961        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 962
 963    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 964        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 965        if desc is not None:
 966            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 967        return "PRIMARY KEY"
 968
 969    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 970        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 971        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 972        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 973        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 974        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
 975        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
 976        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
 977        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
 978
 979    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 980        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 981
 982    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 983        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 984        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 985        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 986
 987        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 988
 989        properties_sql = ""
 990        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 991            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 992        ):
 993            properties_sql = self.sql(
 994                exp.Properties(
 995                    expressions=[
 996                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 997                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 998                    ]
 999                )
1000            )
1001
1002            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
1003                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
1004            elif not self.pretty:
1005                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
1006                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
1007
1008        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
1009        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
1010
1011        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1012        if expression_sql:
1013            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
1014
1015            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
1016                postalias_props_sql = ""
1017                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1018                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1019                        exp.Properties(
1020                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1021                        ),
1022                        wrapped=False,
1023                    )
1024                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1025                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1026
1027        postindex_props_sql = ""
1028        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1029            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1030                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1031                wrapped=False,
1032                prefix=" ",
1033            )
1034
1035        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1036        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1037        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1038
1039        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1040        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
1041        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1042
1043        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
1044        if clustered is None:
1045            clustered_sql = ""
1046        elif clustered:
1047            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1048        else:
1049            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1050
1051        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1052        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1053            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1054                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1055                sep=" ",
1056                prefix=" ",
1057                wrapped=False,
1058            )
1059
1060        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1061
1062        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1063        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1064            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1065                exp.Properties(
1066                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1067                ),
1068                sep=" ",
1069                prefix=" ",
1070                wrapped=False,
1071            )
1072
1073        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1074        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1075        no_schema_binding = (
1076            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1077        )
1078
1079        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1080        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1081
1082        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1083        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1084
1085    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1086        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1087        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1088        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1089        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1090        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1091        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1092        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1093        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1094        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1095        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1096
1097        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1098        if cache is None:
1099            cache_str = ""
1100        elif cache is True:
1101            cache_str = " CACHE"
1102        else:
1103            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1104
1105        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1106        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1107
1108        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1109
1110    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1111        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1112        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1113        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1114        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1115
1116    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1117        style = expression.args.get("style")
1118        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1119        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1120
1121    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1122        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1123        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1124
1125    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1126        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1127        if with_:
1128            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1129        return sql
1130
1131    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1132        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1133        recursive = (
1134            "RECURSIVE "
1135            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1136            else ""
1137        )
1138
1139        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1140
1141    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1142        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1143
1144        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1145        if materialized is False:
1146            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1147        elif materialized:
1148            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1149
1150        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1151
1152    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1153        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1154        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1155        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1156
1157        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1158            columns = ""
1159            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1160
1161        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1162            alias = self._next_name()
1163
1164        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1165
1166    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1167        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1168        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1169            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1170        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1171
1172    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1173        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1174        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1175            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1176        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1177
1178    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1179        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1180        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1181            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1182        return this
1183
1184    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1185        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1186        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1187
1188        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1189            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1190            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1191        else:
1192            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1193            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1194
1195        if escape:
1196            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1197            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1198        else:
1199            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1200            escape_sql = ""
1201
1202        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1203            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1204
1205        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
1206
1207    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1208        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1209        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1210
1211    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1212        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1213        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1214        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1215        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1216
1217    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1218        nested = ""
1219        values = ""
1220        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1221
1222        type_value = expression.this
1223        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1224            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1225        elif type_value != exp.DataType.Type.NULLABLE or self.SUPPORTS_NULLABLE_TYPES:
1226            type_sql = (
1227                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1228                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1229                else type_value
1230            )
1231        else:
1232            return interior
1233
1234        if interior:
1235            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1236                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1237                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1238                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1239                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1240                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1241            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1242                nested = f" {interior}"
1243            else:
1244                nested = f"({interior})"
1245
1246        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1247        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1248            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1249            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1250        ):
1251            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1252
1253        return type_sql
1254
1255    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1256        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1257        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1258        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1259        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1260
1261    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1262        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1263        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1264        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1265        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1266        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1267        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1268        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1269        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1270        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1271        if self.RETURNING_END:
1272            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1273        else:
1274            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1275        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1276
1277    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1278        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1279        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1280        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1281        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1282        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1283        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1284        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1285        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1286        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1287        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1288        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1289        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1290        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1291
1292    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1293        return self.set_operations(expression)
1294
1295    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1296        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1297
1298    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1299        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1300        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1301        count = expression.args.get("count")
1302        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1303        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1304            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1305        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1306        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1307
1308    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1309        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1310            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1311            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1312            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1313
1314        agg = expression.this
1315        agg_arg = agg.this
1316        cond = expression.expression.this
1317        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1318        return self.sql(agg)
1319
1320    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1321        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1322            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1323            return ""
1324
1325        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1326
1327    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1328        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1329        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1330        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1331        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1332        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1333        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1334        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1335        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1336        if include:
1337            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1338        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1339        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1340        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1341        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1342        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1343        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1344
1345        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
1346
1347    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1348        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1349        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1350        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1351        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1352        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1353        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1354        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1355
1356        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1357
1358        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1359        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1360
1361    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1362        text = expression.name
1363        lower = text.lower()
1364        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1365        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1366        if (
1367            expression.quoted
1368            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1369            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1370            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1371        ):
1372            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1373        return text
1374
1375    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1376        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1377        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1378            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1379
1380        return text
1381
1382    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1383        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1384        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1385            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1386        return text
1387
1388    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1389        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1390        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1391        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1392        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1393        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1394
1395    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1396        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1397        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1398
1399    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1400        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1401
1402    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1403        root_properties = []
1404        with_properties = []
1405
1406        for p in expression.expressions:
1407            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1408            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1409                with_properties.append(p)
1410            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1411                root_properties.append(p)
1412
1413        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1414        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1415
1416        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1417            with_props = " " + with_props
1418
1419        return root_props + with_props
1420
1421    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1422        if properties.expressions:
1423            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1424        return ""
1425
1426    def properties(
1427        self,
1428        properties: exp.Properties,
1429        prefix: str = "",
1430        sep: str = ", ",
1431        suffix: str = "",
1432        wrapped: bool = True,
1433    ) -> str:
1434        if properties.expressions:
1435            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1436            if expressions:
1437                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1438                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1439        return ""
1440
1441    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1442        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
1443
1444    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1445        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1446        for p in properties.expressions:
1447            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1448            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1449                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1450            else:
1451                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1452
1453        return properties_locs
1454
1455    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1456        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1457            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1458        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1459
1460    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1461        property_cls = expression.__class__
1462        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1463            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1464
1465        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1466        if not property_name:
1467            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1468
1469        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1470
1471    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1472        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1473            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1474            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1475
1476            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1477            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1478                like = f"({like})"
1479
1480            return like
1481
1482        if expression.expressions:
1483            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1484
1485        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1486        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1487
1488    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1489        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1490        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1491        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1492
1493    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1494        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1495        local = expression.args.get("local")
1496        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1497        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1498        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1499        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1500        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1501
1502    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1503        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1504        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1505        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1506
1507    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1508        if expression.args.get("default"):
1509            property = "DEFAULT"
1510        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1511            property = "ON"
1512        else:
1513            property = "OFF"
1514        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1515
1516    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1517        if expression.args.get("no"):
1518            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1519        if expression.args.get("default"):
1520            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1521
1522        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1523        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1524
1525    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1526        default = expression.args.get("default")
1527        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1528        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1529        if default or minimum or maximum:
1530            if default:
1531                prop = "DEFAULT"
1532            elif minimum:
1533                prop = "MINIMUM"
1534            else:
1535                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1536            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1537        units = expression.args.get("units")
1538        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1539        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1540
1541    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1542        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1543        always = expression.args.get("always")
1544        default = expression.args.get("default")
1545        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1546        never = expression.args.get("never")
1547
1548        if autotemp is not None:
1549            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1550        elif always:
1551            prop = "ALWAYS"
1552        elif default:
1553            prop = "DEFAULT"
1554        elif manual:
1555            prop = "MANUAL"
1556        elif never:
1557            prop = "NEVER"
1558        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1559
1560    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1561        no = expression.args.get("no")
1562        no = " NO" if no else ""
1563        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1564        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1565        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1566        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1567        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1568
1569    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1570        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1571            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1572        if expression.this:
1573            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1574            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1575            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1576
1577        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1578        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1579        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1580
1581    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1582        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1583
1584        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1585        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1586            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1587        else:
1588            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1589
1590        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1591
1592    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1593        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1594        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1595        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1596        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1597        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1598        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1599        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1600
1601    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1602        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1603        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1604        statistics_sql = ""
1605        if statistics is not None:
1606            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1607        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1608
1609    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1610        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1611        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1612        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1613        data_consistency = (
1614            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1615        )
1616        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1617        retention_period = (
1618            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1619        )
1620
1621        if this:
1622            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1623        else:
1624            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1625
1626        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1627
1628        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
1629
1630    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1631        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1632        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1633
1634        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1635            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1636        else:
1637            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1638
1639        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1640        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1641        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1642        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1643        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1644        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1645        if is_function:
1646            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1647        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1648
1649        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1650        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1651        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1652        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1653        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1654        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1655        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1656        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1657
1658        if self.RETURNING_END:
1659            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1660        else:
1661            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1662
1663        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1664        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1665        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
1666        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
1667
1668        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}"
1669        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1670
1671    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1672        return self.set_operations(expression)
1673
1674    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1675        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1676
1677    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1678        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1679
1680    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1681        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1682        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1683        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1684        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1685        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1686
1687    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1688        return expression.name
1689
1690    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1691        return expression.name
1692
1693    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1694        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1695
1696        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1697        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1698
1699        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1700        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1701        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1702
1703        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1704        if expressions:
1705            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1706            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1707
1708        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1709
1710    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1711        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1712
1713    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1714        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1715        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1716        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1717        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1718        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1719        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1720        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1721        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1722        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1723        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1724        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1725        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1726        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1727
1728    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1729        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1730
1731    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1732        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1733        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1734        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1735        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1736
1737    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1738        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1739        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1740        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1741        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1742
1743    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1744        return ".".join(
1745            self.sql(part)
1746            for part in (
1747                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1748                expression.args.get("db"),
1749                expression.args.get("this"),
1750            )
1751            if part is not None
1752        )
1753
1754    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1755        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1756        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1757        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1758        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1759        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1760        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1761        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1762        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1763        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1764        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1765        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
1766        joins = self.indent(
1767            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1768        )
1769        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1770
1771        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1772        if file_format:
1773            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1774            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1775            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1776
1777        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1778        if ordinality:
1779            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1780            alias = ""
1781
1782        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1783        if when:
1784            table = f"{table} {when}"
1785
1786        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
1787        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
1788
1789        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
1790        if rows_from:
1791            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
1792
1793        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1794
1795    def tablesample_sql(
1796        self,
1797        expression: exp.TableSample,
1798        sep: str = " AS ",
1799        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1800    ) -> str:
1801        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1802            table = expression.this.copy()
1803            table.set("alias", None)
1804            this = self.sql(table)
1805            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1806        else:
1807            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1808            alias = ""
1809
1810        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1811        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1812        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1813        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1814        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1815        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1816        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1817        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1818        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1819
1820        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1821        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1822            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1823
1824        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1825        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1826            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1827
1828        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1829        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1830            expr = f"({expr})"
1831
1832        return (
1833            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1834        )
1835
1836    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1837        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1838
1839        if expression.this:
1840            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1841            if not expressions:
1842                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1843
1844            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1845            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1846            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1847            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1848            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1849
1850        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1851        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1852        direction = self.seg("UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT")
1853
1854        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1855        if field and isinstance(expression.args.get("field"), exp.PivotAny):
1856            field = f"IN ({field})"
1857
1858        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1859        if include_nulls is not None:
1860            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1861        else:
1862            nulls = ""
1863
1864        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
1865        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
1866        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"
1867
1868    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1869        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1870        kind = expression.text("kind")
1871        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1872        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1873
1874    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1875        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
1876
1877    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1878        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1879        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1880        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1881        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1882        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1883        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1884        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1885        if self.RETURNING_END:
1886            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1887        else:
1888            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1889        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1890        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1891
1892    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1893        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1894
1895        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1896        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1897            args = self.expressions(expression)
1898            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1899            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1900            values = (
1901                f"({values})"
1902                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1903                else values
1904            )
1905            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1906
1907        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1908        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1909        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1910
1911        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1912
1913        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1914            row = tup.expressions
1915
1916            if i == 0 and column_names:
1917                row = [
1918                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1919                ]
1920
1921            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1922
1923        if self.pretty:
1924            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1925            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1926            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1927            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1928            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1929
1930        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1931        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1932        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1933
1934    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1935        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1936
1937    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1938        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1939        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1940        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1941
1942    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1943        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1944
1945    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1946        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1947        if group_by_all is True:
1948            modifier = " ALL"
1949        elif group_by_all is False:
1950            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1951        else:
1952            modifier = ""
1953
1954        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1955
1956        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1957        grouping_sets = (
1958            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1959        )
1960
1961        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1962        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1963            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1964        else:
1965            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1966            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1967
1968        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1969        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1970            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1971        else:
1972            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1973            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1974
1975        groupings = csv(
1976            grouping_sets,
1977            cube_sql,
1978            rollup_sql,
1979            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1980            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1981        )
1982
1983        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1984            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1985
1986        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1987
1988    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1989        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1990        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1991
1992    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1993        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1994        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1995        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1996        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1997        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1998        return start + connect
1999
2000    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
2001        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2002
2003    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
2004        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
2005            side = None
2006        else:
2007            side = expression.side
2008
2009        op_sql = " ".join(
2010            op
2011            for op in (
2012                expression.method,
2013                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
2014                side,
2015                expression.kind,
2016                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
2017            )
2018            if op
2019        )
2020        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
2021        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
2022        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
2023        using = expression.args.get("using")
2024
2025        if not on_sql and using:
2026            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
2027
2028        this = expression.this
2029        this_sql = self.sql(this)
2030
2031        if on_sql:
2032            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
2033            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2034            if using:
2035                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2036            else:
2037                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2038        elif not op_sql:
2039            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2040                return f" {this_sql}"
2041
2042            return f", {this_sql}"
2043
2044        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2045            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2046
2047        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
2048
2049    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2050        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2051        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2052        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2053
2054    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2055        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2056
2057        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2058        if cross_apply is True:
2059            op = "INNER JOIN "
2060        elif cross_apply is False:
2061            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2062        else:
2063            op = ""
2064
2065        return f"{op}LATERAL"
2066
2067    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2068        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2069
2070        if expression.args.get("view"):
2071            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2072            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2073            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2074            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2075            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2076            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2077
2078        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2079        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2080        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
2081
2082    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2083        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2084
2085        args = [
2086            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2087            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2088            if e
2089        ]
2090
2091        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2092        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2093        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2094        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2095
2096        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
2097
2098    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2099        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2100        value = expression.expression
2101        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2102        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2103        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2104        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2105
2106    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2107        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2108        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2109        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2110        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2111        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2112        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2113        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2114        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2115
2116    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2117        expressions = (
2118            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2119        )
2120        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2121        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2122
2123    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2124        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2125
2126    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2127        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2128            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2129            return ""
2130
2131        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2132        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2133        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2134        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2135
2136        if wait is not None:
2137            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2138                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2139            else:
2140                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2141
2142        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2143
2144    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2145        text = expression.this or ""
2146        if expression.is_string:
2147            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2148        return text
2149
2150    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2151        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2152            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2153            text = "".join(
2154                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2155            )
2156
2157        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2158            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2159        )
2160
2161    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2162        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2163        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2164        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2165        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2166        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2167        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2168        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2169        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2170        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2171        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2172        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2173
2174    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2175        return "NULL"
2176
2177    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2178        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2179
2180    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2181        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2182        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2183        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2184        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2185        interpolated_values = [
2186            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2187            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2188        ]
2189        interpolate = (
2190            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2191        )
2192        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
2193
2194    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2195        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2196        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2197        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2198        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2199        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2200        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2201        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
2202
2203    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2204        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2205
2206    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2207        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2208
2209    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2210        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2211
2212    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2213        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2214        asc = not desc
2215
2216        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2217        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2218        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2219        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2220        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2221
2222        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2223
2224        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2225        nulls_sort_change = ""
2226        if nulls_first and (
2227            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2228        ):
2229            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2230        elif (
2231            nulls_last
2232            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2233            and not nulls_are_last
2234        ):
2235            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2236
2237        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2238        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2239            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2240            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2241                self.unsupported(
2242                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2243                )
2244                nulls_sort_change = ""
2245            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2246                if expression.this.is_int:
2247                    self.unsupported(
2248                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2249                    )
2250                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2251                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2252                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2253                nulls_sort_change = ""
2254
2255        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2256        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2257
2258        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2259
2260    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2261        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2262        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2263
2264        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2265
2266        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2267
2268    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2269        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2270        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2271        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2272        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2273        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2274        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2275        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2276        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2277        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2278        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2279        definition_sqls = [
2280            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2281            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2282        ]
2283        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2284        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2285        body = "".join(
2286            (
2287                partition,
2288                order,
2289                measures,
2290                rows,
2291                after,
2292                pattern,
2293                define,
2294            )
2295        )
2296        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2297        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2298        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2299
2300    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2301        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2302
2303        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2304            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2305        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2306            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2307
2308        return csv(
2309            *sqls,
2310            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2311            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2312            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2313            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2314            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2315            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2316            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2317            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2318            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2319            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2320            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2321            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2322            self.options_modifier(expression),
2323            sep="",
2324        )
2325
2326    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2327        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2328        return f" {options}" if options else ""
2329
2330    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2331        return ""
2332
2333    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2334        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2335    ) -> t.List[str]:
2336        return [
2337            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2338            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2339        ]
2340
2341    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2342        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2343        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2344        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2345
2346    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2347        into = expression.args.get("into")
2348        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2349            into.pop()
2350
2351        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2352        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2353        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2354        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2355
2356        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2357        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2358            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2359            limit.pop()
2360        else:
2361            top = ""
2362
2363        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2364
2365        if kind:
2366            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2367                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2368            else:
2369                if kind == "STRUCT":
2370                    expressions = self.expressions(
2371                        sqls=[
2372                            self.sql(
2373                                exp.Struct(
2374                                    expressions=[
2375                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2376                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2377                                        else e
2378                                        for e in expression.expressions
2379                                    ]
2380                                )
2381                            )
2382                        ]
2383                    )
2384                kind = ""
2385
2386        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2387        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2388        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2389        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2390        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2391            expression,
2392            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2393            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2394            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2395        )
2396
2397        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2398
2399        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2400            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2401                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2402            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2403                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2404            else:
2405                table_kind = ""
2406            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2407
2408        return sql
2409
2410    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2411        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2412        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2413        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2414
2415    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2416        if expression.expressions:
2417            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2418        return ""
2419
2420    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2421        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2422        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2423        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2424        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2425        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2426        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2427        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2428
2429    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2430        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2431        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2432
2433    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2434        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2435        kind = expression.text("kind")
2436        if kind:
2437            kind = f"{kind}."
2438        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2439
2440    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2441        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2442
2443    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2444        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2445        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2446        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2447        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2448        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2449
2450    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2451        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2452        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2453
2454    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2455        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
2456            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2457            order = expression.args.get("order")
2458
2459            if limit or order:
2460                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
2461
2462                if limit:
2463                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
2464                if order:
2465                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
2466                return self.sql(select)
2467
2468        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2469        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2470
2471        while stack:
2472            node = stack.pop()
2473
2474            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
2475                stack.append(node.expression)
2476                stack.append(
2477                    self.maybe_comment(
2478                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2479                        comments=node.comments,
2480                        separated=True,
2481                    )
2482                )
2483                stack.append(node.this)
2484            else:
2485                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2486
2487        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2488        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2489        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
2490
2491    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2492        return self.set_operations(expression)
2493
2494    def union_op(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2495        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_SET_OP else ""
2496        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2497        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2498        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2499
2500    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2501        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2502
2503        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2504        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2505
2506        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2507            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2508                alias.append("columns", offset)
2509
2510        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2511            columns = alias.columns
2512            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2513        else:
2514            alias = self.sql(alias)
2515
2516        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2517        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2518            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2519        else:
2520            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2521                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2522            elif offset:
2523                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2524            else:
2525                suffix = alias
2526
2527        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2528
2529    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2530        return ""
2531
2532    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2533        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2534        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2535
2536    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2537        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2538        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2539        order = expression.args.get("order")
2540        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2541        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2542        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2543        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2544
2545        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2546
2547        first = expression.args.get("first")
2548        if first is None:
2549            first = ""
2550        else:
2551            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2552
2553        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2554            return f"{this} {alias}"
2555
2556        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2557        return f"{this} ({args})"
2558
2559    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2560        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2561        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2562
2563    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2564        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2565        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2566        end = (
2567            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2568            or "CURRENT ROW"
2569        )
2570        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2571
2572    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2573        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2574        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2575        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2576
2577    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2578        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2579        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2580        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2581        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2582
2583    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2584        return apply_index_offset(
2585            expression.this,
2586            expression.expressions,
2587            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2588        )
2589
2590    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2591        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2592        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2593        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2594
2595    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2596        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2597
2598    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2599        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2600        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2601            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2602                this = self.wrap(this)
2603            return f"ANY{this}"
2604        return f"ANY {this}"
2605
2606    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2607        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2608
2609    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2610        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2611        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2612
2613        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2614            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2615            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2616
2617        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2618
2619        if default:
2620            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2621
2622        statements.append("END")
2623
2624        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2625            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2626
2627        return " ".join(statements)
2628
2629    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2630        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2631        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2632        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2633
2634    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2635        order = expression.args.get("order")
2636        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2637        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2638
2639    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2640        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2641        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2642        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2643
2644    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2645        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2646
2647        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2648            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2649        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2650            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2651        else:
2652            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2653
2654    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2655        args = expression.expressions
2656        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2657            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2658
2659        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2660            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2661
2662        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2663            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2664
2665        return args
2666
2667    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2668        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2669
2670        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2671        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2672            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2673
2674        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2675
2676    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2677        return self.func(
2678            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2679        )
2680
2681    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2682        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2683        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2684
2685    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2686        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2687        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2688        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2689        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2690        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2691        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2692        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2693        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2694
2695    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2696        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2697        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2698        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2699        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2700
2701    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2702        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2703
2704    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2705        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2706        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2707        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2708
2709    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2710        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2711
2712    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2713        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2714        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2715            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2716
2717        return path
2718
2719    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2720        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2721            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2722            if not callable(transform):
2723                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2724                return ""
2725
2726            return transform(self, expression)
2727
2728        if isinstance(expression, int):
2729            return str(expression)
2730
2731        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2732            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2733            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2734        else:
2735            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2736            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2737
2738        return escaped
2739
2740    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2741        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2742
2743    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2744        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2745        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2746
2747        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2748        if unique_keys is not None:
2749            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2750        else:
2751            unique_keys = ""
2752
2753        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2754        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2755        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2756        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2757
2758        return self.func(
2759            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2760            *expression.expressions,
2761            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2762        )
2763
2764    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2765        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2766
2767    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2768        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2769        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2770        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2771        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2772        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2773        return self.func(
2774            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2775        )
2776
2777    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2778        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2779        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2780        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2781        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2782        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2783        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2784        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2785        return self.func(
2786            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2787            this,
2788            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2789        )
2790
2791    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2792        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2793        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2794        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2795
2796        if nested_schema:
2797            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2798
2799        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2800        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2801        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2802        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2803
2804    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2805        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2806
2807    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2808        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2809        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2810        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2811        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2812        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2813        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2814        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2815        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2816        return self.func(
2817            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2818        )
2819
2820    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2821        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2822        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2823        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2824        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2825        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2826        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2827
2828    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2829        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2830        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2831        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2832        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2833        with_ = (
2834            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2835            if expressions
2836            else ""
2837        )
2838        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2839
2840    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2841        query = expression.args.get("query")
2842        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2843        field = expression.args.get("field")
2844        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2845
2846        if query:
2847            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2848        elif unnest:
2849            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2850        elif field:
2851            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2852        else:
2853            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2854
2855        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2856
2857    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2858        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2859
2860    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2861        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2862        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2863            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2864        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2865
2866        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2867            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2868            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2869
2870        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2871        if this:
2872            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2873            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2874
2875        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2876
2877    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2878        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2879
2880    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2881        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2882        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2883        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2884        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2885        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2886        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2887
2888    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2889        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
2890
2891    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2892        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2893        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2894
2895    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2896        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2897        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2898        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2899        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2900
2901    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2902        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2903
2904    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2905        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2906        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2907        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2908
2909    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2910        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2911        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2912
2913        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2914            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2915        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2916            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2917
2918        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2919
2920    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2921        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2922
2923    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2924        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2925        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2926        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2927
2928    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2929        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2930        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2931        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2932
2933    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2934        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2935        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2936        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
2937
2938    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2939        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2940
2941    def and_sql(
2942        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2943    ) -> str:
2944        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
2945
2946    def or_sql(
2947        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2948    ) -> str:
2949        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
2950
2951    def xor_sql(
2952        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2953    ) -> str:
2954        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
2955
2956    def connector_sql(
2957        self,
2958        expression: exp.Connector,
2959        op: str,
2960        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2961    ) -> str:
2962        if stack is not None:
2963            if expression.expressions:
2964                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2965            else:
2966                stack.append(expression.right)
2967                if expression.comments and self.comments:
2968                    for comment in expression.comments:
2969                        if comment:
2970                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2971                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2972            return op
2973
2974        stack = [expression]
2975        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2976        ops = set()
2977
2978        while stack:
2979            node = stack.pop()
2980            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2981                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2982            else:
2983                sql = self.sql(node)
2984                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2985                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2986                else:
2987                    sqls.append(sql)
2988
2989        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
2990        return sep.join(sqls)
2991
2992    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2993        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2994
2995    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2996        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2997
2998    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2999        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3000
3001    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
3002        return self.binary(expression, "|")
3003
3004    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3005        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
3006
3007    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3008        return self.binary(expression, "^")
3009
3010    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3011        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
3012        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
3013        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
3014        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
3015        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
3016        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
3017        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
3018
3019    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
3020        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
3021        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
3022
3023    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
3024        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
3025            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3026        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
3027
3028    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
3029        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
3030
3031    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
3032        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3033        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3034        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3035        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3036        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3037        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
3038
3039    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3040        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3041        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3042        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3043        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3044        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3045        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3046        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3047        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3048        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
3049
3050    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3051        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3052        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3053        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3054        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3055
3056        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3057            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3058
3059        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
3060
3061    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3062        return "BEGIN"
3063
3064    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3065        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3066        if chain is not None:
3067            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3068
3069        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
3070
3071    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3072        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3073        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3074        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
3075
3076    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3077        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3078
3079        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3080        if dtype:
3081            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3082            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3083            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3084            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3085            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3086
3087        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3088        if default:
3089            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3090
3091        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3092        if comment:
3093            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3094
3095        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3096        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3097
3098        if not drop and not allow_null:
3099            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3100
3101        if allow_null is not None:
3102            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3103            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3104
3105        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3106
3107    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3108        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3109        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3110            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3111        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3112
3113    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3114        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3115        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3116        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3117        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3118        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3119
3120    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3121        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3122            # Remove db from tables
3123            expression = expression.transform(
3124                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3125            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3126        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3127        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3128
3129    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3130        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3131        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3132        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3133        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3134
3135    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3136        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3137        return f"SET {exprs}"
3138
3139    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3140        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3141
3142        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3143            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3144        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3145            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3146        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3147            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3148        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Query):
3149            actions = "AS " + self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
3150        else:
3151            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3152
3153        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3154        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3155        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3156        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3157        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3158        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3159        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3160        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{options}"
3161
3162    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3163        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3164            return self.expressions(
3165                expression,
3166                key="actions",
3167                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3168                skip_first=True,
3169            )
3170        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3171
3172    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3173        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3174        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3175        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3176
3177    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3178        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3179
3180    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3181        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3182
3183        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3184            case = exp.case()
3185            for arg in expression.expressions:
3186                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3187            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3188
3189        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3190
3191        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3192        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3193        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3194
3195    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3196        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3197
3198    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3199        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3200
3201    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3202        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3203        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3204        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3205        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3206
3207    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3208        return self.sql(
3209            exp.Cast(
3210                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3211                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3212            )
3213        )
3214
3215    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3216        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3217            return self.func(
3218                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3219            )
3220        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3221
3222    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3223        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3224
3225        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3226            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3227
3228        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3229            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3230                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3231
3232        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3233            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3234                return self.sql(
3235                    exp.cast(
3236                        l / r,
3237                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3238                    )
3239                )
3240
3241        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3242
3243    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3244        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3245
3246    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3247        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3248
3249    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3250        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3251
3252    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3253        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3254
3255    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3256        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3257
3258    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3259        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3260
3261    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3262        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3263
3264    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3265        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3266
3267    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3268        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3269
3270    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3271        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3272
3273    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3274        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3275
3276    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3277        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3278            return self.sql(
3279                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3280            )
3281        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3282
3283    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3284        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3285
3286    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3287        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3288
3289    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3290        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3291
3292    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3293        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3294
3295    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3296        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3297
3298    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3299        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3300
3301    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3302        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3303
3304    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3305        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3306
3307    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3308        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3309
3310    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3311        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3312
3313    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3314        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3315
3316    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3317        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3318
3319    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3320        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3321
3322    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3323        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3324            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3325            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3326
3327        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3328
3329    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3330        this = expression.this
3331        expr = expression.expression
3332
3333        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3334            this, expr = expr, this
3335        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3336            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3337                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3338
3339            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3340
3341        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3342
3343    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3344        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3345        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3346        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3347        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3348        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3349
3350    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3351        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3352        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3353
3354    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3355        args = []
3356
3357        for key in expression.arg_types:
3358            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3359
3360            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3361                for value in arg_value:
3362                    args.append(value)
3363            elif arg_value is not None:
3364                args.append(arg_value)
3365
3366        if self.normalize_functions:
3367            name = expression.sql_name()
3368        else:
3369            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3370
3371        return self.func(name, *args)
3372
3373    def func(
3374        self,
3375        name: str,
3376        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3377        prefix: str = "(",
3378        suffix: str = ")",
3379    ) -> str:
3380        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3381
3382    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3383        arg_sqls = tuple(
3384            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
3385        )
3386        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3387            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3388        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3389
3390    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3391        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3392
3393    def format_time(
3394        self,
3395        expression: exp.Expression,
3396        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3397        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3398    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3399        return format_time(
3400            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3401            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3402            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3403        )
3404
3405    def expressions(
3406        self,
3407        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3408        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3409        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3410        flat: bool = False,
3411        indent: bool = True,
3412        skip_first: bool = False,
3413        skip_last: bool = False,
3414        sep: str = ", ",
3415        prefix: str = "",
3416        dynamic: bool = False,
3417        new_line: bool = False,
3418    ) -> str:
3419        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3420
3421        if not expressions:
3422            return ""
3423
3424        if flat:
3425            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3426
3427        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3428        result_sqls = []
3429
3430        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3431            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3432            if not sql:
3433                continue
3434
3435            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3436
3437            if self.pretty:
3438                if self.leading_comma:
3439                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3440                else:
3441                    result_sqls.append(
3442                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3443                    )
3444            else:
3445                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3446
3447        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3448            if new_line:
3449                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3450                result_sqls.append("")
3451            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
3452        else:
3453            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3454        return (
3455            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3456            if indent
3457            else result_sql
3458        )
3459
3460    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3461        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3462        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3463        if flat:
3464            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3465        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3466
3467    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3468        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3469        if not property_name:
3470            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3471        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3472
3473    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3474        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3475
3476    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3477        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3478
3479    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3480        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3481        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3482        expressions = (
3483            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3484        )
3485        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3486
3487    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3488        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3489        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3490        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3491
3492    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3493        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3494
3495    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3496        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3497        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3498        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3499        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3500
3501        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3502        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3503            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3504            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3505            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3506            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3507        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3508            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3509                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3510            else:
3511                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3512        else:
3513            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3514        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3515
3516    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3517        table = expression.this
3518        table_alias = ""
3519
3520        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3521        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3522            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3523            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3524
3525        this = self.sql(table)
3526        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3527        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3528        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3529        sep = self.sep()
3530
3531        return self.prepend_ctes(
3532            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}"
3533        )
3534
3535    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3536        if expression.args.get("format"):
3537            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3538
3539        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3540
3541    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3542        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3543            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3544            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3545
3546        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3547        if not fmt:
3548            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3549            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3550
3551        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3552
3553    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3554        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3555        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3556        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3557        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3558        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3559
3560    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3561        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3562        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3563        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3564        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3565
3566    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3567        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3568
3569    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3570        return ""
3571
3572    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3573        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3574        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3575        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3576        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3577        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3578
3579    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3580        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3581        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3582
3583        if having:
3584            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3585
3586        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3587
3588    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3589        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3590        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3591        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3592        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3593        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3594        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3595        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3596        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3597        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3598        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3599        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3600        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3601        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3602
3603    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3604        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3605        if key_block_size:
3606            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3607
3608        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3609        if using:
3610            return f"USING {using}"
3611
3612        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3613        if parser:
3614            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3615
3616        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3617        if comment:
3618            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3619
3620        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3621        if visible is not None:
3622            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3623
3624        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3625        if engine_attr:
3626            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3627
3628        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3629        if secondary_engine_attr:
3630            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3631
3632        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3633        return ""
3634
3635    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3636        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3637        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3638
3639    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3640        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3641        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3642        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3643        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3644        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3645        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3646        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3647        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3648        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3649        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3650        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3651
3652    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3653        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3654            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3655
3656        case = exp.Case().when(
3657            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3658            expression.args["true"],
3659            copy=False,
3660        )
3661        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3662        if else_cond:
3663            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3664
3665        return self.sql(case)
3666
3667    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3668        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3669        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3670        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3671        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3672        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3673        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3674
3675    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3676        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3677
3678    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3679        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3680
3681    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3682        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3683        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3684        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3685        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3686        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3687        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3688
3689    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3690        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3691        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3692        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3693
3694    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3695        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3696        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3697        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3698
3699    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3700        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3701
3702    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3703        arg = expression.this
3704        if not arg.type:
3705            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3706
3707            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3708
3709        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3710            return self.sql(arg)
3711
3712        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3713        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3714
3715    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3716        this = expression.this
3717        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3718            return self.sql(this)
3719
3720        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3721
3722    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3723        this = expression.this
3724        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3725            return self.sql(this)
3726
3727        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
3728
3729    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3730        this = expression.this
3731        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3732
3733        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3734            return self.sql(
3735                exp.cast(
3736                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3737                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3738                )
3739            )
3740
3741        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3742            return self.sql(this)
3743
3744        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3745
3746    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3747        return self.sql(
3748            exp.func(
3749                "DATEDIFF",
3750                expression.this,
3751                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3752                "day",
3753            )
3754        )
3755
3756    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3757        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3758            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3759
3760        unit = expression.text("unit")
3761        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3762            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3763
3764        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3765
3766    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3767        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3768
3769        return self.func(
3770            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3771        )
3772
3773    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3774        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3775            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3776            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3777            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3778            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3779
3780        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3781
3782        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3783        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3784            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3785
3786        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3787
3788    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3789        expression.set(
3790            "expressions",
3791            [
3792                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3793                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3794                else e
3795                for e in expression.expressions
3796            ],
3797        )
3798
3799        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3800
3801    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3802        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3803        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3804
3805        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3806
3807    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3808        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3809        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3810
3811        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3812
3813        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3814        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3815
3816        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3817        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3818
3819        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3820        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3821
3822        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3823        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3824
3825        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3826
3827    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3828    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3829    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3830        to = expression.this
3831        value = expression.expression
3832        style = expression.args.get("style")
3833        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3834        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3835
3836        if not to or not value:
3837            return ""
3838
3839        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3840        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3841            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3842
3843        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3844        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3845
3846        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3847        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3848            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3849
3850            style_value = style.name
3851            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3852            if not converted_style:
3853                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3854
3855            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3856
3857            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3858                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3859            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3860                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3861            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3862                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3863            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3864                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3865
3866        if not transformed:
3867            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3868
3869        return self.sql(transformed)
3870
3871    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
3872        this = expression.this
3873        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
3874            this = self.json_path_part(this)
3875            return f".{this}" if this else ""
3876
3877        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
3878            return f".{this}"
3879
3880        this = self.json_path_part(this)
3881        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
3882
3883    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
3884        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
3885        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
3886
3887    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3888        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3889            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3890
3891            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3892
3893        return expression
3894
3895    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
3896        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
3897            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
3898            mods = sorted(
3899                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
3900                key=lambda x: 0
3901                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
3902                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
3903            )
3904
3905            if mods:
3906                mod = mods[0]
3907                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
3908                this.meta["inline"] = True
3909                mod.this.replace(this)
3910                return self.sql(expression.this)
3911
3912            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
3913
3914            if agg_func:
3915                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
3916
3917        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
3918
3919    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
3920        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
3921        if self.pretty:
3922            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
3923        return string
3924
3925    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
3926        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
3927
3928        if expression.expressions:
3929            upper = option.upper()
3930
3931            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
3932            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
3933
3934            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
3935            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
3936            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
3937            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
3938
3939        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3940
3941        if not value:
3942            return option
3943
3944        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
3945
3946        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
3947
3948    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
3949        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
3950        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
3951            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
3952            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3953            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
3954        else:
3955            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
3956            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
3957            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
3958
3959        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
3960        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
3961
3962        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
3963        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
3964
3965        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
3966        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
3967
3968        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
3969        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
3970
3971        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
3972
3973    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
3974        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3975        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
3976
3977        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3978        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
3979        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
3980        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
3981
3982        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
3983        params = self.expressions(
3984            expression,
3985            key="params",
3986            sep=sep,
3987            new_line=True,
3988            skip_last=True,
3989            skip_first=True,
3990            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
3991        )
3992
3993        if params:
3994            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
3995                params = f" WITH ({params})"
3996            elif not self.pretty:
3997                params = f" {params}"
3998
3999        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
4000
4001    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
4002        return ""
4003
4004    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4005        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
4006        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
4007        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
4008        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
4009        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
4010
4011        if filter_col or retention_period:
4012            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
4013
4014        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
4015
4016    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
4017        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
4018    ) -> str:
4019        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4020        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4021        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4022        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
4023
4024    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
4025        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4026        this = f"TABLE {this}"
4027        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
4028
4029    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4030        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
4031
4032    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4033        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4034        expr = expression.expression
4035
4036        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4037            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4038            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4039        else:
4040            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4041
4042        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
4043
4044    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4045        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4046            return self.sql(expression.this)
4047
4048        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
4049
4050    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4051        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4052        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4053
4054        if lower and upper:
4055            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4056        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
4057
4058    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4059        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4060        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4061        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4062        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4063        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4064        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4065
4066        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
4067
4068    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4069        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4070
4071        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4072        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4073            fill_pattern = "' '"
4074
4075        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
4076
4077    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
4078        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
4079        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
4080
4081    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4082        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
4083
4084        parent = expression.parent
4085        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
4086            parent = parent.parent
4087
4088        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
4089            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
4090
4091        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
4092            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
4093
4094        return self.sql(generate_series)
4095
4096    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
4097        exprs = expression.expressions
4098        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
4099            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
4100        else:
4101            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
4102
4103        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs)
4104
4105    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4106        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
4107            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4108
4109        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
4110        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
4111        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
4112
4113        if source_tz and timestamp:
4114            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
4115                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
4116            )
4117
4118        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
4119
4120        return self.sql(expr)

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

Arguments:
  • pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
  • identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  • normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
  • pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level. Default: 2.
  • indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of subqueries and filters under a WHERE clause. Default: 2.
  • normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
  • unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True, dialect: Union[str, sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect, Type[sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect], NoneType] = None)
589    def __init__(
590        self,
591        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
592        identify: str | bool = False,
593        normalize: bool = False,
594        pad: int = 2,
595        indent: int = 2,
596        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
597        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
598        max_unsupported: int = 3,
599        leading_comma: bool = False,
600        max_text_width: int = 80,
601        comments: bool = True,
602        dialect: DialectType = None,
603    ):
604        import sqlglot
605        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
606
607        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
608        self.identify = identify
609        self.normalize = normalize
610        self.pad = pad
611        self._indent = indent
612        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
613        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
614        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
615        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
616        self.comments = comments
617        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
618
619        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
620        self.normalize_functions = (
621            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
622        )
623
624        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
625        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
626            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
627        )
628        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
629            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
630        )
631
632        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
TRANSFORMS: Dict[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], Callable[..., str]] = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathFilter'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathKey'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRecursive'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRoot'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathScript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSelector'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSlice'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSubscript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathUnion'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathWildcard'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AllowedValuesProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ConnectByRoot'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DynamicProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EmptyProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EphemeralColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExcludeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalSpan'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NonClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PivotAny'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecureProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Stream'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StreamingTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StrictProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TagColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSchemaBindingProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithOperator'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: Optional[bool] = True
IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXPLICIT_SET_OP = False
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINT_SEP = ', '
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
RETURNING_END = True
EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = 'TABLESAMPLE'
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = 'SEED'
COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
ENSURE_BOOLS = False
CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ':'
INSERT_OVERWRITE = ' OVERWRITE TABLE'
SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
TRY_SUPPORTED = True
SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
STAR_EXCEPT = 'EXCEPT'
HEX_FUNC = 'HEX'
WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = 'WITH'
QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
SUPPORTS_NULLABLE_TYPES = True
PARSE_JSON_NAME: Optional[str] = 'PARSE_JSON'
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.TINYTEXT: 'TINYTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.TINYBLOB: 'TINYBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET', <Type.ROWVERSION: 'ROWVERSION'>: 'VARBINARY'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'MICROSECONDS': 'MICROSECOND', 'SECONDS': 'SECOND', 'MINUTES': 'MINUTE', 'HOURS': 'HOUR', 'DAYS': 'DAY', 'WEEKS': 'WEEK', 'MONTHS': 'MONTH', 'QUARTERS': 'QUARTER', 'YEARS': 'YEAR'}
AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {'cluster': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'distribute': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'sort': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'windows': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'qualify': <function Generator.<lambda>>}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ':'
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AllowedValuesProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataDeletionProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DynamicProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EmptyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecureProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StreamingTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StrictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSchemaBindingProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Binary'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation'>)
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>, <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>, <Type.VARCHAR: 'VARCHAR'>, <Type.CHAR: 'CHAR'>}
EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: Set[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = set()
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
dialect
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
634    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
635        """
636        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
637
638        Args:
639            expression: The syntax tree.
640            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
641                it is safer to copy.
642
643        Returns:
644            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
645        """
646        if copy:
647            expression = expression.copy()
648
649        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
650
651        self.unsupported_messages = []
652        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
653
654        if self.pretty:
655            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
656
657        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
658            return sql
659
660        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
661            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
662                logger.warning(msg)
663        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
664            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
665
666        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

Arguments:
  • expression: The syntax tree.
  • copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so it is safer to copy.
Returns:

The SQL string corresponding to expression.

def preprocess( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> sqlglot.expressions.Expression:
668    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
669        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
670        if (
671            not expression.parent
672            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
673            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
674        ):
675            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
676
677            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
678
679        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
680            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
681
682            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
683
684        return expression

Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
686    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
687        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
688            raise UnsupportedError(message)
689        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
691    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
692        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
694    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
695        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
697    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
698        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
699        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
700        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None, separated: bool = False) -> str:
702    def maybe_comment(
703        self,
704        sql: str,
705        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
706        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
707        separated: bool = False,
708    ) -> str:
709        comments = (
710            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
711            if self.comments
712            else None
713        )
714
715        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
716            return sql
717
718        comments_sql = " ".join(
719            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
720        )
721
722        if not comments_sql:
723            return sql
724
725        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
726
727        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
728            return (
729                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
730                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
731                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
732            )
733
734        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
736    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
737        this_sql = (
738            self.sql(expression)
739            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
740            else self.sql(expression, "this")
741        )
742        if not this_sql:
743            return "()"
744
745        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
746        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
748    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
749        original = self.identify
750        self.identify = False
751        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
752        self.identify = original
753        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
755    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
756        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
757            return name.upper()
758        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
759            return name.lower()
760        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
762    def indent(
763        self,
764        sql: str,
765        level: int = 0,
766        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
767        skip_first: bool = False,
768        skip_last: bool = False,
769    ) -> str:
770        if not self.pretty or not sql:
771            return sql
772
773        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
774        lines = sql.split("\n")
775
776        return "\n".join(
777            (
778                line
779                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
780                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
781            )
782            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
783        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
785    def sql(
786        self,
787        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
788        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
789        comment: bool = True,
790    ) -> str:
791        if not expression:
792            return ""
793
794        if isinstance(expression, str):
795            return expression
796
797        if key:
798            value = expression.args.get(key)
799            if value:
800                return self.sql(value)
801            return ""
802
803        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
804
805        if callable(transform):
806            sql = transform(self, expression)
807        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
808            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
809
810            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
811                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
812            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
813                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
814            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
815                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
816            else:
817                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
818        else:
819            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
820
821        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
823    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
824        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
825        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
826        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
828    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
829        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
830        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
831        options = expression.args.get("options")
832        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
833        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
834        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
835        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
836        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
838    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
839        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
840            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
841        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
842        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
844    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
845        return ".".join(
846            self.sql(part)
847            for part in (
848                expression.args.get("catalog"),
849                expression.args.get("db"),
850                expression.args.get("table"),
851                expression.args.get("this"),
852            )
853            if part
854        )
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
856    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
857        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
858
859        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
860            join_mark = ""
861            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
862
863        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
865    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
866        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
867        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
868        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
869        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
871    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
872        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
873        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
874        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
875        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
876        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
877        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
878        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
879        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
880
881        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
882            kind = ""
883
884        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
886    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
887        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
888        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
889        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
891    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
892        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
893        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
894            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
895        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
896            persisted = " PERSISTED"
897        else:
898            persisted = ""
899        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
901    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
902        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
904    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
905        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
906            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
907        else:
908            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
909
910        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
912    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
913        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
914    ) -> str:
915        this = ""
916        if expression.this is not None:
917            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
918            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
919
920        start = expression.args.get("start")
921        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
922        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
923        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
924        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
925        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
926        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
927        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
928        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
929        cycle_sql = ""
930
931        if cycle is not None:
932            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
933            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
934
935        sequence_opts = ""
936        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
937            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
938            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
939
940        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
941        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
942
943        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint) -> str:
945    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
946        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
947    ) -> str:
948        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
949        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
950        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint) -> str:
952    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
953        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
954    ) -> str:
955        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
957    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
958        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
960    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
961        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
963    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
964        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
965        if desc is not None:
966            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
967        return "PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
969    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
970        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
971        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
972        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
973        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
974        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
975        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
976        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
977        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: DefaultDict) -> str:
979    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
980        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
 982    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 983        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 984        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 985        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 986
 987        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 988
 989        properties_sql = ""
 990        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 991            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 992        ):
 993            properties_sql = self.sql(
 994                exp.Properties(
 995                    expressions=[
 996                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 997                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 998                    ]
 999                )
1000            )
1001
1002            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
1003                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
1004            elif not self.pretty:
1005                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
1006                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
1007
1008        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
1009        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
1010
1011        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1012        if expression_sql:
1013            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
1014
1015            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
1016                postalias_props_sql = ""
1017                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1018                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1019                        exp.Properties(
1020                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1021                        ),
1022                        wrapped=False,
1023                    )
1024                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1025                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1026
1027        postindex_props_sql = ""
1028        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1029            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1030                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1031                wrapped=False,
1032                prefix=" ",
1033            )
1034
1035        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1036        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1037        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1038
1039        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1040        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
1041        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1042
1043        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
1044        if clustered is None:
1045            clustered_sql = ""
1046        elif clustered:
1047            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1048        else:
1049            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1050
1051        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1052        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1053            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1054                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1055                sep=" ",
1056                prefix=" ",
1057                wrapped=False,
1058            )
1059
1060        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1061
1062        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1063        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1064            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1065                exp.Properties(
1066                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1067                ),
1068                sep=" ",
1069                prefix=" ",
1070                wrapped=False,
1071            )
1072
1073        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1074        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1075        no_schema_binding = (
1076            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1077        )
1078
1079        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1080        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1081
1082        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1083        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1085    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1086        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1087        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1088        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1089        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1090        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1091        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1092        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1093        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1094        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1095        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1096
1097        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1098        if cache is None:
1099            cache_str = ""
1100        elif cache is True:
1101            cache_str = " CACHE"
1102        else:
1103            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1104
1105        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1106        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1107
1108        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
1110    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1111        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1112        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1113        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1114        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
1116    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1117        style = expression.args.get("style")
1118        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1119        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def heredoc_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Heredoc) -> str:
1121    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1122        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1123        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1125    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1126        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1127        if with_:
1128            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1129        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
1131    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1132        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1133        recursive = (
1134            "RECURSIVE "
1135            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1136            else ""
1137        )
1138
1139        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
1141    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1142        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1143
1144        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1145        if materialized is False:
1146            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1147        elif materialized:
1148            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1149
1150        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
1152    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1153        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1154        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1155        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1156
1157        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1158            columns = ""
1159            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1160
1161        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1162            alias = self._next_name()
1163
1164        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
1166    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1167        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1168        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1169            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1170        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
1172    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1173        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1174        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1175            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1176        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
1178    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1179        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1180        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1181            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1182        return this
def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnicodeString) -> str:
1184    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1185        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1186        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1187
1188        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1189            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1190            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1191        else:
1192            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1193            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1194
1195        if escape:
1196            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1197            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1198        else:
1199            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1200            escape_sql = ""
1201
1202        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1203            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1204
1205        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str:
1207    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1208        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1209        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1211    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1212        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1213        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1214        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1215        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
1217    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1218        nested = ""
1219        values = ""
1220        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1221
1222        type_value = expression.this
1223        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1224            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1225        elif type_value != exp.DataType.Type.NULLABLE or self.SUPPORTS_NULLABLE_TYPES:
1226            type_sql = (
1227                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1228                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1229                else type_value
1230            )
1231        else:
1232            return interior
1233
1234        if interior:
1235            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1236                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1237                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1238                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1239                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1240                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1241            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1242                nested = f" {interior}"
1243            else:
1244                nested = f"({interior})"
1245
1246        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1247        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1248            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1249            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1250        ):
1251            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1252
1253        return type_sql
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
1255    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1256        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1257        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1258        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1259        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
1261    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1262        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1263        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1264        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1265        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1266        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1267        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1268        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1269        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1270        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1271        if self.RETURNING_END:
1272            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1273        else:
1274            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1275        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
1277    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1278        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1279        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1280        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1281        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1282        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1283        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1284        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1285        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1286        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1287        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1288        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1289        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1290        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
def except_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1292    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1293        return self.set_operations(expression)
def except_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1295    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1296        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
1298    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1299        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1300        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1301        count = expression.args.get("count")
1302        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1303        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1304            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1305        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1306        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
1308    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1309        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1310            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1311            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1312            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1313
1314        agg = expression.this
1315        agg_arg = agg.this
1316        cond = expression.expression.this
1317        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1318        return self.sql(agg)
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
1320    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1321        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1322            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1323            return ""
1324
1325        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexParameters) -> str:
1327    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1328        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1329        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1330        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1331        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1332        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1333        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1334        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1335        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1336        if include:
1337            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1338        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1339        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1340        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1341        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1342        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1343        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1344
1345        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
1347    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1348        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1349        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1350        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1351        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1352        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1353        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1354        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1355
1356        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1357
1358        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1359        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
1361    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1362        text = expression.name
1363        lower = text.lower()
1364        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1365        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1366        if (
1367            expression.quoted
1368            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1369            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1370            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1371        ):
1372            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1373        return text
def hex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hex) -> str:
1375    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1376        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1377        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1378            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1379
1380        return text
def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LowerHex) -> str:
1382    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1383        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1384        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1385            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1386        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1388    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1389        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1390        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1391        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1392        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1393        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str:
1395    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1396        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1397        return f"{prefix}{string}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
1399    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1400        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1402    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1403        root_properties = []
1404        with_properties = []
1405
1406        for p in expression.expressions:
1407            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1408            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1409                with_properties.append(p)
1410            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1411                root_properties.append(p)
1412
1413        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1414        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1415
1416        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1417            with_props = " " + with_props
1418
1419        return root_props + with_props
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1421    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1422        if properties.expressions:
1423            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1424        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
1426    def properties(
1427        self,
1428        properties: exp.Properties,
1429        prefix: str = "",
1430        sep: str = ", ",
1431        suffix: str = "",
1432        wrapped: bool = True,
1433    ) -> str:
1434        if properties.expressions:
1435            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1436            if expressions:
1437                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1438                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1439        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1441    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1442        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
def locate_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> DefaultDict:
1444    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1445        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1446        for p in properties.expressions:
1447            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1448            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1449                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1450            else:
1451                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1452
1453        return properties_locs
def property_name( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1455    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1456        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1457            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1458        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
1460    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1461        property_cls = expression.__class__
1462        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1463            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1464
1465        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1466        if not property_name:
1467            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1468
1469        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
1471    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1472        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1473            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1474            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1475
1476            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1477            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1478                like = f"({like})"
1479
1480            return like
1481
1482        if expression.expressions:
1483            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1484
1485        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1486        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1488    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1489        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1490        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1491        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
1493    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1494        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1495        local = expression.args.get("local")
1496        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1497        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1498        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1499        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1500        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1502    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1503        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1504        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1505        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1507    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1508        if expression.args.get("default"):
1509            property = "DEFAULT"
1510        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1511            property = "ON"
1512        else:
1513            property = "OFF"
1514        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1516    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1517        if expression.args.get("no"):
1518            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1519        if expression.args.get("default"):
1520            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1521
1522        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1523        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1525    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1526        default = expression.args.get("default")
1527        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1528        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1529        if default or minimum or maximum:
1530            if default:
1531                prop = "DEFAULT"
1532            elif minimum:
1533                prop = "MINIMUM"
1534            else:
1535                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1536            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1537        units = expression.args.get("units")
1538        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1539        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1541    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1542        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1543        always = expression.args.get("always")
1544        default = expression.args.get("default")
1545        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1546        never = expression.args.get("never")
1547
1548        if autotemp is not None:
1549            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1550        elif always:
1551            prop = "ALWAYS"
1552        elif default:
1553            prop = "DEFAULT"
1554        elif manual:
1555            prop = "MANUAL"
1556        elif never:
1557            prop = "NEVER"
1558        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1560    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1561        no = expression.args.get("no")
1562        no = " NO" if no else ""
1563        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1564        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1565        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1566        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1567        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1569    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1570        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1571            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1572        if expression.this:
1573            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1574            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1575            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1576
1577        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1578        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1579        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1581    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1582        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1583
1584        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1585        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1586            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1587        else:
1588            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1589
1590        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1592    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1593        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1594        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1595        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1596        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1597        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1598        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1599        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1601    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1602        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1603        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1604        statistics_sql = ""
1605        if statistics is not None:
1606            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1607        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def withsystemversioningproperty_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1609    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1610        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1611        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1612        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1613        data_consistency = (
1614            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1615        )
1616        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1617        retention_period = (
1618            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1619        )
1620
1621        if this:
1622            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1623        else:
1624            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1625
1626        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1627
1628        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1630    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1631        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1632        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1633
1634        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1635            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1636        else:
1637            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1638
1639        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1640        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1641        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1642        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1643        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1644        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1645        if is_function:
1646            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1647        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1648
1649        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1650        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1651        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1652        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1653        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1654        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1655        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1656        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1657
1658        if self.RETURNING_END:
1659            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1660        else:
1661            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1662
1663        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1664        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1665        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
1666        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
1667
1668        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}"
1669        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def intersect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1671    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1672        return self.set_operations(expression)
def intersect_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1674    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1675        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1677    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1678        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def kill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kill) -> str:
1680    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1681        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1682        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1683        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1684        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1685        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1687    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1688        return expression.name
def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1690    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1691        return expression.name
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1693    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1694        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1695
1696        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1697        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1698
1699        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1700        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1701        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1702
1703        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1704        if expressions:
1705            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1706            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1707
1708        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1710    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1711        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1713    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1714        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1715        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1716        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1717        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1718        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1719        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1720        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1721        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1722        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1723        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1724        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1725        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1726        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint) -> str:
1728    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1729        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1731    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1732        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1733        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1734        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1735        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HistoricalData) -> str:
1737    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1738        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1739        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1740        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1741        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
def table_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table) -> str:
1743    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1744        return ".".join(
1745            self.sql(part)
1746            for part in (
1747                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1748                expression.args.get("db"),
1749                expression.args.get("this"),
1750            )
1751            if part is not None
1752        )
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1754    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1755        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1756        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1757        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1758        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1759        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1760        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1761        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1762        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1763        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1764        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1765        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
1766        joins = self.indent(
1767            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1768        )
1769        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1770
1771        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1772        if file_format:
1773            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1774            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1775            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1776
1777        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1778        if ordinality:
1779            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1780            alias = ""
1781
1782        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1783        if when:
1784            table = f"{table} {when}"
1785
1786        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
1787        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
1788
1789        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
1790        if rows_from:
1791            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
1792
1793        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, sep: str = ' AS ', tablesample_keyword: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
1795    def tablesample_sql(
1796        self,
1797        expression: exp.TableSample,
1798        sep: str = " AS ",
1799        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1800    ) -> str:
1801        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1802            table = expression.this.copy()
1803            table.set("alias", None)
1804            this = self.sql(table)
1805            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1806        else:
1807            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1808            alias = ""
1809
1810        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1811        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1812        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1813        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1814        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1815        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1816        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1817        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1818        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1819
1820        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1821        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1822            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1823
1824        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1825        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1826            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1827
1828        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1829        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1830            expr = f"({expr})"
1831
1832        return (
1833            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1834        )
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1836    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1837        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1838
1839        if expression.this:
1840            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1841            if not expressions:
1842                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1843
1844            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1845            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1846            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1847            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1848            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1849
1850        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1851        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1852        direction = self.seg("UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT")
1853
1854        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1855        if field and isinstance(expression.args.get("field"), exp.PivotAny):
1856            field = f"IN ({field})"
1857
1858        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1859        if include_nulls is not None:
1860            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1861        else:
1862            nulls = ""
1863
1864        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
1865        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
1866        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"
def version_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Version) -> str:
1868    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1869        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1870        kind = expression.text("kind")
1871        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1872        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
1874    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1875        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
1877    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1878        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1879        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1880        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1881        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1882        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1883        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1884        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1885        if self.RETURNING_END:
1886            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1887        else:
1888            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1889        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1890        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1892    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1893        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1894
1895        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1896        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1897            args = self.expressions(expression)
1898            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1899            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1900            values = (
1901                f"({values})"
1902                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1903                else values
1904            )
1905            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1906
1907        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1908        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1909        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1910
1911        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1912
1913        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1914            row = tup.expressions
1915
1916            if i == 0 and column_names:
1917                row = [
1918                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1919                ]
1920
1921            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1922
1923        if self.pretty:
1924            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1925            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1926            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1927            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1928            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1929
1930        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1931        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1932        return f"({unions}){alias}"
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
1934    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1935        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
1937    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1938        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1939        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1940        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
1942    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1943        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
1945    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1946        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1947        if group_by_all is True:
1948            modifier = " ALL"
1949        elif group_by_all is False:
1950            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1951        else:
1952            modifier = ""
1953
1954        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1955
1956        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1957        grouping_sets = (
1958            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1959        )
1960
1961        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1962        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1963            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1964        else:
1965            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1966            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1967
1968        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1969        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1970            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1971        else:
1972            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1973            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1974
1975        groupings = csv(
1976            grouping_sets,
1977            cube_sql,
1978            rollup_sql,
1979            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1980            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1981        )
1982
1983        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1984            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1985
1986        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
1988    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1989        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1990        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def connect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connect) -> str:
1992    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1993        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1994        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1995        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1996        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1997        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1998        return start + connect
def prior_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Prior) -> str:
2000    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
2001        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
2003    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
2004        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
2005            side = None
2006        else:
2007            side = expression.side
2008
2009        op_sql = " ".join(
2010            op
2011            for op in (
2012                expression.method,
2013                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
2014                side,
2015                expression.kind,
2016                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
2017            )
2018            if op
2019        )
2020        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
2021        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
2022        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
2023        using = expression.args.get("using")
2024
2025        if not on_sql and using:
2026            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
2027
2028        this = expression.this
2029        this_sql = self.sql(this)
2030
2031        if on_sql:
2032            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
2033            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2034            if using:
2035                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2036            else:
2037                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2038        elif not op_sql:
2039            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2040                return f" {this_sql}"
2041
2042            return f", {this_sql}"
2043
2044        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2045            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2046
2047        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
2049    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2050        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2051        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2052        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
2054    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2055        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2056
2057        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2058        if cross_apply is True:
2059            op = "INNER JOIN "
2060        elif cross_apply is False:
2061            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2062        else:
2063            op = ""
2064
2065        return f"{op}LATERAL"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
2067    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2068        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2069
2070        if expression.args.get("view"):
2071            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2072            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2073            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2074            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2075            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2076            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2077
2078        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2079        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2080        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2082    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2083        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2084
2085        args = [
2086            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2087            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2088            if e
2089        ]
2090
2091        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2092        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2093        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2094        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2095
2096        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
2098    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2099        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2100        value = expression.expression
2101        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2102        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2103        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2104        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
2106    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2107        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2108        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2109        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2110        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2111        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2112        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2113        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2114        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
2116    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2117        expressions = (
2118            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2119        )
2120        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2121        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
2123    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2124        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
2126    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2127        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2128            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2129            return ""
2130
2131        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2132        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2133        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2134        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2135
2136        if wait is not None:
2137            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2138                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2139            else:
2140                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2141
2142        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
2144    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2145        text = expression.this or ""
2146        if expression.is_string:
2147            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2148        return text
def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2150    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2151        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2152            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2153            text = "".join(
2154                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2155            )
2156
2157        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2158            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2159        )
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
2161    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2162        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2163        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2164        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2165        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2166        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2167        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2168        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2169        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2170        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2171        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2172        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2174    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2175        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
2177    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2178        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2180    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2181        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2182        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2183        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2184        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2185        interpolated_values = [
2186            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2187            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2188        ]
2189        interpolate = (
2190            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2191        )
2192        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
def withfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithFill) -> str:
2194    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2195        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2196        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2197        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2198        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2199        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2200        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2201        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
2203    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2204        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
2206    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2207        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
2209    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2210        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
2212    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2213        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2214        asc = not desc
2215
2216        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2217        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2218        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2219        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2220        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2221
2222        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2223
2224        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2225        nulls_sort_change = ""
2226        if nulls_first and (
2227            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2228        ):
2229            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2230        elif (
2231            nulls_last
2232            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2233            and not nulls_are_last
2234        ):
2235            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2236
2237        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2238        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2239            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2240            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2241                self.unsupported(
2242                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2243                )
2244                nulls_sort_change = ""
2245            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2246                if expression.this.is_int:
2247                    self.unsupported(
2248                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2249                    )
2250                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2251                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2252                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2253                nulls_sort_change = ""
2254
2255        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2256        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2257
2258        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2260    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2261        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2262        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2263
2264        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2265
2266        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2268    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2269        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2270        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2271        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2272        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2273        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2274        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2275        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2276        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2277        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2278        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2279        definition_sqls = [
2280            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2281            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2282        ]
2283        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2284        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2285        body = "".join(
2286            (
2287                partition,
2288                order,
2289                measures,
2290                rows,
2291                after,
2292                pattern,
2293                define,
2294            )
2295        )
2296        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2297        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2298        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2300    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2301        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2302
2303        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2304            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2305        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2306            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2307
2308        return csv(
2309            *sqls,
2310            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2311            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2312            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2313            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2314            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2315            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2316            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2317            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2318            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2319            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2320            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2321            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2322            self.options_modifier(expression),
2323            sep="",
2324        )
def options_modifier(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> str:
2326    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2327        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2328        return f" {options}" if options else ""
def queryoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryOption) -> str:
2330    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2331        return ""
def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]:
2333    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2334        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2335    ) -> t.List[str]:
2336        return [
2337            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2338            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2339        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
2341    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2342        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2343        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2344        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
2346    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2347        into = expression.args.get("into")
2348        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2349            into.pop()
2350
2351        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2352        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2353        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2354        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2355
2356        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2357        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2358            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2359            limit.pop()
2360        else:
2361            top = ""
2362
2363        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2364
2365        if kind:
2366            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2367                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2368            else:
2369                if kind == "STRUCT":
2370                    expressions = self.expressions(
2371                        sqls=[
2372                            self.sql(
2373                                exp.Struct(
2374                                    expressions=[
2375                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2376                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2377                                        else e
2378                                        for e in expression.expressions
2379                                    ]
2380                                )
2381                            )
2382                        ]
2383                    )
2384                kind = ""
2385
2386        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2387        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2388        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2389        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2390        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2391            expression,
2392            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2393            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2394            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2395        )
2396
2397        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2398
2399        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2400            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2401                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2402            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2403                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2404            else:
2405                table_kind = ""
2406            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2407
2408        return sql
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2410    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2411        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2412        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2413        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2415    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2416        if expression.expressions:
2417            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2418        return ""
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
2420    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2421        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2422        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2423        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2424        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2425        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2426        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2427        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
2429    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2430        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2431        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
2433    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2434        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2435        kind = expression.text("kind")
2436        if kind:
2437            kind = f"{kind}."
2438        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
2440    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2441        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
2443    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2444        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2445        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2446        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2447        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2448        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
2450    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2451        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2452        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def set_operations(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation) -> str:
2454    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2455        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
2456            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2457            order = expression.args.get("order")
2458
2459            if limit or order:
2460                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
2461
2462                if limit:
2463                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
2464                if order:
2465                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
2466                return self.sql(select)
2467
2468        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2469        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2470
2471        while stack:
2472            node = stack.pop()
2473
2474            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
2475                stack.append(node.expression)
2476                stack.append(
2477                    self.maybe_comment(
2478                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2479                        comments=node.comments,
2480                        separated=True,
2481                    )
2482                )
2483                stack.append(node.this)
2484            else:
2485                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2486
2487        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2488        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2489        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
def union_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
2491    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2492        return self.set_operations(expression)
def union_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation) -> str:
2494    def union_op(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2495        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_SET_OP else ""
2496        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2497        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2498        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2500    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2501        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2502
2503        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2504        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2505
2506        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2507            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2508                alias.append("columns", offset)
2509
2510        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2511            columns = alias.columns
2512            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2513        else:
2514            alias = self.sql(alias)
2515
2516        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2517        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2518            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2519        else:
2520            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2521                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2522            elif offset:
2523                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2524            else:
2525                suffix = alias
2526
2527        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
def prewhere_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PreWhere) -> str:
2529    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2530        return ""
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
2532    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2533        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2534        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
2536    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2537        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2538        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2539        order = expression.args.get("order")
2540        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2541        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2542        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2543        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2544
2545        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2546
2547        first = expression.args.get("first")
2548        if first is None:
2549            first = ""
2550        else:
2551            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2552
2553        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2554            return f"{this} {alias}"
2555
2556        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2557        return f"{this} ({args})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2559    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2560        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2561        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
2563    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2564        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2565        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2566        end = (
2567            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2568            or "CURRENT ROW"
2569        )
2570        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
2572    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2573        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2574        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2575        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
2577    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2578        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2579        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2580        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2581        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_offset_expressions( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]:
2583    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2584        return apply_index_offset(
2585            expression.this,
2586            expression.expressions,
2587            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2588        )
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
2590    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2591        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2592        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2593        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
2595    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2596        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
2598    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2599        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2600        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2601            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2602                this = self.wrap(this)
2603            return f"ANY{this}"
2604        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
2606    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2607        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
2609    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2610        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2611        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2612
2613        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2614            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2615            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2616
2617        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2618
2619        if default:
2620            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2621
2622        statements.append("END")
2623
2624        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2625            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2626
2627        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
2629    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2630        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2631        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2632        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
2634    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2635        order = expression.args.get("order")
2636        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2637        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
2639    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2640        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2641        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2642        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
2644    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2645        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2646
2647        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2648            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2649        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2650            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2651        else:
2652            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
def convert_concat_args( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat | sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]:
2654    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2655        args = expression.expressions
2656        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2657            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2658
2659        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2660            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2661
2662        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2663            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2664
2665        return args
def concat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat) -> str:
2667    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2668        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2669
2670        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2671        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2672            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2673
2674        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
def concatws_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> str:
2676    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2677        return self.func(
2678            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2679        )
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
2681    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2682        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2683        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2685    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2686        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2687        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2688        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2689        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2690        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2691        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2692        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2693        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2695    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2696        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2697        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2698        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2699        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
2701    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2702        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2704    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2705        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2706        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2707        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2709    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2710        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONPath) -> str:
2712    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2713        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2714        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2715            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2716
2717        return path
def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2719    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2720        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2721            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2722            if not callable(transform):
2723                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2724                return ""
2725
2726            return transform(self, expression)
2727
2728        if isinstance(expression, int):
2729            return str(expression)
2730
2731        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2732            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2733            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2734        else:
2735            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2736            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2737
2738        return escaped
def formatjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FormatJson) -> str:
2740    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2741        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
def jsonobject_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject | sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2743    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2744        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2745        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2746
2747        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2748        if unique_keys is not None:
2749            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2750        else:
2751            unique_keys = ""
2752
2753        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2754        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2755        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2756        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2757
2758        return self.func(
2759            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2760            *expression.expressions,
2761            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2762        )
def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2764    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2765        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArray) -> str:
2767    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2768        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2769        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2770        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2771        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2772        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2773        return self.func(
2774            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2775        )
def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2777    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2778        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2779        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2780        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2781        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2782        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2783        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2784        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2785        return self.func(
2786            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2787            this,
2788            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2789        )
def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2791    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2792        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2793        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2794        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2795
2796        if nested_schema:
2797            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2798
2799        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2800        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2801        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2802        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONSchema) -> str:
2804    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2805        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
def jsontable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONTable) -> str:
2807    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2808        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2809        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2810        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2811        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2812        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2813        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2814        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2815        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2816        return self.func(
2817            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2818        )
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2820    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2821        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2822        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2823        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2824        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2825        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2826        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
2828    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2829        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2830        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2831        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2832        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2833        with_ = (
2834            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2835            if expressions
2836            else ""
2837        )
2838        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
2840    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2841        query = expression.args.get("query")
2842        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2843        field = expression.args.get("field")
2844        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2845
2846        if query:
2847            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2848        elif unnest:
2849            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2850        elif field:
2851            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2852        else:
2853            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2854
2855        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2857    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2858        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
2860    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2861        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2862        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2863            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2864        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2865
2866        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2867            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2868            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2869
2870        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2871        if this:
2872            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2873            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2874
2875        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
2877    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2878        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
2880    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2881        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2882        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2883        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2884        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2885        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2886        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
2888    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2889        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
2891    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2892        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2893        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
2895    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2896        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2897        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2898        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2899        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
2901    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2902        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
2904    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2905        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2906        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2907        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PivotAlias) -> str:
2909    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2910        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2911        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2912
2913        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2914            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2915        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2916            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2917
2918        return self.alias_sql(expression)
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
2920    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2921        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def atindex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2923    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2924        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2925        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2926        return f"{this} AT {index}"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2928    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2929        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2930        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2931        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2933    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2934        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2935        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2936        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
2938    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2939        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2941    def and_sql(
2942        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2943    ) -> str:
2944        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
def or_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2946    def or_sql(
2947        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2948    ) -> str:
2949        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
def xor_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Xor, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2951    def xor_sql(
2952        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2953    ) -> str:
2954        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
def connector_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2956    def connector_sql(
2957        self,
2958        expression: exp.Connector,
2959        op: str,
2960        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2961    ) -> str:
2962        if stack is not None:
2963            if expression.expressions:
2964                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2965            else:
2966                stack.append(expression.right)
2967                if expression.comments and self.comments:
2968                    for comment in expression.comments:
2969                        if comment:
2970                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2971                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2972            return op
2973
2974        stack = [expression]
2975        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2976        ops = set()
2977
2978        while stack:
2979            node = stack.pop()
2980            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2981                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2982            else:
2983                sql = self.sql(node)
2984                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2985                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2986                else:
2987                    sqls.append(sql)
2988
2989        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
2990        return sep.join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2992    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2993        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2995    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2996        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2998    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2999        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
3001    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
3002        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3004    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3005        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3007    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3008        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3010    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3011        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
3012        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
3013        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
3014        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
3015        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
3016        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
3017        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
3019    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
3020        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
3021        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
3023    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
3024        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
3025            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3026        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
3028    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
3029        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
3031    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
3032        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3033        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3034        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3035        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3036        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3037        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3039    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3040        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3041        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3042        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3043        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3044        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3045        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3046        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3047        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3048        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3050    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3051        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3052        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3053        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3054        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3055
3056        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3057            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3058
3059        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
3061    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3062        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
3064    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3065        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3066        if chain is not None:
3067            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3068
3069        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
3071    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3072        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3073        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3074        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
3076    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3077        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3078
3079        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3080        if dtype:
3081            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3082            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3083            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3084            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3085            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3086
3087        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3088        if default:
3089            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3090
3091        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3092        if comment:
3093            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3094
3095        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3096        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3097
3098        if not drop and not allow_null:
3099            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3100
3101        if allow_null is not None:
3102            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3103            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3104
3105        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3107    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3108        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3109        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3110            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3111        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3113    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3114        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3115        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3116        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3117        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3118        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str:
3120    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3121        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3122            # Remove db from tables
3123            expression = expression.transform(
3124                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3125            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3126        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3127        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameColumn) -> str:
3129    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3130        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3131        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3132        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3133        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
def alterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterSet) -> str:
3135    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3136        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3137        return f"SET {exprs}"
def alter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alter) -> str:
3139    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3140        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3141
3142        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3143            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3144        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3145            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3146        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3147            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3148        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Query):
3149            actions = "AS " + self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
3150        else:
3151            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3152
3153        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3154        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3155        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3156        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3157        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3158        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3159        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3160        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{options}"
def add_column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alter) -> str:
3162    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3163        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3164            return self.expressions(
3165                expression,
3166                key="actions",
3167                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3168                skip_first=True,
3169            )
3170        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
3172    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3173        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3174        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3175        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
3177    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3178        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
3180    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3181        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3182
3183        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3184            case = exp.case()
3185            for arg in expression.expressions:
3186                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3187            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3188
3189        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3190
3191        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3192        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3193        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3195    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3196        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
3198    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3199        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
def havingmax_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HavingMax) -> str:
3201    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3202        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3203        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3204        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3205        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
3207    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3208        return self.sql(
3209            exp.Cast(
3210                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3211                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3212            )
3213        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
3215    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3216        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3217            return self.func(
3218                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3219            )
3220        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
3222    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3223        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3224
3225        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3226            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3227
3228        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3229            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3230                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3231
3232        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3233            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3234                return self.sql(
3235                    exp.cast(
3236                        l / r,
3237                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3238                    )
3239                )
3240
3241        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
3243    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3244        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
3246    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3247        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
3249    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3250        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
3252    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3253        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3255    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3256        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
3258    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3259        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
3261    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3262        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
3264    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3265        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
3267    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3268        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
3270    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3271        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
3273    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3274        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
3276    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3277        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3278            return self.sql(
3279                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3280            )
3281        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
3283    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3284        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
3286    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3287        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
3289    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3290        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
3292    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3293        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
3295    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3296        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
3298    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3299        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
3301    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3302        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
3304    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3305        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3307    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3308        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3310    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3311        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
3313    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3314        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
3316    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3317        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
3319    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3320        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
def try_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Try) -> str:
3322    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3323        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3324            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3325            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3326
3327        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
def log_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Log) -> str:
3329    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3330        this = expression.this
3331        expr = expression.expression
3332
3333        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3334            this, expr = expr, this
3335        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3336            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3337                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3338
3339            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3340
3341        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
3343    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3344        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3345        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3346        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3347        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3348        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3350    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3351        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3352        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
3354    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3355        args = []
3356
3357        for key in expression.arg_types:
3358            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3359
3360            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3361                for value in arg_value:
3362                    args.append(value)
3363            elif arg_value is not None:
3364                args.append(arg_value)
3365
3366        if self.normalize_functions:
3367            name = expression.sql_name()
3368        else:
3369            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3370
3371        return self.func(name, *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')') -> str:
3373    def func(
3374        self,
3375        name: str,
3376        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3377        prefix: str = "(",
3378        suffix: str = ")",
3379    ) -> str:
3380        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
3382    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3383        arg_sqls = tuple(
3384            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
3385        )
3386        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3387            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3388        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
def too_wide(self, args: Iterable) -> bool:
3390    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3391        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
def format_time( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, inverse_time_mapping: Optional[Dict[str, str]] = None, inverse_time_trie: Optional[Dict] = None) -> Optional[str]:
3393    def format_time(
3394        self,
3395        expression: exp.Expression,
3396        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3397        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3398    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3399        return format_time(
3400            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3401            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3402            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3403        )
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[Collection[Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression]]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '', dynamic: bool = False, new_line: bool = False) -> str:
3405    def expressions(
3406        self,
3407        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3408        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3409        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3410        flat: bool = False,
3411        indent: bool = True,
3412        skip_first: bool = False,
3413        skip_last: bool = False,
3414        sep: str = ", ",
3415        prefix: str = "",
3416        dynamic: bool = False,
3417        new_line: bool = False,
3418    ) -> str:
3419        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3420
3421        if not expressions:
3422            return ""
3423
3424        if flat:
3425            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3426
3427        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3428        result_sqls = []
3429
3430        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3431            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3432            if not sql:
3433                continue
3434
3435            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3436
3437            if self.pretty:
3438                if self.leading_comma:
3439                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3440                else:
3441                    result_sqls.append(
3442                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3443                    )
3444            else:
3445                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3446
3447        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3448            if new_line:
3449                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3450                result_sqls.append("")
3451            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
3452        else:
3453            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3454        return (
3455            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3456            if indent
3457            else result_sql
3458        )
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3460    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3461        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3462        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3463        if flat:
3464            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3465        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
3467    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3468        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3469        if not property_name:
3470            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3471        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
3473    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3474        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
3476    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3477        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3479    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3480        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3481        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3482        expressions = (
3483            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3484        )
3485        return f"{this}{expressions}"
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
3487    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3488        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3489        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3490        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
3492    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3493        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
3495    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3496        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3497        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3498        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3499        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3500
3501        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3502        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3503            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3504            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3505            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3506            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3507        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3508            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3509                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3510            else:
3511                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3512        else:
3513            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3514        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
3516    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3517        table = expression.this
3518        table_alias = ""
3519
3520        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3521        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3522            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3523            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3524
3525        this = self.sql(table)
3526        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3527        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3528        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3529        sep = self.sep()
3530
3531        return self.prepend_ctes(
3532            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}"
3533        )
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
3535    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3536        if expression.args.get("format"):
3537            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3538
3539        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
def tonumber_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToNumber) -> str:
3541    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3542        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3543            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3544            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3545
3546        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3547        if not fmt:
3548            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3549            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3550
3551        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str:
3553    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3554        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3555        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3556        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3557        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3558        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str:
3560    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3561        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3562        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3563        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3564        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3566    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3567        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str:
3569    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3570        return ""
def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3572    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3573        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3574        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3575        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3576        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3577        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue) -> str:
3579    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3580        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3581        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3582
3583        if having:
3584            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3585
3586        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
def querytransform_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryTransform) -> str:
3588    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3589        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3590        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3591        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3592        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3593        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3594        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3595        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3596        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3597        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3598        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3599        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3600        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3601        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3603    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3604        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3605        if key_block_size:
3606            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3607
3608        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3609        if using:
3610            return f"USING {using}"
3611
3612        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3613        if parser:
3614            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3615
3616        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3617        if comment:
3618            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3619
3620        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3621        if visible is not None:
3622            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3623
3624        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3625        if engine_attr:
3626            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3627
3628        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3629        if secondary_engine_attr:
3630            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3631
3632        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3633        return ""
def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3635    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3636        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3637        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3639    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3640        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3641        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3642        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3643        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3644        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3645        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3646        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3647        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3648        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3649        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3650        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
def nvl2_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Nvl2) -> str:
3652    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3653        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3654            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3655
3656        case = exp.Case().when(
3657            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3658            expression.args["true"],
3659            copy=False,
3660        )
3661        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3662        if else_cond:
3663            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3664
3665        return self.sql(case)
def comprehension_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comprehension) -> str:
3667    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3668        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3669        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3670        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3671        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3672        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3673        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3675    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3676        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def opclass_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Opclass) -> str:
3678    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3679        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def predict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Predict) -> str:
3681    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3682        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3683        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3684        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3685        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3686        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3687        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
def forin_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForIn) -> str:
3689    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3690        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3691        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3692        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
def refresh_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Refresh) -> str:
3694    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3695        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3696        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3697        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
def operator_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Operator) -> str:
3699    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3700        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
def toarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToArray) -> str:
3702    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3703        arg = expression.this
3704        if not arg.type:
3705            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3706
3707            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3708
3709        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3710            return self.sql(arg)
3711
3712        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3713        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3715    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3716        this = expression.this
3717        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3718            return self.sql(this)
3719
3720        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3722    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3723        this = expression.this
3724        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3725            return self.sql(this)
3726
3727        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3729    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3730        this = expression.this
3731        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3732
3733        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3734            return self.sql(
3735                exp.cast(
3736                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3737                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3738                )
3739            )
3740
3741        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3742            return self.sql(this)
3743
3744        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
def unixdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnixDate) -> str:
3746    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3747        return self.sql(
3748            exp.func(
3749                "DATEDIFF",
3750                expression.this,
3751                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3752                "day",
3753            )
3754        )
def lastday_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LastDay) -> str:
3756    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3757        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3758            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3759
3760        unit = expression.text("unit")
3761        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3762            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3763
3764        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
def dateadd_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd) -> str:
3766    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3767        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3768
3769        return self.func(
3770            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3771        )
def arrayany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayAny) -> str:
3773    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3774        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3775            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3776            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3777            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3778            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3779
3780        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3781
3782        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3783        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3784            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3785
3786        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def struct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Struct) -> str:
3788    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3789        expression.set(
3790            "expressions",
3791            [
3792                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3793                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3794                else e
3795                for e in expression.expressions
3796            ],
3797        )
3798
3799        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionRange) -> str:
3801    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3802        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3803        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3804
3805        return f"{low} TO {high}"
def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TruncateTable) -> str:
3807    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3808        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3809        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3810
3811        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3812
3813        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3814        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3815
3816        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3817        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3818
3819        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3820        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3821
3822        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3823        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3824
3825        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
def convert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Convert) -> str:
3829    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3830        to = expression.this
3831        value = expression.expression
3832        style = expression.args.get("style")
3833        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3834        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3835
3836        if not to or not value:
3837            return ""
3838
3839        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3840        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3841            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3842
3843        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3844        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3845
3846        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3847        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3848            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3849
3850            style_value = style.name
3851            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3852            if not converted_style:
3853                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3854
3855            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3856
3857            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3858                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3859            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3860                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3861            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3862                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3863            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3864                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3865
3866        if not transformed:
3867            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3868
3869        return self.sql(transformed)
def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CopyParameter) -> str:
3925    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
3926        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
3927
3928        if expression.expressions:
3929            upper = option.upper()
3930
3931            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
3932            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
3933
3934            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
3935            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
3936            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
3937            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
3938
3939        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3940
3941        if not value:
3942            return option
3943
3944        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
3945
3946        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
def credentials_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Credentials) -> str:
3948    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
3949        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
3950        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
3951            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
3952            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3953            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
3954        else:
3955            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
3956            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
3957            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
3958
3959        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
3960        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
3961
3962        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
3963        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
3964
3965        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
3966        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
3967
3968        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
3969        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
3970
3971        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
def copy_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Copy) -> str:
3973    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
3974        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3975        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
3976
3977        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3978        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
3979        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
3980        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
3981
3982        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
3983        params = self.expressions(
3984            expression,
3985            key="params",
3986            sep=sep,
3987            new_line=True,
3988            skip_last=True,
3989            skip_first=True,
3990            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
3991        )
3992
3993        if params:
3994            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
3995                params = f" WITH ({params})"
3996            elif not self.pretty:
3997                params = f" {params}"
3998
3999        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
def semicolon_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Semicolon) -> str:
4001    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
4002        return ""
def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4004    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4005        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
4006        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
4007        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
4008        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
4009        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
4010
4011        if filter_col or retention_period:
4012            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
4013
4014        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint) -> str:
4016    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
4017        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
4018    ) -> str:
4019        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4020        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4021        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4022        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
def gapfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GapFill) -> str:
4024    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
4025        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4026        this = f"TABLE {this}"
4027        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4029    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4030        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4032    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4033        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4034        expr = expression.expression
4035
4036        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4037            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4038            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4039        else:
4040            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4041
4042        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
def parsejson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ParseJSON) -> str:
4044    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4045        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4046            return self.sql(expression.this)
4047
4048        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
def rand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rand) -> str:
4050    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4051        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4052        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4053
4054        if lower and upper:
4055            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4056        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
def changes_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Changes) -> str:
4058    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4059        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4060        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4061        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4062        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4063        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4064        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4065
4066        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
def pad_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pad) -> str:
4068    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4069        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4070
4071        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4072        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4073            fill_pattern = "' '"
4074
4075        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
def summarize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Summarize) -> str:
4077    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
4078        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
4079        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4081    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4082        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
4083
4084        parent = expression.parent
4085        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
4086            parent = parent.parent
4087
4088        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
4089            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
4090
4091        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
4092            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
4093
4094        return self.sql(generate_series)
def arrayconcat_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayConcat, name: str = 'ARRAY_CONCAT') -> str:
4096    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
4097        exprs = expression.expressions
4098        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
4099            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
4100        else:
4101            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
4102
4103        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs)
def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4105    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4106        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
4107            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4108
4109        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
4110        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
4111        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
4112
4113        if source_tz and timestamp:
4114            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
4115                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
4116            )
4117
4118        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
4119
4120        return self.sql(expr)