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sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import typing as t
   5
   6from sqlglot import exp
   7from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
   8from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, seq_get
   9from sqlglot.time import format_time
  10from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  11
  12logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  13
  14
  15class Generator:
  16    """
  17    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  18
  19    Args:
  20        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  21            Default: False.
  22        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  23            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  24            True or 'always': Always quote.
  25            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  26        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  27            Default: False.
  28        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  29            Default: 2.
  30        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  31            Default: 2.
  32        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  33            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  34            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  35            False: Disables function name normalization.
  36        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  37            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  38        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  39            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  40            Default: 3
  41        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  42            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  43            Default: False
  44        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  45            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  46            line length.
  47            Default: 80
  48        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  49            Default: True
  50    """
  51
  52    TRANSFORMS = {
  53        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  54            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  55        ),
  56        exp.TsOrDsAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  57            "TS_OR_DS_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  58        ),
  59        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  60        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  61        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  62        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  63        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  64        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  65        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  66        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  67        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  68        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  69        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  70        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  71        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  72        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  73        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  74        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  75        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  76        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  77        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  78        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  79        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  80        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  81        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  82        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  83        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
  84        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
  85        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
  86        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
  87        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
  88        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  89        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
  90        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
  91        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
  92        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93    }
  94
  95    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
  96    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
  97
  98    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
  99    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 100
 101    # Always do union distinct or union all
 102    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 103
 104    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 105    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 106
 107    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 108    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 109
 110    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 111    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 112
 113    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 114    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 115
 116    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 117    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 118
 119    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 120    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 121
 122    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 123    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 124
 125    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 126    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 127
 128    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 129    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 130
 131    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 132    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 133
 134    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 135    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 136
 137    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 138    JOIN_HINTS = True
 139
 140    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 141    TABLE_HINTS = True
 142
 143    # Whether or not query hints should be generated
 144    QUERY_HINTS = True
 145
 146    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 147    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 148
 149    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 150    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 151
 152    # Whether or not to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 153    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 154
 155    # Whether or not to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 156    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 157
 158    # Whether or not to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 159    RETURNING_END = True
 160
 161    # Whether or not to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 162    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 163
 164    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 165    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 166
 167    # Whether or not VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 168    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 169    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 170    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 171
 172    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 173        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 174        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 175        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 176        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 177        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 178        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 179        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 180    }
 181
 182    STAR_MAPPING = {
 183        "except": "EXCEPT",
 184        "replace": "REPLACE",
 185    }
 186
 187    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 188        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 189        "seconds": "second",
 190        "minutes": "minute",
 191        "hours": "hour",
 192        "days": "day",
 193        "weeks": "week",
 194        "months": "month",
 195        "quarters": "quarter",
 196        "years": "year",
 197    }
 198
 199    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 200
 201    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 202
 203    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 204
 205    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 206        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 207        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 208        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 209        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 210        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 211        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 212        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 213        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 214        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 215        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 216        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 217        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 218        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 219        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 220        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 221        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 222        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 223        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 224        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 225        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 226        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 227        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 228        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 229        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 230        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 231        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 232        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 233        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 234        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 235        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 236        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 237        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 238        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 239        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 240        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 241        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 242        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 243        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 244        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 245        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 246        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 247        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 248        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 249        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 250        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 251        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 252        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 253        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 254        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 255        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 256        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 257        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 258        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 259        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 260        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 261    }
 262
 263    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 264    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 265
 266    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 267    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 268        exp.Delete,
 269        exp.Drop,
 270        exp.From,
 271        exp.Insert,
 272        exp.Select,
 273        exp.Update,
 274        exp.Where,
 275        exp.With,
 276    )
 277
 278    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 279    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 280        exp.Column,
 281        exp.Literal,
 282        exp.Neg,
 283        exp.Paren,
 284    )
 285
 286    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 287
 288    # Autofilled
 289    INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 290    INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: t.Dict = {}
 291    INDEX_OFFSET = 0
 292    UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
 293    ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
 294    IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
 295    STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
 296    NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = "upper"
 297    NULL_ORDERING = "nulls_are_small"
 298    ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK = False
 299
 300    can_identify: t.Callable[[str, str | bool], bool]
 301
 302    # Delimiters for quotes, identifiers and the corresponding escape characters
 303    QUOTE_START = "'"
 304    QUOTE_END = "'"
 305    IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
 306    IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
 307    STRING_ESCAPE = "'"
 308    IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE = '"'
 309
 310    # Delimiters for bit, hex, byte and raw literals
 311    BIT_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 312    BIT_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 313    HEX_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 314    HEX_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 315    BYTE_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 316    BYTE_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 317
 318    __slots__ = (
 319        "pretty",
 320        "identify",
 321        "normalize",
 322        "pad",
 323        "_indent",
 324        "normalize_functions",
 325        "unsupported_level",
 326        "max_unsupported",
 327        "leading_comma",
 328        "max_text_width",
 329        "comments",
 330        "unsupported_messages",
 331        "_escaped_quote_end",
 332        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 333        "_cache",
 334    )
 335
 336    def __init__(
 337        self,
 338        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 339        identify: str | bool = False,
 340        normalize: bool = False,
 341        pad: int = 2,
 342        indent: int = 2,
 343        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 344        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 345        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 346        leading_comma: bool = False,
 347        max_text_width: int = 80,
 348        comments: bool = True,
 349    ):
 350        import sqlglot
 351
 352        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 353        self.identify = identify
 354        self.normalize = normalize
 355        self.pad = pad
 356        self._indent = indent
 357        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 358        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 359        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 360        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 361        self.comments = comments
 362
 363        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 364        self.normalize_functions = (
 365            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 366        )
 367
 368        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 369        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.STRING_ESCAPE + self.QUOTE_END
 370        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = self.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE + self.IDENTIFIER_END
 371        self._cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
 372
 373    def generate(
 374        self,
 375        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
 376        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
 377    ) -> str:
 378        """
 379        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 380
 381        Args:
 382            expression: The syntax tree.
 383            cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression
 384                which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
 385
 386        Returns:
 387            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 388        """
 389        if cache is not None:
 390            self._cache = cache
 391
 392        self.unsupported_messages = []
 393        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 394        self._cache = None
 395
 396        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 397            return sql
 398
 399        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 400            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 401                logger.warning(msg)
 402        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 403            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 404
 405        if self.pretty:
 406            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 407        return sql
 408
 409    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 410        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 411            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 412        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 413
 414    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 415        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 416
 417    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 418        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 419
 420    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 421        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 422        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 423        return comment
 424
 425    def maybe_comment(
 426        self,
 427        sql: str,
 428        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 429        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 430    ) -> str:
 431        comments = (
 432            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 433            if self.comments
 434            else None
 435        )
 436
 437        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
 438            return sql
 439
 440        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
 441        comments_sql = sep.join(
 442            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 443        )
 444
 445        if not comments_sql:
 446            return sql
 447
 448        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 449            return (
 450                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 451                if sql[0].isspace()
 452                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 453            )
 454
 455        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 456
 457    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 458        this_sql = self.indent(
 459            self.sql(expression)
 460            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 461            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 462            level=1,
 463            pad=0,
 464        )
 465        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 466
 467    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 468        original = self.identify
 469        self.identify = False
 470        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 471        self.identify = original
 472        return result
 473
 474    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 475        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 476            return name.upper()
 477        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 478            return name.lower()
 479        return name
 480
 481    def indent(
 482        self,
 483        sql: str,
 484        level: int = 0,
 485        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 486        skip_first: bool = False,
 487        skip_last: bool = False,
 488    ) -> str:
 489        if not self.pretty:
 490            return sql
 491
 492        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 493        lines = sql.split("\n")
 494
 495        return "\n".join(
 496            line
 497            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 498            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 499            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 500        )
 501
 502    def sql(
 503        self,
 504        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 505        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 506        comment: bool = True,
 507    ) -> str:
 508        if not expression:
 509            return ""
 510
 511        if isinstance(expression, str):
 512            return expression
 513
 514        if key:
 515            value = expression.args.get(key)
 516            if value:
 517                return self.sql(value)
 518            return ""
 519
 520        if self._cache is not None:
 521            expression_id = hash(expression)
 522
 523            if expression_id in self._cache:
 524                return self._cache[expression_id]
 525
 526        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 527
 528        if callable(transform):
 529            sql = transform(self, expression)
 530        elif transform:
 531            sql = transform
 532        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 533            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 534
 535            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 536                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 537            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 538                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 539            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 540                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 541            else:
 542                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 543        else:
 544            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 545
 546        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 547
 548        if self._cache is not None:
 549            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
 550        return sql
 551
 552    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 553        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 554        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 555        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 556
 557    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 558        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 559        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 560        options = expression.args.get("options")
 561        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 562        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 563        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 564        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 565        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 566
 567    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 568        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 569            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 570        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 571        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 572
 573    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 574        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 575
 576        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 577            join_mark = ""
 578            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 579
 580        column = ".".join(
 581            self.sql(part)
 582            for part in (
 583                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 584                expression.args.get("db"),
 585                expression.args.get("table"),
 586                expression.args.get("this"),
 587            )
 588            if part
 589        )
 590
 591        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 592
 593    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 594        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 595        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 596        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 597        return f"{position}{this}"
 598
 599    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 600        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 601        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 602        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 603        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 604        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 605        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 606        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 607        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 608
 609        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 610
 611    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 612        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 613        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 614        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 615
 616    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 617        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 618
 619    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 620        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 621            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 622        else:
 623            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 624
 625        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 626
 627    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 628        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 629    ) -> str:
 630        this = ""
 631        if expression.this is not None:
 632            on_null = "ON NULL " if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 633            this = " ALWAYS " if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT {on_null}"
 634
 635        start = expression.args.get("start")
 636        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 637        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 638        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 639        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 640        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 641        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 642        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 643        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 644        cycle_sql = ""
 645
 646        if cycle is not None:
 647            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 648            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 649
 650        sequence_opts = ""
 651        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 652            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 653            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 654
 655        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 656        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 657
 658        return f"GENERATED{this}AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 659
 660    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 661        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 662
 663    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 664        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 665        if desc is not None:
 666            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 667        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 668
 669    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 670        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 671        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 672        return f"UNIQUE{this}"
 673
 674    def createable_sql(
 675        self, expression: exp.Create, locations: dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]
 676    ) -> str:
 677        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 678
 679    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 680        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 681        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 682        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else {}
 683
 684        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 685
 686        properties_sql = ""
 687        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 688            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 689        ):
 690            properties_sql = self.sql(
 691                exp.Properties(
 692                    expressions=[
 693                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 694                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 695                    ]
 696                )
 697            )
 698
 699        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 700        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 701        if expression_sql:
 702            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
 703
 704            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 705                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 706                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 707                        exp.Properties(
 708                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 709                        ),
 710                        wrapped=False,
 711                    )
 712                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 713                else:
 714                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 715
 716        postindex_props_sql = ""
 717        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 718            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 719                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 720                wrapped=False,
 721                prefix=" ",
 722            )
 723
 724        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 725        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 726        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 727
 728        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 729        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 730
 731        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 732        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 733            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 734                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 735                sep=" ",
 736                prefix=" ",
 737                wrapped=False,
 738            )
 739
 740        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 741
 742        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 743        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 744            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 745                exp.Properties(
 746                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 747                ),
 748                sep=" ",
 749                prefix=" ",
 750                wrapped=False,
 751            )
 752
 753        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 754        no_schema_binding = (
 755            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 756        )
 757
 758        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 759        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 760
 761        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 762        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 763
 764    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 765        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 766        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 767
 768        if when:
 769            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 770            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 771            return f"CLONE {this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 772
 773        return f"CLONE {this}"
 774
 775    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 776        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 777
 778    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 779        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 780        if with_:
 781            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 782        return sql
 783
 784    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 785        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 786        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
 787
 788        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 789
 790    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 791        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 792        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 793
 794    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 795        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 796        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 797        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 798        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 799
 800    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 801        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 802        if self.BIT_START:
 803            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
 804        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 805
 806    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 807        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 808        if self.HEX_START:
 809            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
 810        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 811
 812    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 813        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 814        if self.BYTE_START:
 815            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
 816        return this
 817
 818    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 819        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
 820        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
 821
 822    def datatypesize_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeSize) -> str:
 823        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 824        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 825        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
 826        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 827
 828    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 829        type_value = expression.this
 830        type_sql = (
 831            self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 832            if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
 833            else type_value
 834        )
 835        nested = ""
 836        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 837        values = ""
 838        if interior:
 839            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 840                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 841                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 842                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 843                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 844                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 845            else:
 846                nested = f"({interior})"
 847
 848        return f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 849
 850    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 851        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 852        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 853        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 854        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
 855
 856    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 857        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 858        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 859        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 860        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
 861        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
 862        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
 863        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
 864        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
 865        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
 866        if self.RETURNING_END:
 867            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
 868        else:
 869            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
 870        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
 871
 872    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
 873        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 874        kind = expression.args["kind"]
 875        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
 876        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
 877        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
 878        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
 879        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
 880        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
 881        return (
 882            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
 883        )
 884
 885    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 886        return self.prepend_ctes(
 887            expression,
 888            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
 889        )
 890
 891    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 892        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
 893
 894    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
 895        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
 896        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
 897        count = expression.args.get("count")
 898        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
 899        if expression.args.get("percent"):
 900            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
 901        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
 902        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
 903
 904    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
 905        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 906        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
 907        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
 908
 909    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
 910        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
 911            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
 912            return ""
 913
 914        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
 915
 916    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
 917        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 918        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
 919        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
 920        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
 921        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
 922        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
 923        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table} " if table else ""
 924        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 925        using = f"USING {using} " if using else ""
 926        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
 927        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 928        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 929        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
 930        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
 931        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}"
 932
 933    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
 934        text = expression.name
 935        lower = text.lower()
 936        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
 937        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
 938        if (
 939            expression.quoted
 940            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
 941            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
 942            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
 943        ):
 944            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
 945        return text
 946
 947    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
 948        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
 949        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
 950        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
 951        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
 952        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
 953
 954    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
 955        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
 956        return f"{prefix}{string}"
 957
 958    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
 959        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
 960
 961    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
 962        root_properties = []
 963        with_properties = []
 964
 965        for p in expression.expressions:
 966            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
 967            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
 968                with_properties.append(p)
 969            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
 970                root_properties.append(p)
 971
 972        return self.root_properties(
 973            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
 974        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
 975
 976    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
 977        if properties.expressions:
 978            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
 979        return ""
 980
 981    def properties(
 982        self,
 983        properties: exp.Properties,
 984        prefix: str = "",
 985        sep: str = ", ",
 986        suffix: str = "",
 987        wrapped: bool = True,
 988    ) -> str:
 989        if properties.expressions:
 990            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
 991            if expressions:
 992                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
 993                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
 994        return ""
 995
 996    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
 997        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
 998
 999    def locate_properties(
1000        self, properties: exp.Properties
1001    ) -> t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]:
1002        properties_locs: t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]] = {
1003            key: [] for key in exp.Properties.Location
1004        }
1005
1006        for p in properties.expressions:
1007            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1008            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME:
1009                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME].append(p)
1010            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX:
1011                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX].append(p)
1012            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1013                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA].append(p)
1014            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1015                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH].append(p)
1016            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE:
1017                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE].append(p)
1018            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS:
1019                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS].append(p)
1020            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION:
1021                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION].append(p)
1022            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1023                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1024
1025        return properties_locs
1026
1027    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1028        property_cls = expression.__class__
1029        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1030            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1031
1032        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1033        if not property_name:
1034            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1035
1036        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1037
1038    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1039        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1040        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1041        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1042
1043    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1044        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1045        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1046        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1047
1048    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1049        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1050        local = expression.args.get("local")
1051        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1052        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1053        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1054        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1055        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1056
1057    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1058        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1059        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1060        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1061
1062    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1063        if expression.args.get("default"):
1064            property = "DEFAULT"
1065        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1066            property = "ON"
1067        else:
1068            property = "OFF"
1069        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1070
1071    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1072        if expression.args.get("no"):
1073            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1074        if expression.args.get("default"):
1075            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1076
1077        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1078        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1079
1080    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1081        default = expression.args.get("default")
1082        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1083        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1084        if default or minimum or maximum:
1085            if default:
1086                prop = "DEFAULT"
1087            elif minimum:
1088                prop = "MINIMUM"
1089            else:
1090                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1091            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1092        units = expression.args.get("units")
1093        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1094        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1095
1096    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1097        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1098        always = expression.args.get("always")
1099        default = expression.args.get("default")
1100        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1101        never = expression.args.get("never")
1102
1103        if autotemp is not None:
1104            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1105        elif always:
1106            prop = "ALWAYS"
1107        elif default:
1108            prop = "DEFAULT"
1109        elif manual:
1110            prop = "MANUAL"
1111        elif never:
1112            prop = "NEVER"
1113        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1114
1115    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1116        no = expression.args.get("no")
1117        no = " NO" if no else ""
1118        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1119        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1120
1121        for_ = ""
1122        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1123            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1124        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1125            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1126        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1127            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1128        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1129
1130    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1131        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1132        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1133        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1134        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1135        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1136        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1137
1138    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1139        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1140        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1141        statistics_sql = ""
1142        if statistics is not None:
1143            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1144        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1145
1146    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1147        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1148
1149        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1150            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1151        else:
1152            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1153
1154        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1155        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1156        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1157
1158        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1159
1160        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1161        partition_sql = (
1162            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1163        )
1164        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1165        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1166        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1167        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1168        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1169
1170        if self.RETURNING_END:
1171            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1172        else:
1173            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1174
1175        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1176        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1177
1178    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1179        return self.prepend_ctes(
1180            expression,
1181            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1182        )
1183
1184    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1185        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1186
1187    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1188        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1189
1190    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1191        return expression.name.upper()
1192
1193    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1194        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1195        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1196        if constraint:
1197            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1198        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1199        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1200        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1201        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1202        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1203        if expressions:
1204            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1205        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1206
1207    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1208        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1209
1210    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1211        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1212        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1213        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1214        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1215        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1216        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1217        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1218        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1219        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1220        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1221        null = expression.args.get("null")
1222        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1223        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1224
1225    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1226        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1227
1228    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1229        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1230        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1231        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1232        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1233
1234    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1235        table = ".".join(
1236            part
1237            for part in [
1238                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1239                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1240                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1241            ]
1242            if part
1243        )
1244
1245        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1246        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1247        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1248        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1249        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1250        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1251        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1252        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1253        system_time = expression.args.get("system_time")
1254        system_time = f" {self.sql(expression, 'system_time')}" if system_time else ""
1255
1256        return f"{table}{system_time}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
1257
1258    def tablesample_sql(
1259        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1260    ) -> str:
1261        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1262            table = expression.this.copy()
1263            table.set("alias", None)
1264            this = self.sql(table)
1265            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1266        else:
1267            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1268            alias = ""
1269        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1270        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1271        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1272        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1273        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1274        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1275        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1276        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1277        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1278        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1279        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1280        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1281        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1282            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1283        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1284        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1285        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1286        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
1287
1288    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1289        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1290
1291        if expression.this:
1292            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1293            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1294            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1295            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1296            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1297            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1298
1299        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1300        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1301        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1302        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1303        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1304        return f"{direction}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1305
1306    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1307        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1308
1309    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1310        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1311        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1312        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1313        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1314        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1315        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1316        if self.RETURNING_END:
1317            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}{limit}"
1318        else:
1319            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}{limit}"
1320        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}"
1321        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1322
1323    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1324        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1325        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1326            args = self.expressions(expression)
1327            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1328            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1329            values = (
1330                f"({values})"
1331                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1332                else values
1333            )
1334            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1335
1336        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1337        # Note: If you have a lot of unions then this will result in a large number of recursive statements to
1338        # evaluate the expression. You may need to increase `sys.setrecursionlimit` to run and it can also be
1339        # very slow.
1340        expression = expression.copy()
1341        column_names = expression.alias and expression.args["alias"].columns
1342
1343        selects = []
1344
1345        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1346            row = tup.expressions
1347
1348            if i == 0 and column_names:
1349                row = [
1350                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1351                ]
1352
1353            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1354
1355        subquery_expression: exp.Select | exp.Union = selects[0]
1356        if len(selects) > 1:
1357            for select in selects[1:]:
1358                subquery_expression = exp.union(
1359                    subquery_expression, select, distinct=False, copy=False
1360                )
1361
1362        return self.subquery_sql(subquery_expression.subquery(expression.alias, copy=False))
1363
1364    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1365        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1366
1367    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1368        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1369        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1370        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1371
1372    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1373        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1374
1375    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1376        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1377
1378        if expression.args.get("all"):
1379            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1380
1381        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1382        grouping_sets = (
1383            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1384        )
1385
1386        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1387        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1388            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1389        else:
1390            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1391            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1392
1393        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1394        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1395            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1396        else:
1397            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1398            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1399
1400        groupings = csv(
1401            grouping_sets,
1402            cube_sql,
1403            rollup_sql,
1404            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1405            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1406        )
1407
1408        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1409            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1410
1411        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1412
1413    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1414        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1415        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1416
1417    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1418        op_sql = " ".join(
1419            op
1420            for op in (
1421                expression.method,
1422                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1423                expression.side,
1424                expression.kind,
1425                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1426            )
1427            if op
1428        )
1429        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1430        using = expression.args.get("using")
1431
1432        if not on_sql and using:
1433            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1434
1435        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1436
1437        if on_sql:
1438            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1439            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1440            if using:
1441                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1442            else:
1443                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1444        elif not op_sql:
1445            return f", {this_sql}"
1446
1447        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1448        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1449
1450    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1451        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1452        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1453        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1454
1455    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1456        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1457
1458        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1459            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1460
1461        if expression.args.get("view"):
1462            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1463            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1464            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1465            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1466            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1467            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1468
1469        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1470        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1471        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1472
1473    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1474        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1475        args = ", ".join(
1476            sql
1477            for sql in (
1478                self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1479                self.sql(expression, "expression"),
1480            )
1481            if sql
1482        )
1483        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args}"
1484
1485    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1486        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1487        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1488
1489    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1490        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1491        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1492        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1493        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1494        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1495        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1496        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1497        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1498
1499    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1500        expressions = (
1501            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1502        )
1503        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1504        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1505
1506    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1507        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1508
1509    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1510        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1511            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1512            return ""
1513
1514        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1515        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1516        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1517        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1518
1519        if wait is not None:
1520            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1521                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1522            else:
1523                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1524
1525        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1526
1527    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1528        text = expression.this or ""
1529        if expression.is_string:
1530            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1531        return text
1532
1533    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1534        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1535        if self.ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK:
1536            text = text.replace("\n", "\\n")
1537        elif self.pretty:
1538            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1539        return text
1540
1541    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1542        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1543        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1544        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1545        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1546        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1547        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1548        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1549        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1550        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1551        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1552        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1553
1554    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1555        return "NULL"
1556
1557    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1558        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1559
1560    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1561        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1562        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1563        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1564
1565    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1566        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1567
1568    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1569        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1570
1571    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1572        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1573
1574    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1575        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1576        asc = not desc
1577
1578        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1579        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1580        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1581        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1582        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1583
1584        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1585        nulls_sort_change = ""
1586        if nulls_first and (
1587            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1588        ):
1589            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1590        elif (
1591            nulls_last
1592            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1593            and not nulls_are_last
1594        ):
1595            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1596
1597        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1598            self.unsupported(
1599                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1600            )
1601            nulls_sort_change = ""
1602
1603        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1604
1605    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1606        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1607        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1608        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1609        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1610        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1611        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1612        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1613        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1614        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1615        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1616        definition_sqls = [
1617            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1618            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1619        ]
1620        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1621        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1622        body = "".join(
1623            (
1624                partition,
1625                order,
1626                measures,
1627                rows,
1628                after,
1629                pattern,
1630                define,
1631            )
1632        )
1633        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1634        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1635        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1636
1637    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1638        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1639
1640        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1641        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1642
1643        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1644            limit = exp.Limit(expression=limit.args.get("count"))
1645        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1646            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=limit.expression)
1647
1648        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1649
1650        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1651            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1652            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1653            else []
1654        )
1655
1656        return csv(
1657            *sqls,
1658            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1659            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1660            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1661            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1662            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1663            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1664            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1665            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1666            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1667            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1668            sep="",
1669        )
1670
1671    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1672        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1673    ) -> t.List[str]:
1674        return [
1675            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1676            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1677        ]
1678
1679    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1680        return [
1681            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1682            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1683            if expression.args.get("windows")
1684            else "",
1685            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1686            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1687            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1688        ]
1689
1690    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1691        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1692        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1693        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1694
1695    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1696        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1697        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1698        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1699        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1700        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1701        top = (
1702            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1703            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1704            else ""
1705        )
1706
1707        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1708
1709        if kind:
1710            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1711                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1712            else:
1713                if kind == "STRUCT":
1714                    expressions = self.expressions(
1715                        sqls=[
1716                            self.sql(
1717                                exp.Struct(
1718                                    expressions=[
1719                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1720                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1721                                        )
1722                                        for e in expression.expressions
1723                                    ]
1724                                )
1725                            )
1726                        ]
1727                    )
1728                kind = ""
1729
1730        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1731        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1732            expression,
1733            f"SELECT{top}{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1734            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1735            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1736        )
1737        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1738
1739    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1740        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1741        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1742        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1743        return f"{this}{sql}"
1744
1745    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1746        return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1747
1748    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1749        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1750        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1751        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1752        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1753        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
1754
1755    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1756        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1757        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1758        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
1759
1760    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1761        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1762        kind = expression.text("kind")
1763        if kind:
1764            kind = f"{kind}."
1765        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
1766
1767    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1768        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
1769
1770    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1771        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1772        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1773
1774        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1775        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1776
1777        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1778        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1779
1780    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1781        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1782        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1783
1784    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1785        return self.prepend_ctes(
1786            expression,
1787            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1788        )
1789
1790    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1791        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1792        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1793        return f"UNION{kind}"
1794
1795    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1796        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1797        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1798        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1799            columns = alias.columns
1800            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1801        else:
1802            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1803        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1804        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1805        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1806        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1807        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
1808
1809    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1810        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1811        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1812
1813    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1814        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1815        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1816        order = expression.args.get("order")
1817        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1818        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1819        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1820        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1821
1822        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1823
1824        first = expression.args.get("first")
1825        if first is None:
1826            first = ""
1827        else:
1828            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1829
1830        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1831            return f"{this} {alias}"
1832
1833        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1834        return f"{this} ({args})"
1835
1836    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1837        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1838        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
1839
1840    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1841        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1842        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1843        end = (
1844            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1845            or "CURRENT ROW"
1846        )
1847        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
1848
1849    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1850        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1851        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1852        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
1853
1854    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1855        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1856        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1857        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1858        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
1859
1860    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1861        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
1862        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1863
1864        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
1865
1866    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
1867        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
1868
1869    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1870        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
1871
1872    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1873        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1874        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1875            this = self.wrap(this)
1876        return f"ANY {this}"
1877
1878    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1879        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
1880
1881    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1882        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1883        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1884
1885        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1886            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1887            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1888
1889        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1890
1891        if default:
1892            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1893
1894        statements.append("END")
1895
1896        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
1897            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1898
1899        return " ".join(statements)
1900
1901    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1902        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1903        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1904        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
1905
1906    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1907        order = expression.args.get("order")
1908        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1909        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
1910
1911    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1912        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1913        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1914        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
1915
1916    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1917        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1918
1919        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1920            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1921        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1922            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1923        else:
1924            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
1925
1926    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
1927        expressions = expression.expressions
1928        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
1929            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
1930        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
1931
1932    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1933        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1934        return f"CHECK ({this})"
1935
1936    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1937        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1938        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1939        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1940        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
1941        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
1942        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
1943        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
1944        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
1945
1946    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1947        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1948        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1949        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1950        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
1951
1952    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
1953        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
1954
1955    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1956        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
1957        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
1958        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
1959
1960    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1961        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1962
1963    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
1964        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
1965        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
1966        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
1967        if unique_keys is not None:
1968            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
1969        else:
1970            unique_keys = ""
1971        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
1972        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
1973        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
1974        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
1975        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
1976        return self.func(
1977            "JSON_OBJECT",
1978            *expression.expressions,
1979            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})",
1980        )
1981
1982    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
1983        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1984        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1985        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1986        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
1987        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
1988        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
1989
1990    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
1991        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1992        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1993        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
1994        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1995        with_ = (
1996            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1997            if expressions
1998            else ""
1999        )
2000        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2001
2002    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2003        query = expression.args.get("query")
2004        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2005        field = expression.args.get("field")
2006        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2007
2008        if query:
2009            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2010        elif unnest:
2011            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2012        elif field:
2013            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2014        else:
2015            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2016
2017        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2018
2019    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2020        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2021
2022    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2023        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2024        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2025            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
2026        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2027
2028        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2029            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2030            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2031
2032        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2033        if this:
2034            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2035            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2036
2037        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2038
2039    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2040        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2041
2042    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2043        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2044        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2045        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2046        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2047        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2048        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2049
2050    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2051        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
2052
2053    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2054        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2055            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2056        else:
2057            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2058            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2059
2060        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2061
2062    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2063        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2064        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2065        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2066        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2067
2068    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2069        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2070
2071    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2072        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2073        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2074        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2075
2076    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2077        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2078
2079    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2080        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2081        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2082        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2083
2084    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2085        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2086
2087    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2088        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
2089
2090    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2091        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
2092
2093    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2094        if not self.pretty:
2095            return self.binary(expression, op)
2096
2097        sqls = tuple(
2098            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2099            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2100        )
2101
2102        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2103        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
2104
2105    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2106        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2107
2108    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2109        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2110
2111    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2112        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2113
2114    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2115        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2116
2117    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2118        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2119
2120    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2121        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2122
2123    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2124        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2125        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2126        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')}{format_sql})"
2127
2128    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2129        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2130        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2131
2132    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2133        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2134
2135    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2136        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2137
2138    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2139        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2140        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2141        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2142        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2143        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2144
2145    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2146        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2147        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2148        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2149        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2150        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2151        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2152        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2153        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2154        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2155
2156    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2157        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2158        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2159        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2160        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2161
2162        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2163            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2164
2165        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2166
2167    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2168        return "BEGIN"
2169
2170    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2171        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2172        if chain is not None:
2173            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2174
2175        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2176
2177    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2178        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2179        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2180        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2181
2182    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2183        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2184
2185        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2186        if dtype:
2187            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2188            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2189            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2190            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2191            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2192
2193        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2194        if default:
2195            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2196
2197        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2198            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2199
2200        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2201
2202    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2203        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2204            # Remove db from tables
2205            expression = expression.transform(
2206                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2207            )
2208        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2209        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2210
2211    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2212        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2213
2214        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2215            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMN ")
2216        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2217            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2218        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2219            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2220        else:
2221            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2222
2223        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2224        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2225
2226    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2227        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2228        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2229        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2230
2231    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2232        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2233        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2234        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2235
2236        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2237        if enforced is not None:
2238            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2239
2240        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2241
2242    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2243        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2244        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2245
2246        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2247        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2248        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2249
2250    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2251        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2252
2253    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2254        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2255
2256    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2257        return self.sql(
2258            exp.Cast(
2259                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2260                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2261            )
2262        )
2263
2264    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2265        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2266
2267    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2268        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2269            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2270        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
2271
2272    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2273        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2274
2275    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2276        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2277
2278    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2279        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2280
2281    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2282        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2283
2284    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2285        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2286
2287    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2288        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2289
2290    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2291        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2292
2293    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2294        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2295
2296    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2297        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2298
2299    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2300        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2301
2302    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2303        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2304
2305    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2306        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2307            return self.sql(
2308                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2309            )
2310        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2311
2312    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2313        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2314
2315    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2316        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2317
2318    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2319        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2320
2321    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2322        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2323
2324    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2325        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2326
2327    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2328        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2329
2330    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2331        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2332
2333    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2334        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2335
2336    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2337        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2338
2339    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2340        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2341
2342    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2343        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2344
2345    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2346        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2347
2348    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2349        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2350
2351    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2352        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
2353
2354    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2355        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2356        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2357        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2358        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2359        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2360
2361    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2362        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2363        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2364
2365    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2366        args = []
2367
2368        for key in expression.arg_types:
2369            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2370
2371            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2372                for value in arg_value:
2373                    args.append(value)
2374            elif arg_value is not None:
2375                args.append(arg_value)
2376
2377        return self.func(expression.sql_name(), *args)
2378
2379    def func(
2380        self,
2381        name: str,
2382        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2383        prefix: str = "(",
2384        suffix: str = ")",
2385    ) -> str:
2386        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2387
2388    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2389        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2390        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2391            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2392        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2393
2394    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2395        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2396
2397    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2398        return format_time(
2399            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2400        )
2401
2402    def expressions(
2403        self,
2404        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2405        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2406        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2407        flat: bool = False,
2408        indent: bool = True,
2409        skip_first: bool = False,
2410        sep: str = ", ",
2411        prefix: str = "",
2412    ) -> str:
2413        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2414
2415        if not expressions:
2416            return ""
2417
2418        if flat:
2419            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2420
2421        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2422
2423        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2424        pad = " " * self.pad
2425        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2426
2427        result_sqls = []
2428        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2429            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2430            if not sql:
2431                continue
2432
2433            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2434
2435            if self.pretty:
2436                if self.leading_comma:
2437                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2438                else:
2439                    result_sqls.append(
2440                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2441                    )
2442            else:
2443                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2444
2445        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2446        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
2447
2448    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2449        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2450        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2451        if flat:
2452            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2453        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2454
2455    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2456        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2457        if not property_name:
2458            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2459        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2460
2461    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2462        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2463        op = self.seg(op)
2464        return self.query_modifiers(
2465            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2466        )
2467
2468    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2469        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2470
2471    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2472        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2473
2474    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2475        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2476        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2477        expressions = (
2478            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2479        )
2480        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2481
2482    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2483        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2484        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2485        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2486
2487    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2488        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2489
2490    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2491        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2492        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2493        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2494        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2495
2496        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2497        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2498            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2499            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2500                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2501        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2502            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2503                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2504            else:
2505                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2506        else:
2507            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2508        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2509
2510    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2511        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2512        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2513        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2514        return f"MERGE INTO {this} {using} {on} {self.expressions(expression, sep=' ')}"
2515
2516    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2517        if expression.args.get("format"):
2518            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2519
2520        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2521
2522    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2523        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2524        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2525        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2526        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2527        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2528
2529    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2530        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2531        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2532        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2533        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2534
2535    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2536        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
2537
2538    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2539        return ""
2540
2541    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2542        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2543        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2544        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2545        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2546        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
2547
2548    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2549        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2550        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2551
2552        if having:
2553            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2554
2555        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
2556
2557    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2558        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2559        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2560        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2561        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2562        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2563        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2564        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2565        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2566        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2567        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2568        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2569        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
2570        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
2571
2572    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2573        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
2574        if key_block_size:
2575            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
2576
2577        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2578        if using:
2579            return f"USING {using}"
2580
2581        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
2582        if parser:
2583            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
2584
2585        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2586        if comment:
2587            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
2588
2589        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
2590        if visible is not None:
2591            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
2592
2593        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
2594        if engine_attr:
2595            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
2596
2597        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
2598        if secondary_engine_attr:
2599            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
2600
2601        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
2602        return ""
2603
2604    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2605        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2606        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
2607        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2608        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2609        type_ = self.sql(expression, "type")
2610        type_ = f" USING {type_}" if type_ else ""
2611        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2612        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
2613        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
2614        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2615        return f"{kind}{this}{type_}{schema}{options}"
2616
2617
2618def cached_generator(
2619    cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
2620) -> t.Callable[[exp.Expression], str]:
2621    """Returns a cached generator."""
2622    cache = {} if cache is None else cache
2623    generator = Generator(normalize=True, identify="safe")
2624    return lambda e: generator.generate(e, cache)
logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
class Generator:
  16class Generator:
  17    """
  18    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  19
  20    Args:
  21        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  22            Default: False.
  23        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  24            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  25            True or 'always': Always quote.
  26            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  27        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  28            Default: False.
  29        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  30            Default: 2.
  31        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  32            Default: 2.
  33        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  34            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  35            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  36            False: Disables function name normalization.
  37        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  38            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  39        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  40            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  41            Default: 3
  42        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  43            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  44            Default: False
  45        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  46            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  47            line length.
  48            Default: 80
  49        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  50            Default: True
  51    """
  52
  53    TRANSFORMS = {
  54        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  55            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  56        ),
  57        exp.TsOrDsAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  58            "TS_OR_DS_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  59        ),
  60        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  61        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  62        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  63        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  64        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  65        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  66        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  67        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  68        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  69        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  70        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  71        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  72        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  73        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  74        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  75        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  76        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  77        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  78        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  79        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  80        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  81        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  82        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  83        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  84        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
  85        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
  86        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
  87        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
  88        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
  89        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
  91        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
  92        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
  93        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94    }
  95
  96    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
  97    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
  98
  99    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 100    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 101
 102    # Always do union distinct or union all
 103    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 104
 105    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 106    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 107
 108    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 109    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 110
 111    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 112    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 113
 114    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 115    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 116
 117    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 118    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 119
 120    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 121    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 122
 123    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 124    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 125
 126    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 127    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 128
 129    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 130    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 131
 132    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 133    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 134
 135    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 136    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 137
 138    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 139    JOIN_HINTS = True
 140
 141    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 142    TABLE_HINTS = True
 143
 144    # Whether or not query hints should be generated
 145    QUERY_HINTS = True
 146
 147    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 148    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 149
 150    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 151    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 152
 153    # Whether or not to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 154    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 155
 156    # Whether or not to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 157    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 158
 159    # Whether or not to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 160    RETURNING_END = True
 161
 162    # Whether or not to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 163    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 164
 165    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 166    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 167
 168    # Whether or not VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 169    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 170    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 171    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 172
 173    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 174        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 175        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 176        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 177        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 178        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 179        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 180        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 181    }
 182
 183    STAR_MAPPING = {
 184        "except": "EXCEPT",
 185        "replace": "REPLACE",
 186    }
 187
 188    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 189        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 190        "seconds": "second",
 191        "minutes": "minute",
 192        "hours": "hour",
 193        "days": "day",
 194        "weeks": "week",
 195        "months": "month",
 196        "quarters": "quarter",
 197        "years": "year",
 198    }
 199
 200    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 201
 202    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 203
 204    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 205
 206    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 207        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 208        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 209        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 210        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 211        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 212        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 213        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 214        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 215        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 216        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 217        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 218        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 219        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 220        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 221        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 222        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 223        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 224        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 225        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 226        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 227        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 228        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 229        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 230        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 231        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 232        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 233        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 234        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 235        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 236        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 237        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 238        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 239        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 240        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 241        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 242        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 243        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 244        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 245        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 246        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 247        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 248        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 249        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 250        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 251        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 252        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 253        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 254        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 255        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 256        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 257        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 258        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 259        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 260        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 261        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 262    }
 263
 264    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 265    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 266
 267    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 268    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 269        exp.Delete,
 270        exp.Drop,
 271        exp.From,
 272        exp.Insert,
 273        exp.Select,
 274        exp.Update,
 275        exp.Where,
 276        exp.With,
 277    )
 278
 279    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 280    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 281        exp.Column,
 282        exp.Literal,
 283        exp.Neg,
 284        exp.Paren,
 285    )
 286
 287    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 288
 289    # Autofilled
 290    INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 291    INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: t.Dict = {}
 292    INDEX_OFFSET = 0
 293    UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
 294    ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
 295    IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
 296    STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
 297    NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = "upper"
 298    NULL_ORDERING = "nulls_are_small"
 299    ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK = False
 300
 301    can_identify: t.Callable[[str, str | bool], bool]
 302
 303    # Delimiters for quotes, identifiers and the corresponding escape characters
 304    QUOTE_START = "'"
 305    QUOTE_END = "'"
 306    IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
 307    IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
 308    STRING_ESCAPE = "'"
 309    IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE = '"'
 310
 311    # Delimiters for bit, hex, byte and raw literals
 312    BIT_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 313    BIT_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 314    HEX_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 315    HEX_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 316    BYTE_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 317    BYTE_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 318
 319    __slots__ = (
 320        "pretty",
 321        "identify",
 322        "normalize",
 323        "pad",
 324        "_indent",
 325        "normalize_functions",
 326        "unsupported_level",
 327        "max_unsupported",
 328        "leading_comma",
 329        "max_text_width",
 330        "comments",
 331        "unsupported_messages",
 332        "_escaped_quote_end",
 333        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 334        "_cache",
 335    )
 336
 337    def __init__(
 338        self,
 339        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 340        identify: str | bool = False,
 341        normalize: bool = False,
 342        pad: int = 2,
 343        indent: int = 2,
 344        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 345        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 346        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 347        leading_comma: bool = False,
 348        max_text_width: int = 80,
 349        comments: bool = True,
 350    ):
 351        import sqlglot
 352
 353        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 354        self.identify = identify
 355        self.normalize = normalize
 356        self.pad = pad
 357        self._indent = indent
 358        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 359        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 360        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 361        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 362        self.comments = comments
 363
 364        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 365        self.normalize_functions = (
 366            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 367        )
 368
 369        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 370        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.STRING_ESCAPE + self.QUOTE_END
 371        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = self.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE + self.IDENTIFIER_END
 372        self._cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
 373
 374    def generate(
 375        self,
 376        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
 377        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
 378    ) -> str:
 379        """
 380        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 381
 382        Args:
 383            expression: The syntax tree.
 384            cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression
 385                which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
 386
 387        Returns:
 388            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 389        """
 390        if cache is not None:
 391            self._cache = cache
 392
 393        self.unsupported_messages = []
 394        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 395        self._cache = None
 396
 397        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 398            return sql
 399
 400        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 401            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 402                logger.warning(msg)
 403        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 404            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 405
 406        if self.pretty:
 407            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 408        return sql
 409
 410    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 411        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 412            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 413        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 414
 415    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 416        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 417
 418    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 419        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 420
 421    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 422        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 423        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 424        return comment
 425
 426    def maybe_comment(
 427        self,
 428        sql: str,
 429        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 430        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 431    ) -> str:
 432        comments = (
 433            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 434            if self.comments
 435            else None
 436        )
 437
 438        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
 439            return sql
 440
 441        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
 442        comments_sql = sep.join(
 443            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 444        )
 445
 446        if not comments_sql:
 447            return sql
 448
 449        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 450            return (
 451                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 452                if sql[0].isspace()
 453                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 454            )
 455
 456        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 457
 458    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 459        this_sql = self.indent(
 460            self.sql(expression)
 461            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 462            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 463            level=1,
 464            pad=0,
 465        )
 466        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 467
 468    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 469        original = self.identify
 470        self.identify = False
 471        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 472        self.identify = original
 473        return result
 474
 475    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 476        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 477            return name.upper()
 478        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 479            return name.lower()
 480        return name
 481
 482    def indent(
 483        self,
 484        sql: str,
 485        level: int = 0,
 486        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 487        skip_first: bool = False,
 488        skip_last: bool = False,
 489    ) -> str:
 490        if not self.pretty:
 491            return sql
 492
 493        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 494        lines = sql.split("\n")
 495
 496        return "\n".join(
 497            line
 498            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 499            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 500            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 501        )
 502
 503    def sql(
 504        self,
 505        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 506        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 507        comment: bool = True,
 508    ) -> str:
 509        if not expression:
 510            return ""
 511
 512        if isinstance(expression, str):
 513            return expression
 514
 515        if key:
 516            value = expression.args.get(key)
 517            if value:
 518                return self.sql(value)
 519            return ""
 520
 521        if self._cache is not None:
 522            expression_id = hash(expression)
 523
 524            if expression_id in self._cache:
 525                return self._cache[expression_id]
 526
 527        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 528
 529        if callable(transform):
 530            sql = transform(self, expression)
 531        elif transform:
 532            sql = transform
 533        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 534            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 535
 536            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 537                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 538            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 539                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 540            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 541                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 542            else:
 543                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 544        else:
 545            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 546
 547        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 548
 549        if self._cache is not None:
 550            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
 551        return sql
 552
 553    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 554        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 555        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 556        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 557
 558    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 559        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 560        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 561        options = expression.args.get("options")
 562        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 563        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 564        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 565        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 566        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 567
 568    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 569        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 570            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 571        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 572        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 573
 574    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 575        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 576
 577        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 578            join_mark = ""
 579            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 580
 581        column = ".".join(
 582            self.sql(part)
 583            for part in (
 584                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 585                expression.args.get("db"),
 586                expression.args.get("table"),
 587                expression.args.get("this"),
 588            )
 589            if part
 590        )
 591
 592        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 593
 594    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 595        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 596        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 597        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 598        return f"{position}{this}"
 599
 600    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 601        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 602        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 603        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 604        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 605        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 606        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 607        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 608        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 609
 610        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 611
 612    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 613        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 614        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 615        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 616
 617    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 618        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 619
 620    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 621        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 622            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 623        else:
 624            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 625
 626        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 627
 628    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 629        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 630    ) -> str:
 631        this = ""
 632        if expression.this is not None:
 633            on_null = "ON NULL " if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 634            this = " ALWAYS " if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT {on_null}"
 635
 636        start = expression.args.get("start")
 637        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 638        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 639        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 640        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 641        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 642        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 643        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 644        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 645        cycle_sql = ""
 646
 647        if cycle is not None:
 648            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 649            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 650
 651        sequence_opts = ""
 652        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 653            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 654            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 655
 656        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 657        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 658
 659        return f"GENERATED{this}AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 660
 661    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 662        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 663
 664    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 665        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 666        if desc is not None:
 667            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 668        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 669
 670    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 671        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 672        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 673        return f"UNIQUE{this}"
 674
 675    def createable_sql(
 676        self, expression: exp.Create, locations: dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]
 677    ) -> str:
 678        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 679
 680    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 681        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 682        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 683        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else {}
 684
 685        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 686
 687        properties_sql = ""
 688        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 689            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 690        ):
 691            properties_sql = self.sql(
 692                exp.Properties(
 693                    expressions=[
 694                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 695                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 696                    ]
 697                )
 698            )
 699
 700        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 701        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 702        if expression_sql:
 703            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
 704
 705            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 706                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 707                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 708                        exp.Properties(
 709                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 710                        ),
 711                        wrapped=False,
 712                    )
 713                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 714                else:
 715                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 716
 717        postindex_props_sql = ""
 718        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 719            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 720                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 721                wrapped=False,
 722                prefix=" ",
 723            )
 724
 725        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 726        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 727        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 728
 729        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 730        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 731
 732        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 733        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 734            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 735                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 736                sep=" ",
 737                prefix=" ",
 738                wrapped=False,
 739            )
 740
 741        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 742
 743        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 744        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 745            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 746                exp.Properties(
 747                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 748                ),
 749                sep=" ",
 750                prefix=" ",
 751                wrapped=False,
 752            )
 753
 754        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 755        no_schema_binding = (
 756            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 757        )
 758
 759        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 760        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 761
 762        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 763        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 764
 765    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 766        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 767        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 768
 769        if when:
 770            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 771            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 772            return f"CLONE {this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 773
 774        return f"CLONE {this}"
 775
 776    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 777        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 778
 779    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 780        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 781        if with_:
 782            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 783        return sql
 784
 785    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 786        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 787        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
 788
 789        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 790
 791    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 792        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 793        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 794
 795    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 796        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 797        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 798        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 799        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 800
 801    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 802        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 803        if self.BIT_START:
 804            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
 805        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 806
 807    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 808        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 809        if self.HEX_START:
 810            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
 811        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 812
 813    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 814        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 815        if self.BYTE_START:
 816            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
 817        return this
 818
 819    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 820        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
 821        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
 822
 823    def datatypesize_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeSize) -> str:
 824        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 825        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 826        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
 827        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 828
 829    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 830        type_value = expression.this
 831        type_sql = (
 832            self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 833            if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
 834            else type_value
 835        )
 836        nested = ""
 837        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 838        values = ""
 839        if interior:
 840            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 841                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 842                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 843                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 844                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 845                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 846            else:
 847                nested = f"({interior})"
 848
 849        return f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 850
 851    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 852        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 853        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 854        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 855        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
 856
 857    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 858        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 859        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 860        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 861        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
 862        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
 863        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
 864        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
 865        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
 866        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
 867        if self.RETURNING_END:
 868            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
 869        else:
 870            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
 871        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
 872
 873    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
 874        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 875        kind = expression.args["kind"]
 876        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
 877        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
 878        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
 879        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
 880        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
 881        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
 882        return (
 883            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
 884        )
 885
 886    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 887        return self.prepend_ctes(
 888            expression,
 889            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
 890        )
 891
 892    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 893        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
 894
 895    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
 896        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
 897        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
 898        count = expression.args.get("count")
 899        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
 900        if expression.args.get("percent"):
 901            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
 902        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
 903        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
 904
 905    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
 906        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 907        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
 908        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
 909
 910    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
 911        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
 912            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
 913            return ""
 914
 915        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
 916
 917    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
 918        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 919        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
 920        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
 921        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
 922        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
 923        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
 924        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table} " if table else ""
 925        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 926        using = f"USING {using} " if using else ""
 927        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
 928        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 929        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 930        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
 931        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
 932        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}"
 933
 934    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
 935        text = expression.name
 936        lower = text.lower()
 937        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
 938        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
 939        if (
 940            expression.quoted
 941            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
 942            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
 943            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
 944        ):
 945            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
 946        return text
 947
 948    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
 949        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
 950        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
 951        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
 952        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
 953        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
 954
 955    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
 956        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
 957        return f"{prefix}{string}"
 958
 959    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
 960        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
 961
 962    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
 963        root_properties = []
 964        with_properties = []
 965
 966        for p in expression.expressions:
 967            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
 968            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
 969                with_properties.append(p)
 970            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
 971                root_properties.append(p)
 972
 973        return self.root_properties(
 974            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
 975        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
 976
 977    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
 978        if properties.expressions:
 979            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
 980        return ""
 981
 982    def properties(
 983        self,
 984        properties: exp.Properties,
 985        prefix: str = "",
 986        sep: str = ", ",
 987        suffix: str = "",
 988        wrapped: bool = True,
 989    ) -> str:
 990        if properties.expressions:
 991            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
 992            if expressions:
 993                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
 994                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
 995        return ""
 996
 997    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
 998        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
 999
1000    def locate_properties(
1001        self, properties: exp.Properties
1002    ) -> t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]:
1003        properties_locs: t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]] = {
1004            key: [] for key in exp.Properties.Location
1005        }
1006
1007        for p in properties.expressions:
1008            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1009            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME:
1010                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME].append(p)
1011            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX:
1012                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX].append(p)
1013            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1014                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA].append(p)
1015            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1016                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH].append(p)
1017            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE:
1018                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE].append(p)
1019            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS:
1020                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS].append(p)
1021            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION:
1022                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION].append(p)
1023            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1024                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1025
1026        return properties_locs
1027
1028    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1029        property_cls = expression.__class__
1030        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1031            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1032
1033        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1034        if not property_name:
1035            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1036
1037        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1038
1039    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1040        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1041        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1042        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1043
1044    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1045        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1046        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1047        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1048
1049    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1050        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1051        local = expression.args.get("local")
1052        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1053        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1054        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1055        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1056        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1057
1058    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1059        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1060        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1061        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1062
1063    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1064        if expression.args.get("default"):
1065            property = "DEFAULT"
1066        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1067            property = "ON"
1068        else:
1069            property = "OFF"
1070        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1071
1072    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1073        if expression.args.get("no"):
1074            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1075        if expression.args.get("default"):
1076            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1077
1078        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1079        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1080
1081    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1082        default = expression.args.get("default")
1083        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1084        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1085        if default or minimum or maximum:
1086            if default:
1087                prop = "DEFAULT"
1088            elif minimum:
1089                prop = "MINIMUM"
1090            else:
1091                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1092            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1093        units = expression.args.get("units")
1094        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1095        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1096
1097    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1098        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1099        always = expression.args.get("always")
1100        default = expression.args.get("default")
1101        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1102        never = expression.args.get("never")
1103
1104        if autotemp is not None:
1105            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1106        elif always:
1107            prop = "ALWAYS"
1108        elif default:
1109            prop = "DEFAULT"
1110        elif manual:
1111            prop = "MANUAL"
1112        elif never:
1113            prop = "NEVER"
1114        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1115
1116    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1117        no = expression.args.get("no")
1118        no = " NO" if no else ""
1119        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1120        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1121
1122        for_ = ""
1123        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1124            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1125        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1126            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1127        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1128            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1129        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1130
1131    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1132        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1133        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1134        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1135        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1136        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1137        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1138
1139    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1140        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1141        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1142        statistics_sql = ""
1143        if statistics is not None:
1144            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1145        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1146
1147    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1148        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1149
1150        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1151            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1152        else:
1153            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1154
1155        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1156        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1157        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1158
1159        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1160
1161        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1162        partition_sql = (
1163            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1164        )
1165        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1166        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1167        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1168        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1169        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1170
1171        if self.RETURNING_END:
1172            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1173        else:
1174            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1175
1176        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1177        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1178
1179    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1180        return self.prepend_ctes(
1181            expression,
1182            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1183        )
1184
1185    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1186        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1187
1188    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1189        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1190
1191    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1192        return expression.name.upper()
1193
1194    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1195        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1196        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1197        if constraint:
1198            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1199        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1200        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1201        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1202        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1203        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1204        if expressions:
1205            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1206        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1207
1208    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1209        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1210
1211    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1212        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1213        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1214        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1215        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1216        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1217        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1218        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1219        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1220        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1221        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1222        null = expression.args.get("null")
1223        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1224        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1225
1226    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1227        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1228
1229    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1230        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1231        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1232        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1233        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1234
1235    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1236        table = ".".join(
1237            part
1238            for part in [
1239                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1240                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1241                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1242            ]
1243            if part
1244        )
1245
1246        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1247        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1248        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1249        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1250        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1251        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1252        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1253        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1254        system_time = expression.args.get("system_time")
1255        system_time = f" {self.sql(expression, 'system_time')}" if system_time else ""
1256
1257        return f"{table}{system_time}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
1258
1259    def tablesample_sql(
1260        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1261    ) -> str:
1262        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1263            table = expression.this.copy()
1264            table.set("alias", None)
1265            this = self.sql(table)
1266            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1267        else:
1268            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1269            alias = ""
1270        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1271        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1272        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1273        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1274        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1275        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1276        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1277        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1278        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1279        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1280        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1281        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1282        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1283            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1284        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1285        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1286        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1287        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
1288
1289    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1290        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1291
1292        if expression.this:
1293            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1294            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1295            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1296            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1297            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1298            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1299
1300        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1301        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1302        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1303        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1304        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1305        return f"{direction}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1306
1307    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1308        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1309
1310    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1311        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1312        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1313        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1314        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1315        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1316        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1317        if self.RETURNING_END:
1318            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}{limit}"
1319        else:
1320            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}{limit}"
1321        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}"
1322        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1323
1324    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1325        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1326        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1327            args = self.expressions(expression)
1328            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1329            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1330            values = (
1331                f"({values})"
1332                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1333                else values
1334            )
1335            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1336
1337        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1338        # Note: If you have a lot of unions then this will result in a large number of recursive statements to
1339        # evaluate the expression. You may need to increase `sys.setrecursionlimit` to run and it can also be
1340        # very slow.
1341        expression = expression.copy()
1342        column_names = expression.alias and expression.args["alias"].columns
1343
1344        selects = []
1345
1346        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1347            row = tup.expressions
1348
1349            if i == 0 and column_names:
1350                row = [
1351                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1352                ]
1353
1354            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1355
1356        subquery_expression: exp.Select | exp.Union = selects[0]
1357        if len(selects) > 1:
1358            for select in selects[1:]:
1359                subquery_expression = exp.union(
1360                    subquery_expression, select, distinct=False, copy=False
1361                )
1362
1363        return self.subquery_sql(subquery_expression.subquery(expression.alias, copy=False))
1364
1365    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1366        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1367
1368    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1369        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1370        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1371        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1372
1373    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1374        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1375
1376    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1377        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1378
1379        if expression.args.get("all"):
1380            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1381
1382        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1383        grouping_sets = (
1384            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1385        )
1386
1387        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1388        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1389            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1390        else:
1391            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1392            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1393
1394        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1395        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1396            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1397        else:
1398            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1399            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1400
1401        groupings = csv(
1402            grouping_sets,
1403            cube_sql,
1404            rollup_sql,
1405            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1406            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1407        )
1408
1409        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1410            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1411
1412        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1413
1414    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1415        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1416        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1417
1418    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1419        op_sql = " ".join(
1420            op
1421            for op in (
1422                expression.method,
1423                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1424                expression.side,
1425                expression.kind,
1426                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1427            )
1428            if op
1429        )
1430        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1431        using = expression.args.get("using")
1432
1433        if not on_sql and using:
1434            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1435
1436        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1437
1438        if on_sql:
1439            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1440            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1441            if using:
1442                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1443            else:
1444                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1445        elif not op_sql:
1446            return f", {this_sql}"
1447
1448        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1449        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1450
1451    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1452        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1453        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1454        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1455
1456    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1457        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1458
1459        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1460            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1461
1462        if expression.args.get("view"):
1463            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1464            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1465            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1466            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1467            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1468            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1469
1470        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1471        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1472        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1473
1474    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1475        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1476        args = ", ".join(
1477            sql
1478            for sql in (
1479                self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1480                self.sql(expression, "expression"),
1481            )
1482            if sql
1483        )
1484        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args}"
1485
1486    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1487        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1488        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1489
1490    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1491        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1492        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1493        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1494        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1495        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1496        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1497        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1498        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1499
1500    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1501        expressions = (
1502            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1503        )
1504        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1505        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1506
1507    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1508        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1509
1510    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1511        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1512            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1513            return ""
1514
1515        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1516        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1517        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1518        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1519
1520        if wait is not None:
1521            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1522                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1523            else:
1524                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1525
1526        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1527
1528    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1529        text = expression.this or ""
1530        if expression.is_string:
1531            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1532        return text
1533
1534    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1535        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1536        if self.ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK:
1537            text = text.replace("\n", "\\n")
1538        elif self.pretty:
1539            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1540        return text
1541
1542    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1543        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1544        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1545        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1546        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1547        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1548        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1549        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1550        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1551        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1552        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1553        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1554
1555    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1556        return "NULL"
1557
1558    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1559        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1560
1561    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1562        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1563        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1564        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1565
1566    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1567        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1568
1569    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1570        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1571
1572    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1573        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1574
1575    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1576        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1577        asc = not desc
1578
1579        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1580        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1581        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1582        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1583        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1584
1585        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1586        nulls_sort_change = ""
1587        if nulls_first and (
1588            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1589        ):
1590            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1591        elif (
1592            nulls_last
1593            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1594            and not nulls_are_last
1595        ):
1596            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1597
1598        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1599            self.unsupported(
1600                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1601            )
1602            nulls_sort_change = ""
1603
1604        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1605
1606    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1607        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1608        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1609        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1610        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1611        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1612        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1613        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1614        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1615        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1616        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1617        definition_sqls = [
1618            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1619            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1620        ]
1621        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1622        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1623        body = "".join(
1624            (
1625                partition,
1626                order,
1627                measures,
1628                rows,
1629                after,
1630                pattern,
1631                define,
1632            )
1633        )
1634        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1635        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1636        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1637
1638    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1639        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1640
1641        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1642        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1643
1644        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1645            limit = exp.Limit(expression=limit.args.get("count"))
1646        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1647            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=limit.expression)
1648
1649        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1650
1651        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1652            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1653            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1654            else []
1655        )
1656
1657        return csv(
1658            *sqls,
1659            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1660            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1661            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1662            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1663            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1664            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1665            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1666            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1667            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1668            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1669            sep="",
1670        )
1671
1672    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1673        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1674    ) -> t.List[str]:
1675        return [
1676            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1677            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1678        ]
1679
1680    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1681        return [
1682            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1683            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1684            if expression.args.get("windows")
1685            else "",
1686            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1687            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1688            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1689        ]
1690
1691    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1692        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1693        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1694        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1695
1696    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1697        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1698        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1699        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1700        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1701        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1702        top = (
1703            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1704            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1705            else ""
1706        )
1707
1708        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1709
1710        if kind:
1711            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1712                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1713            else:
1714                if kind == "STRUCT":
1715                    expressions = self.expressions(
1716                        sqls=[
1717                            self.sql(
1718                                exp.Struct(
1719                                    expressions=[
1720                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1721                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1722                                        )
1723                                        for e in expression.expressions
1724                                    ]
1725                                )
1726                            )
1727                        ]
1728                    )
1729                kind = ""
1730
1731        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1732        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1733            expression,
1734            f"SELECT{top}{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1735            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1736            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1737        )
1738        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1739
1740    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1741        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1742        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1743        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1744        return f"{this}{sql}"
1745
1746    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1747        return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1748
1749    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1750        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1751        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1752        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1753        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1754        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
1755
1756    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1757        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1758        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1759        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
1760
1761    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1762        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1763        kind = expression.text("kind")
1764        if kind:
1765            kind = f"{kind}."
1766        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
1767
1768    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1769        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
1770
1771    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1772        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1773        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1774
1775        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1776        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1777
1778        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1779        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1780
1781    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1782        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1783        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1784
1785    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1786        return self.prepend_ctes(
1787            expression,
1788            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1789        )
1790
1791    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1792        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1793        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1794        return f"UNION{kind}"
1795
1796    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1797        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1798        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1799        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1800            columns = alias.columns
1801            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1802        else:
1803            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1804        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1805        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1806        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1807        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1808        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
1809
1810    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1811        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1812        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1813
1814    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1815        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1816        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1817        order = expression.args.get("order")
1818        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1819        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1820        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1821        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1822
1823        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1824
1825        first = expression.args.get("first")
1826        if first is None:
1827            first = ""
1828        else:
1829            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1830
1831        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1832            return f"{this} {alias}"
1833
1834        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1835        return f"{this} ({args})"
1836
1837    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1838        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1839        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
1840
1841    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1842        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1843        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1844        end = (
1845            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1846            or "CURRENT ROW"
1847        )
1848        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
1849
1850    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1851        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1852        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1853        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
1854
1855    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1856        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1857        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1858        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1859        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
1860
1861    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1862        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
1863        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1864
1865        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
1866
1867    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
1868        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
1869
1870    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1871        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
1872
1873    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1874        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1875        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1876            this = self.wrap(this)
1877        return f"ANY {this}"
1878
1879    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1880        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
1881
1882    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1883        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1884        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1885
1886        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1887            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1888            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1889
1890        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1891
1892        if default:
1893            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1894
1895        statements.append("END")
1896
1897        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
1898            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1899
1900        return " ".join(statements)
1901
1902    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1903        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1904        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1905        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
1906
1907    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1908        order = expression.args.get("order")
1909        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1910        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
1911
1912    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1913        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1914        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1915        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
1916
1917    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1918        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1919
1920        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1921            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1922        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1923            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1924        else:
1925            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
1926
1927    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
1928        expressions = expression.expressions
1929        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
1930            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
1931        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
1932
1933    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1934        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1935        return f"CHECK ({this})"
1936
1937    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1938        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1939        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1940        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1941        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
1942        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
1943        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
1944        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
1945        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
1946
1947    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1948        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1949        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1950        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1951        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
1952
1953    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
1954        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
1955
1956    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1957        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
1958        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
1959        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
1960
1961    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1962        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1963
1964    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
1965        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
1966        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
1967        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
1968        if unique_keys is not None:
1969            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
1970        else:
1971            unique_keys = ""
1972        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
1973        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
1974        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
1975        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
1976        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
1977        return self.func(
1978            "JSON_OBJECT",
1979            *expression.expressions,
1980            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})",
1981        )
1982
1983    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
1984        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1985        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1986        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1987        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
1988        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
1989        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
1990
1991    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
1992        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1993        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1994        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
1995        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1996        with_ = (
1997            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1998            if expressions
1999            else ""
2000        )
2001        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2002
2003    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2004        query = expression.args.get("query")
2005        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2006        field = expression.args.get("field")
2007        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2008
2009        if query:
2010            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2011        elif unnest:
2012            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2013        elif field:
2014            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2015        else:
2016            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2017
2018        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2019
2020    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2021        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2022
2023    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2024        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2025        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2026            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
2027        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2028
2029        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2030            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2031            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2032
2033        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2034        if this:
2035            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2036            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2037
2038        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2039
2040    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2041        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2042
2043    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2044        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2045        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2046        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2047        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2048        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2049        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2050
2051    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2052        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
2053
2054    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2055        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2056            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2057        else:
2058            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2059            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2060
2061        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2062
2063    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2064        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2065        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2066        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2067        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2068
2069    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2070        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2071
2072    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2073        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2074        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2075        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2076
2077    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2078        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2079
2080    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2081        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2082        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2083        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2084
2085    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2086        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2087
2088    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2089        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
2090
2091    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2092        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
2093
2094    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2095        if not self.pretty:
2096            return self.binary(expression, op)
2097
2098        sqls = tuple(
2099            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2100            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2101        )
2102
2103        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2104        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
2105
2106    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2107        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2108
2109    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2110        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2111
2112    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2113        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2114
2115    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2116        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2117
2118    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2119        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2120
2121    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2122        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2123
2124    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2125        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2126        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2127        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')}{format_sql})"
2128
2129    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2130        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2131        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2132
2133    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2134        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2135
2136    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2137        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2138
2139    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2140        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2141        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2142        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2143        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2144        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2145
2146    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2147        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2148        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2149        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2150        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2151        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2152        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2153        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2154        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2155        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2156
2157    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2158        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2159        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2160        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2161        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2162
2163        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2164            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2165
2166        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2167
2168    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2169        return "BEGIN"
2170
2171    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2172        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2173        if chain is not None:
2174            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2175
2176        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2177
2178    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2179        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2180        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2181        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2182
2183    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2184        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2185
2186        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2187        if dtype:
2188            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2189            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2190            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2191            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2192            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2193
2194        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2195        if default:
2196            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2197
2198        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2199            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2200
2201        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2202
2203    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2204        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2205            # Remove db from tables
2206            expression = expression.transform(
2207                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2208            )
2209        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2210        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2211
2212    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2213        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2214
2215        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2216            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMN ")
2217        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2218            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2219        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2220            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2221        else:
2222            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2223
2224        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2225        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2226
2227    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2228        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2229        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2230        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2231
2232    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2233        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2234        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2235        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2236
2237        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2238        if enforced is not None:
2239            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2240
2241        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2242
2243    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2244        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2245        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2246
2247        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2248        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2249        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2250
2251    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2252        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2253
2254    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2255        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2256
2257    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2258        return self.sql(
2259            exp.Cast(
2260                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2261                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2262            )
2263        )
2264
2265    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2266        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2267
2268    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2269        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2270            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2271        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
2272
2273    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2274        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2275
2276    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2277        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2278
2279    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2280        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2281
2282    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2283        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2284
2285    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2286        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2287
2288    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2289        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2290
2291    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2292        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2293
2294    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2295        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2296
2297    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2298        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2299
2300    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2301        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2302
2303    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2304        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2305
2306    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2307        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2308            return self.sql(
2309                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2310            )
2311        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2312
2313    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2314        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2315
2316    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2317        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2318
2319    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2320        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2321
2322    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2323        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2324
2325    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2326        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2327
2328    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2329        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2330
2331    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2332        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2333
2334    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2335        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2336
2337    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2338        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2339
2340    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2341        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2342
2343    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2344        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2345
2346    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2347        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2348
2349    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2350        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2351
2352    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2353        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
2354
2355    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2356        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2357        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2358        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2359        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2360        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2361
2362    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2363        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2364        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2365
2366    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2367        args = []
2368
2369        for key in expression.arg_types:
2370            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2371
2372            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2373                for value in arg_value:
2374                    args.append(value)
2375            elif arg_value is not None:
2376                args.append(arg_value)
2377
2378        return self.func(expression.sql_name(), *args)
2379
2380    def func(
2381        self,
2382        name: str,
2383        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2384        prefix: str = "(",
2385        suffix: str = ")",
2386    ) -> str:
2387        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2388
2389    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2390        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2391        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2392            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2393        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2394
2395    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2396        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2397
2398    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2399        return format_time(
2400            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2401        )
2402
2403    def expressions(
2404        self,
2405        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2406        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2407        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2408        flat: bool = False,
2409        indent: bool = True,
2410        skip_first: bool = False,
2411        sep: str = ", ",
2412        prefix: str = "",
2413    ) -> str:
2414        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2415
2416        if not expressions:
2417            return ""
2418
2419        if flat:
2420            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2421
2422        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2423
2424        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2425        pad = " " * self.pad
2426        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2427
2428        result_sqls = []
2429        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2430            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2431            if not sql:
2432                continue
2433
2434            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2435
2436            if self.pretty:
2437                if self.leading_comma:
2438                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2439                else:
2440                    result_sqls.append(
2441                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2442                    )
2443            else:
2444                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2445
2446        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2447        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
2448
2449    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2450        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2451        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2452        if flat:
2453            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2454        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2455
2456    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2457        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2458        if not property_name:
2459            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2460        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2461
2462    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2463        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2464        op = self.seg(op)
2465        return self.query_modifiers(
2466            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2467        )
2468
2469    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2470        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2471
2472    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2473        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2474
2475    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2476        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2477        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2478        expressions = (
2479            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2480        )
2481        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2482
2483    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2484        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2485        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2486        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2487
2488    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2489        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2490
2491    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2492        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2493        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2494        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2495        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2496
2497        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2498        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2499            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2500            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2501                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2502        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2503            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2504                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2505            else:
2506                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2507        else:
2508            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2509        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2510
2511    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2512        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2513        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2514        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2515        return f"MERGE INTO {this} {using} {on} {self.expressions(expression, sep=' ')}"
2516
2517    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2518        if expression.args.get("format"):
2519            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2520
2521        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2522
2523    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2524        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2525        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2526        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2527        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2528        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2529
2530    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2531        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2532        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2533        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2534        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2535
2536    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2537        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
2538
2539    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2540        return ""
2541
2542    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2543        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2544        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2545        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2546        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2547        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
2548
2549    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2550        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2551        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2552
2553        if having:
2554            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2555
2556        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
2557
2558    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2559        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2560        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2561        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2562        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2563        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2564        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2565        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2566        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2567        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2568        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2569        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2570        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
2571        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
2572
2573    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2574        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
2575        if key_block_size:
2576            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
2577
2578        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2579        if using:
2580            return f"USING {using}"
2581
2582        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
2583        if parser:
2584            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
2585
2586        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2587        if comment:
2588            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
2589
2590        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
2591        if visible is not None:
2592            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
2593
2594        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
2595        if engine_attr:
2596            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
2597
2598        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
2599        if secondary_engine_attr:
2600            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
2601
2602        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
2603        return ""
2604
2605    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2606        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2607        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
2608        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2609        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2610        type_ = self.sql(expression, "type")
2611        type_ = f" USING {type_}" if type_ else ""
2612        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2613        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
2614        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
2615        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2616        return f"{kind}{this}{type_}{schema}{options}"

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

Arguments:
  • pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
  • identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  • normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
  • pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
  • unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True)
337    def __init__(
338        self,
339        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
340        identify: str | bool = False,
341        normalize: bool = False,
342        pad: int = 2,
343        indent: int = 2,
344        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
345        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
346        max_unsupported: int = 3,
347        leading_comma: bool = False,
348        max_text_width: int = 80,
349        comments: bool = True,
350    ):
351        import sqlglot
352
353        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
354        self.identify = identify
355        self.normalize = normalize
356        self.pad = pad
357        self._indent = indent
358        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
359        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
360        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
361        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
362        self.comments = comments
363
364        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
365        self.normalize_functions = (
366            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
367        )
368
369        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
370        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.STRING_ESCAPE + self.QUOTE_END
371        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = self.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE + self.IDENTIFIER_END
372        self._cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
TRANSFORMS = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsAdd'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXPLICIT_UNION = False
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINT_SEP = ', '
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
RETURNING_END = True
COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET'}
STAR_MAPPING = {'except': 'EXCEPT', 'replace': 'REPLACE'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'microseconds': 'microsecond', 'seconds': 'second', 'minutes': 'minute', 'hours': 'hour', 'days': 'day', 'weeks': 'week', 'months': 'month', 'quarters': 'quarter', 'years': 'year'}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: Dict[str, str] = {}
INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: Dict = {}
INDEX_OFFSET = 0
UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = 'upper'
NULL_ORDERING = 'nulls_are_small'
ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK = False
@classmethod
def can_identify(text: str, identify: str | bool = 'safe') -> bool:
248    @classmethod
249    def can_identify(cls, text: str, identify: str | bool = "safe") -> bool:
250        """Checks if text can be identified given an identify option.
251
252        Args:
253            text: The text to check.
254            identify:
255                "always" or `True`: Always returns true.
256                "safe": True if the identifier is case-insensitive.
257
258        Returns:
259            Whether or not the given text can be identified.
260        """
261        if identify is True or identify == "always":
262            return True
263
264        if identify == "safe":
265            return not cls.case_sensitive(text)
266
267        return False

Checks if text can be identified given an identify option.

Arguments:
  • text: The text to check.
  • identify: "always" or True: Always returns true. "safe": True if the identifier is case-insensitive.
Returns:

Whether or not the given text can be identified.

QUOTE_START = "'"
QUOTE_END = "'"
IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
STRING_ESCAPE = "'"
IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE = '"'
BIT_START: Optional[str] = None
BIT_END: Optional[str] = None
HEX_START: Optional[str] = None
HEX_END: Optional[str] = None
BYTE_START: Optional[str] = None
BYTE_END: Optional[str] = None
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], cache: Optional[Dict[int, str]] = None) -> str:
374    def generate(
375        self,
376        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
377        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
378    ) -> str:
379        """
380        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
381
382        Args:
383            expression: The syntax tree.
384            cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression
385                which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
386
387        Returns:
388            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
389        """
390        if cache is not None:
391            self._cache = cache
392
393        self.unsupported_messages = []
394        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
395        self._cache = None
396
397        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
398            return sql
399
400        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
401            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
402                logger.warning(msg)
403        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
404            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
405
406        if self.pretty:
407            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
408        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

Arguments:
  • expression: The syntax tree.
  • cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
Returns:

The SQL string corresponding to expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
410    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
411        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
412            raise UnsupportedError(message)
413        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
415    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
416        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
418    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
419        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
421    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
422        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
423        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
424        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None) -> str:
426    def maybe_comment(
427        self,
428        sql: str,
429        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
430        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
431    ) -> str:
432        comments = (
433            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
434            if self.comments
435            else None
436        )
437
438        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
439            return sql
440
441        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
442        comments_sql = sep.join(
443            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
444        )
445
446        if not comments_sql:
447            return sql
448
449        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
450            return (
451                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
452                if sql[0].isspace()
453                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
454            )
455
456        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
458    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
459        this_sql = self.indent(
460            self.sql(expression)
461            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
462            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
463            level=1,
464            pad=0,
465        )
466        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
468    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
469        original = self.identify
470        self.identify = False
471        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
472        self.identify = original
473        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
475    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
476        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
477            return name.upper()
478        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
479            return name.lower()
480        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
482    def indent(
483        self,
484        sql: str,
485        level: int = 0,
486        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
487        skip_first: bool = False,
488        skip_last: bool = False,
489    ) -> str:
490        if not self.pretty:
491            return sql
492
493        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
494        lines = sql.split("\n")
495
496        return "\n".join(
497            line
498            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
499            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
500            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
501        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
503    def sql(
504        self,
505        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
506        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
507        comment: bool = True,
508    ) -> str:
509        if not expression:
510            return ""
511
512        if isinstance(expression, str):
513            return expression
514
515        if key:
516            value = expression.args.get(key)
517            if value:
518                return self.sql(value)
519            return ""
520
521        if self._cache is not None:
522            expression_id = hash(expression)
523
524            if expression_id in self._cache:
525                return self._cache[expression_id]
526
527        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
528
529        if callable(transform):
530            sql = transform(self, expression)
531        elif transform:
532            sql = transform
533        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
534            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
535
536            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
537                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
538            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
539                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
540            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
541                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
542            else:
543                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
544        else:
545            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
546
547        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
548
549        if self._cache is not None:
550            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
551        return sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
553    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
554        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
555        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
556        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
558    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
559        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
560        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
561        options = expression.args.get("options")
562        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
563        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
564        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
565        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
566        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
568    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
569        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
570            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
571        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
572        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
574    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
575        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
576
577        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
578            join_mark = ""
579            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
580
581        column = ".".join(
582            self.sql(part)
583            for part in (
584                expression.args.get("catalog"),
585                expression.args.get("db"),
586                expression.args.get("table"),
587                expression.args.get("this"),
588            )
589            if part
590        )
591
592        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
594    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
595        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
596        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
597        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
598        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
600    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
601        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
602        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
603        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
604        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
605        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
606        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
607        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
608        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
609
610        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
612    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
613        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
614        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
615        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
617    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
618        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
620    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
621        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
622            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
623        else:
624            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
625
626        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
628    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
629        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
630    ) -> str:
631        this = ""
632        if expression.this is not None:
633            on_null = "ON NULL " if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
634            this = " ALWAYS " if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT {on_null}"
635
636        start = expression.args.get("start")
637        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
638        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
639        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
640        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
641        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
642        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
643        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
644        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
645        cycle_sql = ""
646
647        if cycle is not None:
648            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
649            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
650
651        sequence_opts = ""
652        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
653            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
654            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
655
656        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
657        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
658
659        return f"GENERATED{this}AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
661    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
662        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
664    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
665        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
666        if desc is not None:
667            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
668        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
670    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
671        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
672        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
673        return f"UNIQUE{this}"
def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: dict[sqlglot.expressions.Properties.Location, list[sqlglot.expressions.Property]]) -> str:
675    def createable_sql(
676        self, expression: exp.Create, locations: dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]
677    ) -> str:
678        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
680    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
681        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
682        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
683        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else {}
684
685        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
686
687        properties_sql = ""
688        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
689            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
690        ):
691            properties_sql = self.sql(
692                exp.Properties(
693                    expressions=[
694                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
695                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
696                    ]
697                )
698            )
699
700        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
701        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
702        if expression_sql:
703            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
704
705            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
706                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
707                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
708                        exp.Properties(
709                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
710                        ),
711                        wrapped=False,
712                    )
713                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
714                else:
715                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
716
717        postindex_props_sql = ""
718        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
719            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
720                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
721                wrapped=False,
722                prefix=" ",
723            )
724
725        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
726        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
727        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
728
729        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
730        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
731
732        postcreate_props_sql = ""
733        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
734            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
735                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
736                sep=" ",
737                prefix=" ",
738                wrapped=False,
739            )
740
741        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
742
743        postexpression_props_sql = ""
744        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
745            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
746                exp.Properties(
747                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
748                ),
749                sep=" ",
750                prefix=" ",
751                wrapped=False,
752            )
753
754        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
755        no_schema_binding = (
756            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
757        )
758
759        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
760        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
761
762        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
763        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
765    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
766        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
767        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
768
769        if when:
770            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
771            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
772            return f"CLONE {this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
773
774        return f"CLONE {this}"
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
776    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
777        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
779    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
780        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
781        if with_:
782            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
783        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
785    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
786        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
787        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
788
789        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
791    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
792        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
793        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
795    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
796        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
797        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
798        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
799        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
801    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
802        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
803        if self.BIT_START:
804            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
805        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
807    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
808        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
809        if self.HEX_START:
810            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
811        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
813    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
814        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
815        if self.BYTE_START:
816            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
817        return this
def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str:
819    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
820        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
821        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
def datatypesize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeSize) -> str:
823    def datatypesize_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeSize) -> str:
824        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
825        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
826        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
827        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
829    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
830        type_value = expression.this
831        type_sql = (
832            self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
833            if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
834            else type_value
835        )
836        nested = ""
837        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
838        values = ""
839        if interior:
840            if expression.args.get("nested"):
841                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
842                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
843                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
844                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
845                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
846            else:
847                nested = f"({interior})"
848
849        return f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
851    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
852        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
853        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
854        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
855        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
857    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
858        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
859        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
860        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
861        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
862        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
863        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
864        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
865        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
866        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
867        if self.RETURNING_END:
868            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
869        else:
870            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
871        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
873    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
874        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
875        kind = expression.args["kind"]
876        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
877        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
878        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
879        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
880        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
881        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
882        return (
883            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
884        )
def except_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
886    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
887        return self.prepend_ctes(
888            expression,
889            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
890        )
def except_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
892    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
893        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
895    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
896        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
897        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
898        count = expression.args.get("count")
899        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
900        if expression.args.get("percent"):
901            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
902        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
903        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
905    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
906        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
907        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
908        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
910    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
911        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
912            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
913            return ""
914
915        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
917    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
918        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
919        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
920        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
921        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
922        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
923        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
924        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table} " if table else ""
925        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
926        using = f"USING {using} " if using else ""
927        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
928        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
929        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
930        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
931        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
932        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
934    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
935        text = expression.name
936        lower = text.lower()
937        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
938        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
939        if (
940            expression.quoted
941            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
942            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
943            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
944        ):
945            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
946        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
948    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
949        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
950        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
951        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
952        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
953        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str:
955    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
956        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
957        return f"{prefix}{string}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
959    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
960        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
962    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
963        root_properties = []
964        with_properties = []
965
966        for p in expression.expressions:
967            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
968            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
969                with_properties.append(p)
970            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
971                root_properties.append(p)
972
973        return self.root_properties(
974            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
975        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
977    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
978        if properties.expressions:
979            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
980        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
982    def properties(
983        self,
984        properties: exp.Properties,
985        prefix: str = "",
986        sep: str = ", ",
987        suffix: str = "",
988        wrapped: bool = True,
989    ) -> str:
990        if properties.expressions:
991            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
992            if expressions:
993                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
994                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
995        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
997    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
998        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
def locate_properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> Dict[sqlglot.expressions.Properties.Location, list[sqlglot.expressions.Property]]:
1000    def locate_properties(
1001        self, properties: exp.Properties
1002    ) -> t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]:
1003        properties_locs: t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]] = {
1004            key: [] for key in exp.Properties.Location
1005        }
1006
1007        for p in properties.expressions:
1008            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1009            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME:
1010                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME].append(p)
1011            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX:
1012                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX].append(p)
1013            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1014                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA].append(p)
1015            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1016                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH].append(p)
1017            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE:
1018                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE].append(p)
1019            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS:
1020                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS].append(p)
1021            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION:
1022                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION].append(p)
1023            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1024                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1025
1026        return properties_locs
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
1028    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1029        property_cls = expression.__class__
1030        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1031            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1032
1033        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1034        if not property_name:
1035            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1036
1037        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
1039    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1040        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1041        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1042        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1044    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1045        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1046        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1047        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
1049    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1050        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1051        local = expression.args.get("local")
1052        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1053        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1054        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1055        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1056        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1058    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1059        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1060        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1061        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1063    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1064        if expression.args.get("default"):
1065            property = "DEFAULT"
1066        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1067            property = "ON"
1068        else:
1069            property = "OFF"
1070        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1072    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1073        if expression.args.get("no"):
1074            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1075        if expression.args.get("default"):
1076            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1077
1078        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1079        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1081    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1082        default = expression.args.get("default")
1083        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1084        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1085        if default or minimum or maximum:
1086            if default:
1087                prop = "DEFAULT"
1088            elif minimum:
1089                prop = "MINIMUM"
1090            else:
1091                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1092            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1093        units = expression.args.get("units")
1094        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1095        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1097    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1098        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1099        always = expression.args.get("always")
1100        default = expression.args.get("default")
1101        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1102        never = expression.args.get("never")
1103
1104        if autotemp is not None:
1105            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1106        elif always:
1107            prop = "ALWAYS"
1108        elif default:
1109            prop = "DEFAULT"
1110        elif manual:
1111            prop = "MANUAL"
1112        elif never:
1113            prop = "NEVER"
1114        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1116    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1117        no = expression.args.get("no")
1118        no = " NO" if no else ""
1119        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1120        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1121
1122        for_ = ""
1123        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1124            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1125        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1126            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1127        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1128            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1129        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1131    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1132        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1133        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1134        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1135        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1136        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1137        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1139    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1140        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1141        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1142        statistics_sql = ""
1143        if statistics is not None:
1144            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1145        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1147    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1148        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1149
1150        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1151            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1152        else:
1153            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1154
1155        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1156        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1157        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1158
1159        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1160
1161        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1162        partition_sql = (
1163            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1164        )
1165        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1166        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1167        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1168        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1169        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1170
1171        if self.RETURNING_END:
1172            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1173        else:
1174            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1175
1176        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1177        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def intersect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1179    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1180        return self.prepend_ctes(
1181            expression,
1182            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1183        )
def intersect_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1185    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1186        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1188    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1189        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1191    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1192        return expression.name.upper()
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1194    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1195        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1196        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1197        if constraint:
1198            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1199        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1200        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1201        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1202        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1203        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1204        if expressions:
1205            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1206        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1208    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1209        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1211    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1212        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1213        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1214        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1215        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1216        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1217        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1218        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1219        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1220        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1221        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1222        null = expression.args.get("null")
1223        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1224        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint) -> str:
1226    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1227        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1229    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1230        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1231        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1232        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1233        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1235    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1236        table = ".".join(
1237            part
1238            for part in [
1239                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1240                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1241                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1242            ]
1243            if part
1244        )
1245
1246        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1247        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1248        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1249        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1250        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1251        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1252        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1253        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1254        system_time = expression.args.get("system_time")
1255        system_time = f" {self.sql(expression, 'system_time')}" if system_time else ""
1256
1257        return f"{table}{system_time}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = 'SEED', sep=' AS ') -> str:
1259    def tablesample_sql(
1260        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1261    ) -> str:
1262        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1263            table = expression.this.copy()
1264            table.set("alias", None)
1265            this = self.sql(table)
1266            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1267        else:
1268            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1269            alias = ""
1270        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1271        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1272        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1273        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1274        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1275        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1276        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1277        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1278        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1279        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1280        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1281        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1282        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1283            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1284        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1285        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1286        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1287        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1289    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1290        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1291
1292        if expression.this:
1293            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1294            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1295            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1296            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1297            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1298            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1299
1300        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1301        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1302        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1303        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1304        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1305        return f"{direction}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
1307    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1308        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
1310    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1311        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1312        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1313        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1314        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1315        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1316        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1317        if self.RETURNING_END:
1318            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}{limit}"
1319        else:
1320            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}{limit}"
1321        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}"
1322        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values) -> str:
1324    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1325        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1326        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1327            args = self.expressions(expression)
1328            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1329            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1330            values = (
1331                f"({values})"
1332                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1333                else values
1334            )
1335            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1336
1337        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1338        # Note: If you have a lot of unions then this will result in a large number of recursive statements to
1339        # evaluate the expression. You may need to increase `sys.setrecursionlimit` to run and it can also be
1340        # very slow.
1341        expression = expression.copy()
1342        column_names = expression.alias and expression.args["alias"].columns
1343
1344        selects = []
1345
1346        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1347            row = tup.expressions
1348
1349            if i == 0 and column_names:
1350                row = [
1351                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1352                ]
1353
1354            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1355
1356        subquery_expression: exp.Select | exp.Union = selects[0]
1357        if len(selects) > 1:
1358            for select in selects[1:]:
1359                subquery_expression = exp.union(
1360                    subquery_expression, select, distinct=False, copy=False
1361                )
1362
1363        return self.subquery_sql(subquery_expression.subquery(expression.alias, copy=False))
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
1365    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1366        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
1368    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1369        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1370        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1371        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
1373    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1374        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
1376    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1377        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1378
1379        if expression.args.get("all"):
1380            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1381
1382        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1383        grouping_sets = (
1384            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1385        )
1386
1387        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1388        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1389            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1390        else:
1391            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1392            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1393
1394        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1395        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1396            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1397        else:
1398            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1399            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1400
1401        groupings = csv(
1402            grouping_sets,
1403            cube_sql,
1404            rollup_sql,
1405            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1406            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1407        )
1408
1409        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1410            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1411
1412        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
1414    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1415        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1416        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
1418    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1419        op_sql = " ".join(
1420            op
1421            for op in (
1422                expression.method,
1423                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1424                expression.side,
1425                expression.kind,
1426                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1427            )
1428            if op
1429        )
1430        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1431        using = expression.args.get("using")
1432
1433        if not on_sql and using:
1434            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1435
1436        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1437
1438        if on_sql:
1439            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1440            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1441            if using:
1442                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1443            else:
1444                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1445        elif not op_sql:
1446            return f", {this_sql}"
1447
1448        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1449        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
1451    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1452        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1453        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1454        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
1456    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1457        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1458
1459        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1460            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1461
1462        if expression.args.get("view"):
1463            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1464            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1465            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1466            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1467            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1468            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1469
1470        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1471        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1472        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1474    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1475        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1476        args = ", ".join(
1477            sql
1478            for sql in (
1479                self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1480                self.sql(expression, "expression"),
1481            )
1482            if sql
1483        )
1484        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
1486    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1487        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1488        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
1490    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1491        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1492        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1493        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1494        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1495        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1496        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1497        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1498        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
1500    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1501        expressions = (
1502            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1503        )
1504        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1505        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
1507    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1508        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
1510    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1511        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1512            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1513            return ""
1514
1515        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1516        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1517        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1518        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1519
1520        if wait is not None:
1521            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1522                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1523            else:
1524                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1525
1526        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
1528    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1529        text = expression.this or ""
1530        if expression.is_string:
1531            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1532        return text
def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1534    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1535        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1536        if self.ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK:
1537            text = text.replace("\n", "\\n")
1538        elif self.pretty:
1539            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1540        return text
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
1542    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1543        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1544        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1545        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1546        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1547        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1548        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1549        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1550        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1551        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1552        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1553        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1555    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1556        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
1558    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1559        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1561    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1562        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1563        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1564        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
1566    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1567        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
1569    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1570        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
1572    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1573        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
1575    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1576        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1577        asc = not desc
1578
1579        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1580        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1581        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1582        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1583        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1584
1585        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1586        nulls_sort_change = ""
1587        if nulls_first and (
1588            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1589        ):
1590            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1591        elif (
1592            nulls_last
1593            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1594            and not nulls_are_last
1595        ):
1596            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1597
1598        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1599            self.unsupported(
1600                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1601            )
1602            nulls_sort_change = ""
1603
1604        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1606    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1607        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1608        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1609        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1610        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1611        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1612        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1613        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1614        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1615        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1616        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1617        definition_sqls = [
1618            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1619            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1620        ]
1621        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1622        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1623        body = "".join(
1624            (
1625                partition,
1626                order,
1627                measures,
1628                rows,
1629                after,
1630                pattern,
1631                define,
1632            )
1633        )
1634        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1635        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1636        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1638    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1639        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1640
1641        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1642        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1643
1644        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1645            limit = exp.Limit(expression=limit.args.get("count"))
1646        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1647            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=limit.expression)
1648
1649        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1650
1651        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1652            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1653            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1654            else []
1655        )
1656
1657        return csv(
1658            *sqls,
1659            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1660            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1661            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1662            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1663            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1664            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1665            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1666            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1667            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1668            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1669            sep="",
1670        )
def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]:
1672    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1673        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1674    ) -> t.List[str]:
1675        return [
1676            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1677            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1678        ]
def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
1680    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1681        return [
1682            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1683            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1684            if expression.args.get("windows")
1685            else "",
1686            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1687            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1688            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1689        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
1691    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1692        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1693        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1694        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
1696    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1697        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1698        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1699        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1700        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1701        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1702        top = (
1703            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1704            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1705            else ""
1706        )
1707
1708        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1709
1710        if kind:
1711            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1712                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1713            else:
1714                if kind == "STRUCT":
1715                    expressions = self.expressions(
1716                        sqls=[
1717                            self.sql(
1718                                exp.Struct(
1719                                    expressions=[
1720                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1721                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1722                                        )
1723                                        for e in expression.expressions
1724                                    ]
1725                                )
1726                            )
1727                        ]
1728                    )
1729                kind = ""
1730
1731        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1732        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1733            expression,
1734            f"SELECT{top}{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1735            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1736            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1737        )
1738        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
1740    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1741        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1742        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1743        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1744        return f"{this}{sql}"
def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
1746    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1747        return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
1749    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1750        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1751        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1752        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1753        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1754        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
1756    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1757        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1758        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1759        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
1761    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1762        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1763        kind = expression.text("kind")
1764        if kind:
1765            kind = f"{kind}."
1766        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
1768    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1769        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1771    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1772        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1773        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1774
1775        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1776        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1777
1778        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1779        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
1781    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1782        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1783        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def union_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
1785    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1786        return self.prepend_ctes(
1787            expression,
1788            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1789        )
def union_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
1791    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1792        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1793        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1794        return f"UNION{kind}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
1796    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1797        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1798        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1799        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1800            columns = alias.columns
1801            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1802        else:
1803            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1804        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1805        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1806        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1807        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1808        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
1810    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1811        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1812        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
1814    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1815        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1816        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1817        order = expression.args.get("order")
1818        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1819        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1820        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1821        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1822
1823        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1824
1825        first = expression.args.get("first")
1826        if first is None:
1827            first = ""
1828        else:
1829            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1830
1831        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1832            return f"{this} {alias}"
1833
1834        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1835        return f"{this} ({args})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1837    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1838        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1839        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
1841    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1842        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1843        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1844        end = (
1845            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1846            or "CURRENT ROW"
1847        )
1848        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
1850    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1851        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1852        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1853        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
1855    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1856        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1857        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1858        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1859        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
1861    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1862        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
1863        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1864
1865        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def safebracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeBracket) -> str:
1867    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
1868        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
1870    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1871        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
1873    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1874        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1875        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1876            this = self.wrap(this)
1877        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
1879    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1880        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
1882    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1883        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1884        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1885
1886        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1887            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1888            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1889
1890        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1891
1892        if default:
1893            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1894
1895        statements.append("END")
1896
1897        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
1898            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1899
1900        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
1902    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1903        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1904        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1905        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
1907    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1908        order = expression.args.get("order")
1909        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1910        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
1912    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1913        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1914        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1915        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
1917    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1918        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1919
1920        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1921            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1922        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1923            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1924        else:
1925            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeConcat) -> str:
1927    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
1928        expressions = expression.expressions
1929        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
1930            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
1931        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
1933    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1934        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1935        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
1937    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1938        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1939        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1940        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1941        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
1942        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
1943        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
1944        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
1945        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
1947    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1948        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1949        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1950        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1951        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
1953    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
1954        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1956    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1957        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
1958        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
1959        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1961    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1962        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject) -> str:
1964    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
1965        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
1966        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
1967        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
1968        if unique_keys is not None:
1969            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
1970        else:
1971            unique_keys = ""
1972        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
1973        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
1974        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
1975        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
1976        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
1977        return self.func(
1978            "JSON_OBJECT",
1979            *expression.expressions,
1980            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})",
1981        )
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
1983    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
1984        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1985        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1986        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1987        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
1988        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
1989        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
1991    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
1992        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1993        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1994        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
1995        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1996        with_ = (
1997            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1998            if expressions
1999            else ""
2000        )
2001        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
2003    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2004        query = expression.args.get("query")
2005        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2006        field = expression.args.get("field")
2007        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2008
2009        if query:
2010            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2011        elif unnest:
2012            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2013        elif field:
2014            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2015        else:
2016            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2017
2018        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2020    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2021        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
2023    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2024        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2025        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2026            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
2027        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2028
2029        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2030            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2031            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2032
2033        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2034        if this:
2035            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2036            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2037
2038        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
2040    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2041        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
2043    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2044        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2045        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2046        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2047        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2048        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2049        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
2051    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2052        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
2054    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2055        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2056            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2057        else:
2058            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2059            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2060
2061        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
2063    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2064        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2065        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2066        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2067        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
2069    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2070        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
2072    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2073        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2074        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2075        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
2077    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2078        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2080    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2081        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2082        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2083        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
2085    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2086        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And) -> str:
2088    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2089        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
def xor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Xor) -> str:
2091    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2092        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
def connector_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2094    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2095        if not self.pretty:
2096            return self.binary(expression, op)
2097
2098        sqls = tuple(
2099            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2100            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2101        )
2102
2103        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2104        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2106    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2107        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2109    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2110        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2112    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2113        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2115    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2116        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2118    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2119        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2121    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2122        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2124    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2125        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2126        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2127        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')}{format_sql})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
2129    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2130        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2131        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
2133    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2134        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
2136    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2137        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
2139    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2140        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2141        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2142        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2143        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2144        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2146    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2147        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2148        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2149        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2150        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2151        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2152        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2153        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2154        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2155        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2157    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2158        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2159        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2160        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2161        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2162
2163        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2164            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2165
2166        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
2168    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2169        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
2171    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2172        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2173        if chain is not None:
2174            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2175
2176        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
2178    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2179        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2180        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2181        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
2183    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2184        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2185
2186        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2187        if dtype:
2188            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2189            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2190            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2191            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2192            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2193
2194        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2195        if default:
2196            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2197
2198        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2199            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2200
2201        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str:
2203    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2204        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2205            # Remove db from tables
2206            expression = expression.transform(
2207                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2208            )
2209        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2210        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def altertable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
2212    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2213        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2214
2215        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2216            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMN ")
2217        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2218            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2219        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2220            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2221        else:
2222            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2223
2224        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2225        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
2227    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2228        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2229        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2230        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
2232    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2233        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2234        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2235        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2236
2237        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2238        if enforced is not None:
2239            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2240
2241        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
2243    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2244        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2245        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2246
2247        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2248        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2249        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2251    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2252        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
2254    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2255        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
2257    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2258        return self.sql(
2259            exp.Cast(
2260                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2261                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2262            )
2263        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
2265    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2266        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2268    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2269        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2270            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2271        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
2273    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2274        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
2276    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2277        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
2279    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2280        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
2282    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2283        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
2285    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2286        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
2288    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2289        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
2291    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2292        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
2294    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2295        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
2297    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2298        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
2300    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2301        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
2303    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2304        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
2306    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2307        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2308            return self.sql(
2309                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2310            )
2311        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
2313    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2314        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
2316    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2317        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
2319    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2320        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
2322    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2323        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
2325    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2326        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
2328    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2329        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
2331    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2332        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
2334    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2335        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2337    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2338        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2340    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2341        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def or_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or) -> str:
2343    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2344        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
2346    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2347        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
2349    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2350        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
2352    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2353        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
2355    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2356        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2357        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2358        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2359        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2360        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2362    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2363        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2364        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
2366    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2367        args = []
2368
2369        for key in expression.arg_types:
2370            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2371
2372            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2373                for value in arg_value:
2374                    args.append(value)
2375            elif arg_value is not None:
2376                args.append(arg_value)
2377
2378        return self.func(expression.sql_name(), *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')') -> str:
2380    def func(
2381        self,
2382        name: str,
2383        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2384        prefix: str = "(",
2385        suffix: str = ")",
2386    ) -> str:
2387        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
2389    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2390        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2391        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2392            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2393        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
def text_width(self, args: Iterable) -> int:
2395    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2396        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
def format_time(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> Optional[str]:
2398    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2399        return format_time(
2400            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2401        )
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[List[str]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, skip_first: bool = False, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '') -> str:
2403    def expressions(
2404        self,
2405        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2406        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2407        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2408        flat: bool = False,
2409        indent: bool = True,
2410        skip_first: bool = False,
2411        sep: str = ", ",
2412        prefix: str = "",
2413    ) -> str:
2414        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2415
2416        if not expressions:
2417            return ""
2418
2419        if flat:
2420            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2421
2422        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2423
2424        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2425        pad = " " * self.pad
2426        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2427
2428        result_sqls = []
2429        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2430            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2431            if not sql:
2432                continue
2433
2434            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2435
2436            if self.pretty:
2437                if self.leading_comma:
2438                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2439                else:
2440                    result_sqls.append(
2441                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2442                    )
2443            else:
2444                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2445
2446        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2447        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2449    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2450        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2451        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2452        if flat:
2453            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2454        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
2456    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2457        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2458        if not property_name:
2459            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2460        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def set_operation(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2462    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2463        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2464        op = self.seg(op)
2465        return self.query_modifiers(
2466            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2467        )
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
2469    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2470        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
2472    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2473        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2475    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2476        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2477        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2478        expressions = (
2479            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2480        )
2481        return f"{this}{expressions}"
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
2483    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2484        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2485        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2486        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
2488    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2489        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
2491    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2492        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2493        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2494        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2495        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2496
2497        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2498        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2499            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2500            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2501                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2502        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2503            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2504                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2505            else:
2506                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2507        else:
2508            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2509        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
2511    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2512        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2513        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2514        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2515        return f"MERGE INTO {this} {using} {on} {self.expressions(expression, sep=' ')}"
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
2517    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2518        if expression.args.get("format"):
2519            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2520
2521        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str:
2523    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2524        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2525        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2526        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2527        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2528        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str:
2530    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2531        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2532        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2533        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2534        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2536    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2537        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str:
2539    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2540        return ""
def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2542    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2543        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2544        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2545        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2546        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2547        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue) -> str:
2549    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2550        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2551        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2552
2553        if having:
2554            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2555
2556        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
def querytransform_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryTransform) -> str:
2558    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2559        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2560        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2561        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2562        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2563        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2564        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2565        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2566        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2567        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2568        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2569        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2570        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
2571        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2573    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2574        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
2575        if key_block_size:
2576            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
2577
2578        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2579        if using:
2580            return f"USING {using}"
2581
2582        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
2583        if parser:
2584            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
2585
2586        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2587        if comment:
2588            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
2589
2590        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
2591        if visible is not None:
2592            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
2593
2594        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
2595        if engine_attr:
2596            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
2597
2598        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
2599        if secondary_engine_attr:
2600            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
2601
2602        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
2603        return ""
def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2605    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2606        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2607        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
2608        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2609        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2610        type_ = self.sql(expression, "type")
2611        type_ = f" USING {type_}" if type_ else ""
2612        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2613        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
2614        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
2615        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2616        return f"{kind}{this}{type_}{schema}{options}"
def cached_generator( cache: Optional[Dict[int, str]] = None) -> Callable[[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], str]:
2619def cached_generator(
2620    cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
2621) -> t.Callable[[exp.Expression], str]:
2622    """Returns a cached generator."""
2623    cache = {} if cache is None else cache
2624    generator = Generator(normalize=True, identify="safe")
2625    return lambda e: generator.generate(e, cache)

Returns a cached generator.