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sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import typing as t
   5
   6from sqlglot import exp
   7from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
   8from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, seq_get, should_identify
   9from sqlglot.time import format_time
  10from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  11
  12logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  13
  14
  15class Generator:
  16    """
  17    Generator interprets the given syntax tree and produces a SQL string as an output.
  18
  19    Args:
  20        time_mapping (dict): the dictionary of custom time mappings in which the key
  21            represents a python time format and the output the target time format
  22        time_trie (trie): a trie of the time_mapping keys
  23        pretty (bool): if set to True the returned string will be formatted. Default: False.
  24        quote_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit quotes. Default: '.
  25        quote_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit quotes. Default: '.
  26        identifier_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit identifiers. Default: ".
  27        identifier_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit identifiers. Default: ".
  28        bit_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit bit literals. Default: None.
  29        bit_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit bit literals. Default: None.
  30        hex_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit hex literals. Default: None.
  31        hex_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit hex literals. Default: None.
  32        byte_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit byte literals. Default: None.
  33        byte_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit byte literals. Default: None.
  34        identify (bool | str): 'always': always quote, 'safe': quote identifiers if they don't contain an upcase, True defaults to always.
  35        normalize (bool): if set to True all identifiers will lower cased
  36        string_escape (str): specifies a string escape character. Default: '.
  37        identifier_escape (str): specifies an identifier escape character. Default: ".
  38        pad (int): determines padding in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  39        indent (int): determines the size of indentation in a formatted string. Default: 4.
  40        unnest_column_only (bool): if true unnest table aliases are considered only as column aliases
  41        normalize_functions (str): normalize function names, "upper", "lower", or None
  42            Default: "upper"
  43        alias_post_tablesample (bool): if the table alias comes after tablesample
  44            Default: False
  45        unsupported_level (ErrorLevel): determines the generator's behavior when it encounters
  46            unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  47        null_ordering (str): Indicates the default null ordering method to use if not explicitly set.
  48            Options are "nulls_are_small", "nulls_are_large", "nulls_are_last".
  49            Default: "nulls_are_small"
  50        max_unsupported (int): Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  51            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  52            Default: 3
  53        leading_comma (bool): if the the comma is leading or trailing in select statements
  54            Default: False
  55        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  56            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  57            line length.
  58            Default: 80
  59        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  60            Default: True
  61    """
  62
  63    TRANSFORMS = {
  64        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  65            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  66        ),
  67        exp.TsOrDsAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  68            "TS_OR_DS_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  69        ),
  70        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
  71        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  72        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  73        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  74        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  75        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  76        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  77        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  78        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  79        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: "ON COMMIT PRESERVE ROWS",
  80        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  81        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  82        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  83        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
  84        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'GLOBAL ' if e.args.get('global_') else ''}TEMPORARY",
  85        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
  86        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
  87        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
  88        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  89        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  90        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  92        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
  94        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  95        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  96        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  97        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  98        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  99        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 100        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 101        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 102    }
 103
 104    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
 105    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
 106
 107    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 108    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 109
 110    # Always do union distinct or union all
 111    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 112
 113    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 114    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 115
 116    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 117    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 118
 119    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 120    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 121
 122    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 123    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 124
 125    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 126    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 127
 128    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 129    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 130
 131    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 132    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 133
 134    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 135    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 136
 137    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 138    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 139
 140    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 141    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 142
 143    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 144        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 145        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 146        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 147        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 148        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 149        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 150        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 151    }
 152
 153    STAR_MAPPING = {
 154        "except": "EXCEPT",
 155        "replace": "REPLACE",
 156    }
 157
 158    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 159        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 160        "seconds": "second",
 161        "minutes": "minute",
 162        "hours": "hour",
 163        "days": "day",
 164        "weeks": "week",
 165        "months": "month",
 166        "quarters": "quarter",
 167        "years": "year",
 168    }
 169
 170    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 171
 172    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 173
 174    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 175
 176    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 177        exp.AfterJournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 178        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 179        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 180        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 181        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 182        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 183        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 184        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 185        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 186        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 187        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 188        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 189        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 190        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 191        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 192        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 193        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 194        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 195        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 196        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 197        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 198        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 199        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 200        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 201        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 202        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 203        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 204        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 205        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 206        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 207        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 208        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 209        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 210        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 211        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 212        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 213        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 214        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 215        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 216        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 217        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 218        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 219        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 220        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 221        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 222        exp.TableFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 223        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 224        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 225        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 226        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 227        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 228        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 229    }
 230
 231    JOIN_HINTS = True
 232    TABLE_HINTS = True
 233
 234    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 235    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS = (exp.Select, exp.From, exp.Where, exp.With)
 236    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES = (exp.Literal, exp.Paren, exp.Column)
 237
 238    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 239
 240    __slots__ = (
 241        "time_mapping",
 242        "time_trie",
 243        "pretty",
 244        "quote_start",
 245        "quote_end",
 246        "identifier_start",
 247        "identifier_end",
 248        "bit_start",
 249        "bit_end",
 250        "hex_start",
 251        "hex_end",
 252        "byte_start",
 253        "byte_end",
 254        "identify",
 255        "normalize",
 256        "string_escape",
 257        "identifier_escape",
 258        "pad",
 259        "index_offset",
 260        "unnest_column_only",
 261        "alias_post_tablesample",
 262        "normalize_functions",
 263        "unsupported_level",
 264        "unsupported_messages",
 265        "null_ordering",
 266        "max_unsupported",
 267        "_indent",
 268        "_escaped_quote_end",
 269        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 270        "_leading_comma",
 271        "_max_text_width",
 272        "_comments",
 273        "_cache",
 274    )
 275
 276    def __init__(
 277        self,
 278        time_mapping=None,
 279        time_trie=None,
 280        pretty=None,
 281        quote_start=None,
 282        quote_end=None,
 283        identifier_start=None,
 284        identifier_end=None,
 285        bit_start=None,
 286        bit_end=None,
 287        hex_start=None,
 288        hex_end=None,
 289        byte_start=None,
 290        byte_end=None,
 291        identify=False,
 292        normalize=False,
 293        string_escape=None,
 294        identifier_escape=None,
 295        pad=2,
 296        indent=2,
 297        index_offset=0,
 298        unnest_column_only=False,
 299        alias_post_tablesample=False,
 300        normalize_functions="upper",
 301        unsupported_level=ErrorLevel.WARN,
 302        null_ordering=None,
 303        max_unsupported=3,
 304        leading_comma=False,
 305        max_text_width=80,
 306        comments=True,
 307    ):
 308        import sqlglot
 309
 310        self.time_mapping = time_mapping or {}
 311        self.time_trie = time_trie
 312        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 313        self.quote_start = quote_start or "'"
 314        self.quote_end = quote_end or "'"
 315        self.identifier_start = identifier_start or '"'
 316        self.identifier_end = identifier_end or '"'
 317        self.bit_start = bit_start
 318        self.bit_end = bit_end
 319        self.hex_start = hex_start
 320        self.hex_end = hex_end
 321        self.byte_start = byte_start
 322        self.byte_end = byte_end
 323        self.identify = identify
 324        self.normalize = normalize
 325        self.string_escape = string_escape or "'"
 326        self.identifier_escape = identifier_escape or '"'
 327        self.pad = pad
 328        self.index_offset = index_offset
 329        self.unnest_column_only = unnest_column_only
 330        self.alias_post_tablesample = alias_post_tablesample
 331        self.normalize_functions = normalize_functions
 332        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 333        self.unsupported_messages = []
 334        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 335        self.null_ordering = null_ordering
 336        self._indent = indent
 337        self._escaped_quote_end = self.string_escape + self.quote_end
 338        self._escaped_identifier_end = self.identifier_escape + self.identifier_end
 339        self._leading_comma = leading_comma
 340        self._max_text_width = max_text_width
 341        self._comments = comments
 342        self._cache = None
 343
 344    def generate(
 345        self,
 346        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
 347        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
 348    ) -> str:
 349        """
 350        Generates a SQL string by interpreting the given syntax tree.
 351
 352        Args
 353            expression: the syntax tree.
 354            cache: an optional sql string cache. this leverages the hash of an expression which is slow, so only use this if you set _hash on each node.
 355
 356        Returns
 357            the SQL string.
 358        """
 359        if cache is not None:
 360            self._cache = cache
 361        self.unsupported_messages = []
 362        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 363        self._cache = None
 364
 365        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 366            return sql
 367
 368        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 369            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 370                logger.warning(msg)
 371        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 372            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 373
 374        if self.pretty:
 375            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 376        return sql
 377
 378    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 379        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 380            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 381        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 382
 383    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 384        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 385
 386    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 387        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 388
 389    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 390        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 391        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 392        return comment
 393
 394    def maybe_comment(
 395        self,
 396        sql: str,
 397        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 398        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 399    ) -> str:
 400        comments = ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments) if self._comments else None  # type: ignore
 401
 402        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
 403            return sql
 404
 405        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
 406        comments_sql = sep.join(
 407            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 408        )
 409
 410        if not comments_sql:
 411            return sql
 412
 413        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 414            return (
 415                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 416                if sql[0].isspace()
 417                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 418            )
 419
 420        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 421
 422    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 423        this_sql = self.indent(
 424            self.sql(expression)
 425            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 426            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 427            level=1,
 428            pad=0,
 429        )
 430        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 431
 432    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 433        original = self.identify
 434        self.identify = False
 435        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 436        self.identify = original
 437        return result
 438
 439    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 440        if self.normalize_functions == "upper":
 441            return name.upper()
 442        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 443            return name.lower()
 444        return name
 445
 446    def indent(
 447        self,
 448        sql: str,
 449        level: int = 0,
 450        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 451        skip_first: bool = False,
 452        skip_last: bool = False,
 453    ) -> str:
 454        if not self.pretty:
 455            return sql
 456
 457        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 458        lines = sql.split("\n")
 459
 460        return "\n".join(
 461            line
 462            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 463            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 464            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 465        )
 466
 467    def sql(
 468        self,
 469        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 470        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 471        comment: bool = True,
 472    ) -> str:
 473        if not expression:
 474            return ""
 475
 476        if isinstance(expression, str):
 477            return expression
 478
 479        if key:
 480            return self.sql(expression.args.get(key))
 481
 482        if self._cache is not None:
 483            expression_id = hash(expression)
 484
 485            if expression_id in self._cache:
 486                return self._cache[expression_id]
 487
 488        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 489
 490        if callable(transform):
 491            sql = transform(self, expression)
 492        elif transform:
 493            sql = transform
 494        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 495            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 496
 497            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 498                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 499            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 500                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 501            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 502                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 503            else:
 504                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 505        else:
 506            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 507
 508        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self._comments and comment else sql
 509
 510        if self._cache is not None:
 511            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
 512        return sql
 513
 514    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 515        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 516        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 517        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 518
 519    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 520        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 521        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 522        options = expression.args.get("options")
 523        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 524        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 525        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 526        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 527        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 528
 529    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 530        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 531            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 532        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 533        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 534
 535    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 536        return ".".join(
 537            self.sql(part)
 538            for part in (
 539                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 540                expression.args.get("db"),
 541                expression.args.get("table"),
 542                expression.args.get("this"),
 543            )
 544            if part
 545        )
 546
 547    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 548        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 549        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 550        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 551        return f"{position}{this}"
 552
 553    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 554        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 555        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 556        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 557        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 558        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 559        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 560        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 561        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 562
 563        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 564
 565    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 566        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 567        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 568        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 569
 570    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 571        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 572
 573    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 574        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 575            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 576        else:
 577            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 578
 579        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 580
 581    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 582        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 583    ) -> str:
 584        this = ""
 585        if expression.this is not None:
 586            on_null = "ON NULL " if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 587            this = " ALWAYS " if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT {on_null}"
 588
 589        start = expression.args.get("start")
 590        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 591        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 592        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 593        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 594        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 595        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 596        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 597        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 598        cycle_sql = ""
 599        if cycle is not None:
 600            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 601            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 602        sequence_opts = ""
 603        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 604            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 605            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 606        return f"GENERATED{this}AS IDENTITY{sequence_opts}"
 607
 608    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 609        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 610
 611    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 612        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 613        if desc is not None:
 614            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 615        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 616
 617    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 618        return "UNIQUE"
 619
 620    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 621        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 622        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 623        properties_exp = expression.copy()
 624        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else {}
 625        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 626            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 627        ):
 628            properties_exp.set(
 629                "properties",
 630                exp.Properties(
 631                    expressions=[
 632                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 633                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 634                    ]
 635                ),
 636            )
 637        if kind == "TABLE" and properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME):
 638            this_name = self.sql(expression.this, "this")
 639            this_properties = self.properties(
 640                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME]),
 641                wrapped=False,
 642            )
 643            this_schema = f"({self.expressions(expression.this)})"
 644            this = f"{this_name}, {this_properties} {this_schema}"
 645            properties_sql = ""
 646        else:
 647            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 648            properties_sql = self.sql(properties_exp, "properties")
 649        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 650        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 651        if expression_sql:
 652            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
 653
 654            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 655                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 656                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 657                        exp.Properties(
 658                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 659                        ),
 660                        wrapped=False,
 661                    )
 662                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 663                else:
 664                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 665
 666        postindex_props_sql = ""
 667        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 668            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 669                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 670                wrapped=False,
 671                prefix=" ",
 672            )
 673
 674        indexes = expression.args.get("indexes")
 675        if indexes:
 676            indexes_sql: t.List[str] = []
 677            for index in indexes:
 678                ind_unique = " UNIQUE" if index.args.get("unique") else ""
 679                ind_primary = " PRIMARY" if index.args.get("primary") else ""
 680                ind_amp = " AMP" if index.args.get("amp") else ""
 681                ind_name = f" {index.name}" if index.name else ""
 682                ind_columns = (
 683                    f' ({self.expressions(index, key="columns", flat=True)})'
 684                    if index.args.get("columns")
 685                    else ""
 686                )
 687                ind_sql = f"{ind_unique}{ind_primary}{ind_amp} INDEX{ind_name}{ind_columns}"
 688
 689                if indexes_sql:
 690                    indexes_sql.append(ind_sql)
 691                else:
 692                    indexes_sql.append(
 693                        f"{ind_sql}{postindex_props_sql}"
 694                        if index.args.get("primary")
 695                        else f"{postindex_props_sql}{ind_sql}"
 696                    )
 697
 698            index_sql = "".join(indexes_sql)
 699        else:
 700            index_sql = postindex_props_sql
 701
 702        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 703        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 704
 705        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 706        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 707            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 708                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 709                sep=" ",
 710                prefix=" ",
 711                wrapped=False,
 712            )
 713
 714        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 715
 716        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 717        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 718            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 719                exp.Properties(
 720                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 721                ),
 722                sep=" ",
 723                prefix=" ",
 724                wrapped=False,
 725            )
 726
 727        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 728        no_schema_binding = (
 729            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 730        )
 731
 732        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 733        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 734
 735        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 736        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 737
 738    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 739        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 740        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 741
 742        if when:
 743            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 744            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 745            return f"CLONE {this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 746
 747        return f"CLONE {this}"
 748
 749    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 750        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 751
 752    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 753        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 754        if with_:
 755            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 756        return sql
 757
 758    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 759        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 760        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
 761
 762        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 763
 764    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 765        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 766        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 767
 768    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 769        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 770        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 771        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 772        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 773
 774    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 775        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 776        if self.bit_start:
 777            return f"{self.bit_start}{this}{self.bit_end}"
 778        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 779
 780    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 781        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 782        if self.hex_start:
 783            return f"{self.hex_start}{this}{self.hex_end}"
 784        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 785
 786    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 787        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 788        if self.byte_start:
 789            return f"{self.byte_start}{this}{self.byte_end}"
 790        return this
 791
 792    def datatypesize_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeSize) -> str:
 793        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 794        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 795        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
 796        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 797
 798    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 799        type_value = expression.this
 800        type_sql = self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 801        nested = ""
 802        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 803        values = ""
 804        if interior:
 805            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 806                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 807                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 808                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 809                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{self.expressions(expression, key='values')}{delimiters[1]}"
 810            else:
 811                nested = f"({interior})"
 812
 813        return f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 814
 815    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 816        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 817        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 818        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 819        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
 820
 821    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 822        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 823        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 824        using_sql = (
 825            f" USING {self.expressions(expression, key='using', sep=', USING ')}"
 826            if expression.args.get("using")
 827            else ""
 828        )
 829        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
 830        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
 831        sql = f"DELETE{this}{using_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
 832        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 833
 834    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
 835        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 836        kind = expression.args["kind"]
 837        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
 838        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
 839        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
 840        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
 841        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
 842        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
 843        return (
 844            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
 845        )
 846
 847    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 848        return self.prepend_ctes(
 849            expression,
 850            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
 851        )
 852
 853    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 854        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
 855
 856    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
 857        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
 858        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
 859        count = expression.args.get("count")
 860        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
 861        if expression.args.get("percent"):
 862            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
 863        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
 864        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
 865
 866    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
 867        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 868        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
 869        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
 870
 871    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
 872        if self.sql(expression, "this"):
 873            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
 874        return ""
 875
 876    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
 877        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 878        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
 879        columns = self.sql(expression, "columns")
 880        return f"{this} ON {table} {columns}"
 881
 882    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
 883        text = expression.name
 884        lower = text.lower()
 885        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
 886        text = text.replace(self.identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
 887        if (
 888            expression.quoted
 889            or should_identify(text, self.identify)
 890            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
 891        ):
 892            text = f"{self.identifier_start}{text}{self.identifier_end}"
 893        return text
 894
 895    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
 896        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
 897        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
 898        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
 899        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
 900        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
 901
 902    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National) -> str:
 903        return f"N{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 904
 905    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
 906        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression)})"
 907
 908    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
 909        root_properties = []
 910        with_properties = []
 911
 912        for p in expression.expressions:
 913            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
 914            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
 915                with_properties.append(p)
 916            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
 917                root_properties.append(p)
 918
 919        return self.root_properties(
 920            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
 921        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
 922
 923    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
 924        if properties.expressions:
 925            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
 926        return ""
 927
 928    def properties(
 929        self,
 930        properties: exp.Properties,
 931        prefix: str = "",
 932        sep: str = ", ",
 933        suffix: str = "",
 934        wrapped: bool = True,
 935    ) -> str:
 936        if properties.expressions:
 937            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
 938            expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
 939            return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
 940        return ""
 941
 942    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
 943        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
 944
 945    def locate_properties(
 946        self, properties: exp.Properties
 947    ) -> t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]:
 948        properties_locs: t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]] = {
 949            key: [] for key in exp.Properties.Location
 950        }
 951
 952        for p in properties.expressions:
 953            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
 954            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME:
 955                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME].append(p)
 956            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX:
 957                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX].append(p)
 958            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
 959                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA].append(p)
 960            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
 961                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH].append(p)
 962            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE:
 963                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE].append(p)
 964            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS:
 965                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS].append(p)
 966            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION:
 967                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION].append(p)
 968            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
 969                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
 970
 971        return properties_locs
 972
 973    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
 974        property_cls = expression.__class__
 975        if property_cls == exp.Property:
 976            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
 977
 978        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
 979        if not property_name:
 980            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
 981
 982        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 983
 984    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
 985        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
 986        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
 987        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
 988
 989    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
 990        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
 991        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
 992        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
 993
 994    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
 995        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
 996        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
 997        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
 998        return f"{no}{dual}{before}JOURNAL"
 999
1000    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1001        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1002        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1003        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1004
1005    def afterjournalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.AfterJournalProperty) -> str:
1006        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1007        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1008        local = ""
1009        if expression.args.get("local") is not None:
1010            local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else "NOT LOCAL "
1011        return f"{no}{dual}{local}AFTER JOURNAL"
1012
1013    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1014        if expression.args.get("default"):
1015            property = "DEFAULT"
1016        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1017            property = "ON"
1018        else:
1019            property = "OFF"
1020        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1021
1022    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1023        if expression.args.get("no"):
1024            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1025        if expression.args.get("default"):
1026            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1027
1028        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1029        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1030
1031    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1032        default = expression.args.get("default")
1033        min = expression.args.get("min")
1034        if default is not None or min is not None:
1035            if default:
1036                property = "DEFAULT"
1037            elif min:
1038                property = "MINIMUM"
1039            else:
1040                property = "MAXIMUM"
1041            return f"{property} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1042        else:
1043            units = expression.args.get("units")
1044            units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1045            return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1046
1047    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1048        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1049        always = expression.args.get("always")
1050        default = expression.args.get("default")
1051        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1052        never = expression.args.get("never")
1053
1054        if autotemp is not None:
1055            property = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1056        elif always:
1057            property = "ALWAYS"
1058        elif default:
1059            property = "DEFAULT"
1060        elif manual:
1061            property = "MANUAL"
1062        elif never:
1063            property = "NEVER"
1064        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={property}"
1065
1066    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1067        no = expression.args.get("no")
1068        no = " NO" if no else ""
1069        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1070        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1071
1072        for_ = ""
1073        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1074            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1075        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1076            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1077        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1078            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1079        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1080
1081    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1082        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1083        this: str = f" {this}" if expression.this else ""
1084        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1085        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1086        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1087        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1088
1089    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1090        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1091        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1092        statistics_sql = ""
1093        if statistics is not None:
1094            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1095        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1096
1097    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1098        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1099
1100        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1101            this = "OVERWRITE " if overwrite else "INTO "
1102        else:
1103            this = "OVERWRITE TABLE " if overwrite else "INTO "
1104
1105        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1106        alternative = f" OR {alternative} " if alternative else " "
1107        this = f"{this}{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1108
1109        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1110        partition_sql = (
1111            self.sql(expression, "partition") if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1112        )
1113        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1114        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1115        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1116        sep = self.sep() if partition_sql else ""
1117        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{this}{exists}{partition_sql}{sep}{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1118        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1119
1120    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1121        return self.prepend_ctes(
1122            expression,
1123            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1124        )
1125
1126    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1127        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1128
1129    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1130        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1131
1132    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1133        return expression.name.upper()
1134
1135    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1136        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1137        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1138        if constraint:
1139            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1140        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1141        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1142        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1143        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1144        if expressions:
1145            expressions = f"UPDATE SET {expressions}"
1146        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1147
1148    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1149        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1150
1151    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1152        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1153        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1154        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1155        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1156        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1157        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1158        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1159        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1160        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1161        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1162        null = expression.args.get("null")
1163        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1164        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1165
1166    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1167        table = ".".join(
1168            part
1169            for part in [
1170                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1171                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1172                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1173            ]
1174            if part
1175        )
1176
1177        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1178        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1179        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", flat=True)
1180        hints = f" WITH ({hints})" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1181        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1182        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1183        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="")
1184        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1185        system_time = expression.args.get("system_time")
1186        system_time = f" {self.sql(expression, 'system_time')}" if system_time else ""
1187
1188        return f"{table}{system_time}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
1189
1190    def tablesample_sql(
1191        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1192    ) -> str:
1193        if self.alias_post_tablesample and expression.this.alias:
1194            table = expression.this.copy()
1195            table.set("alias", None)
1196            this = self.sql(table)
1197            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1198        else:
1199            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1200            alias = ""
1201        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1202        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1203        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1204        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1205        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1206        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1207        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1208        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1209        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1210        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1211        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1212        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1213        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1214            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1215        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1216        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1217        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1218        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
1219
1220    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1221        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1222        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1223        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1224        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1225        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1226        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1227        return f"{direction}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1228
1229    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1230        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1231
1232    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1233        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1234        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1235        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1236        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1237        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1238        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1239        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1240
1241    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1242        args = self.expressions(expression)
1243        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1244        values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1245        values = (
1246            f"({values})"
1247            if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1248            else values
1249        )
1250        return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1251
1252    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1253        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1254
1255    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1256        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1257        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1258        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1259
1260    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1261        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1262
1263    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1264        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1265        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1266        grouping_sets = (
1267            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1268        )
1269
1270        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1271        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1272            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1273        else:
1274            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1275            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1276
1277        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1278        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1279            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1280        else:
1281            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1282            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1283
1284        groupings = csv(
1285            grouping_sets,
1286            cube_sql,
1287            rollup_sql,
1288            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1289            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1290        )
1291
1292        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1293            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1294
1295        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1296
1297    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1298        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1299        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1300
1301    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1302        op_sql = " ".join(
1303            op
1304            for op in (
1305                "NATURAL" if expression.args.get("natural") else None,
1306                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1307                expression.side,
1308                expression.kind,
1309                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1310            )
1311            if op
1312        )
1313        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1314        using = expression.args.get("using")
1315
1316        if not on_sql and using:
1317            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1318
1319        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1320
1321        if on_sql:
1322            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1323            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1324            if using:
1325                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1326            else:
1327                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1328        elif not op_sql:
1329            return f", {this_sql}"
1330
1331        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1332        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1333
1334    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1335        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1336        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1337        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1338
1339    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1340        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1341
1342        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1343            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1344
1345        if expression.args.get("view"):
1346            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1347            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1348            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1349            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1350            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1351            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1352
1353        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1354        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1355        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1356
1357    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit) -> str:
1358        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1359        return f"{this}{self.seg('LIMIT')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1360
1361    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1362        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1363        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1364
1365    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1366        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1367        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1368        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1369        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1370        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1371        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1372        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1373        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1374
1375    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1376        expressions = (
1377            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1378        )
1379        return f"SET{expressions}"
1380
1381    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1382        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1383
1384    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1385        if self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1386            lock_type = "UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "SHARE"
1387            return self.seg(f"FOR {lock_type}")
1388
1389        self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1390        return ""
1391
1392    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1393        text = expression.this or ""
1394        if expression.is_string:
1395            text = text.replace(self.quote_end, self._escaped_quote_end)
1396            if self.pretty:
1397                text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1398            text = f"{self.quote_start}{text}{self.quote_end}"
1399        return text
1400
1401    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1402        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1403        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1404        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1405        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1406        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1407        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1408        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1409        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1410        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1411        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1412        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1413
1414    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1415        return "NULL"
1416
1417    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1418        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1419
1420    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1421        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1422        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1423        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1424
1425    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1426        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1427
1428    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1429        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1430
1431    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1432        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1433
1434    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1435        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1436        asc = not desc
1437
1438        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1439        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1440        nulls_are_large = self.null_ordering == "nulls_are_large"
1441        nulls_are_small = self.null_ordering == "nulls_are_small"
1442        nulls_are_last = self.null_ordering == "nulls_are_last"
1443
1444        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1445        nulls_sort_change = ""
1446        if nulls_first and (
1447            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1448        ):
1449            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1450        elif (
1451            nulls_last
1452            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1453            and not nulls_are_last
1454        ):
1455            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1456
1457        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1458            self.unsupported(
1459                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1460            )
1461            nulls_sort_change = ""
1462
1463        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1464
1465    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1466        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1467        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1468        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1469        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1470        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1471        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1472        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1473        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1474        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1475        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1476        definition_sqls = [
1477            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1478            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1479        ]
1480        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1481        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1482        body = "".join(
1483            (
1484                partition,
1485                order,
1486                measures,
1487                rows,
1488                after,
1489                pattern,
1490                define,
1491            )
1492        )
1493        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1494        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1495        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1496
1497    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1498        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1499
1500        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1501            limit = exp.Limit(expression=limit.args.get("count"))
1502        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1503            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=limit.expression)
1504
1505        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1506
1507        return csv(
1508            *sqls,
1509            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1510            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1511            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1512            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1513            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1514            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1515            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1516            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1517            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1518            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1519            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1520            sep="",
1521        )
1522
1523    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression):
1524        return [
1525            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1526            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1527            if expression.args.get("windows")
1528            else "",
1529        ]
1530
1531    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression):
1532        return [
1533            self.sql(expression, "lock"),
1534            self.sql(expression, "sample"),
1535        ]
1536
1537    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1538        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1539        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1540        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1541        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1542        kind = f" AS {kind}" if kind else ""
1543        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1544        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1545        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1546            expression,
1547            f"SELECT{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1548            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1549            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1550        )
1551        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1552
1553    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1554        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1555        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1556        sql = f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1557        return f"{this}{sql}"
1558
1559    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1560        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1561        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1562        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1563        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1564        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
1565
1566    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1567        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1568        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1569        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
1570
1571    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1572        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1573        kind = expression.text("kind")
1574        if kind:
1575            kind = f"{kind}."
1576        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
1577
1578    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1579        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
1580
1581    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1582        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1583        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1584
1585        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1586        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1587
1588        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1589        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1590
1591    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1592        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1593        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1594
1595    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1596        return self.prepend_ctes(
1597            expression,
1598            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1599        )
1600
1601    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1602        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1603        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1604        return f"UNION{kind}"
1605
1606    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1607        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1608        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1609        if alias and self.unnest_column_only:
1610            columns = alias.columns
1611            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1612        else:
1613            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1614        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1615        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1616        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1617        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1618        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
1619
1620    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1621        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1622        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1623
1624    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1625        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1626
1627        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1628
1629        order = expression.args.get("order")
1630        order_sql = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1631
1632        partition_sql = partition + " " if partition and order else partition
1633
1634        spec = expression.args.get("spec")
1635        spec_sql = " " + self.windowspec_sql(spec) if spec else ""
1636
1637        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1638        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1639        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1640
1641        first = expression.args.get("first")
1642        if first is not None:
1643            first = " FIRST " if first else " LAST "
1644        first = first or ""
1645
1646        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1647            return f"{this} {alias}"
1648
1649        window_args = alias + first + partition_sql + order_sql + spec_sql
1650
1651        return f"{this} ({window_args.strip()})"
1652
1653    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1654        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1655        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
1656
1657    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1658        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1659        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1660        end = (
1661            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1662            or "CURRENT ROW"
1663        )
1664        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
1665
1666    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1667        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1668        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1669        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
1670
1671    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1672        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1673        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1674        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1675        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
1676
1677    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1678        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.index_offset)
1679        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1680
1681        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
1682
1683    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1684        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
1685
1686    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1687        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1688        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1689            this = self.wrap(this)
1690        return f"ANY {this}"
1691
1692    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1693        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
1694
1695    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1696        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1697        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1698
1699        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1700            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1701            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1702
1703        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1704
1705        if default:
1706            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1707
1708        statements.append("END")
1709
1710        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self._max_text_width:
1711            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1712
1713        return " ".join(statements)
1714
1715    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1716        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1717        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1718        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
1719
1720    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1721        order = expression.args.get("order")
1722        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1723        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
1724
1725    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1726        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1727        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1728        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
1729
1730    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1731        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1732
1733        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1734            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1735        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1736            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1737        else:
1738            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
1739
1740    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
1741        if len(expression.expressions) == 1:
1742            return self.sql(expression.expressions[0])
1743        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
1744
1745    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1746        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1747        return f"CHECK ({this})"
1748
1749    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1750        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1751        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1752        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1753        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
1754        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
1755        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
1756        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
1757        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
1758
1759    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1760        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1761        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1762        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1763        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
1764
1765    def unique_sql(self, expression: exp.Unique) -> str:
1766        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions")
1767        return f"UNIQUE ({columns})"
1768
1769    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
1770        return self.case_sql(
1771            exp.Case(ifs=[expression.copy()], default=expression.args.get("false"))
1772        )
1773
1774    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1775        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
1776        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
1777        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
1778
1779    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1780        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1781
1782    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
1783        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1784        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
1785        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
1786        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
1787        if unique_keys is not None:
1788            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
1789        else:
1790            unique_keys = ""
1791        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
1792        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
1793        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
1794        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
1795        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
1796        return f"JSON_OBJECT({expressions}{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})"
1797
1798    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
1799        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1800        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1801        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1802        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
1803        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
1804        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
1805
1806    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
1807        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1808        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1809        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
1810        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1811        with_ = (
1812            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1813            if expressions
1814            else ""
1815        )
1816        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
1817
1818    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
1819        query = expression.args.get("query")
1820        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
1821        field = expression.args.get("field")
1822        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
1823
1824        if query:
1825            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
1826        elif unnest:
1827            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
1828        elif field:
1829            in_sql = self.sql(field)
1830        else:
1831            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1832
1833        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
1834
1835    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1836        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
1837
1838    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
1839        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
1840        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
1841            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
1842        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
1843
1844        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
1845            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
1846            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'"
1847
1848        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1849        if this:
1850            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
1851            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
1852
1853        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
1854
1855    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
1856        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1857
1858    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
1859        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1860        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1861        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1862        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1863        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1864        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
1865
1866    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
1867        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
1868
1869    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
1870        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
1871            sql = self.wrap(expression)
1872        else:
1873            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
1874            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1875
1876        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1877
1878    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
1879        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
1880        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1881        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
1882        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
1883
1884    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
1885        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1886
1887    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
1888        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1889        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1890        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
1891
1892    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
1893        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1894
1895    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
1896        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1897        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
1898        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
1899
1900    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
1901        return self.binary(expression, "+")
1902
1903    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
1904        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
1905
1906    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
1907        if not self.pretty:
1908            return self.binary(expression, op)
1909
1910        sqls = tuple(
1911            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
1912            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
1913        )
1914
1915        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self._max_text_width else " "
1916        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
1917
1918    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
1919        return self.binary(expression, "&")
1920
1921    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
1922        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
1923
1924    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
1925        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1926
1927    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
1928        return self.binary(expression, "|")
1929
1930    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
1931        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
1932
1933    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
1934        return self.binary(expression, "^")
1935
1936    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast) -> str:
1937        return f"CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')})"
1938
1939    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
1940        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
1941        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
1942
1943    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
1944        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
1945
1946    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
1947        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
1948
1949    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
1950        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1951        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1952        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1953        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1954        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
1955
1956    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
1957        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1958        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
1959        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
1960        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
1961        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
1962        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
1963        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
1964        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
1965        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
1966
1967    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
1968        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1969        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1970        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
1971        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
1972
1973        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
1974            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1975
1976        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
1977
1978    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
1979        return "BEGIN"
1980
1981    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
1982        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
1983        if chain is not None:
1984            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
1985
1986        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
1987
1988    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
1989        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
1990        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
1991        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
1992
1993    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
1994        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1995
1996        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
1997        if dtype:
1998            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1999            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2000            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2001            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2002            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2003
2004        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2005        if default:
2006            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2007
2008        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2009            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2010
2011        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2012
2013    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2014        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2015            # Remove db from tables
2016            expression = expression.transform(
2017                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2018            )
2019        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2020        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2021
2022    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2023        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2024
2025        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2026            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMN ")
2027        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2028            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2029        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2030            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2031        else:
2032            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2033
2034        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2035        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2036
2037    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2038        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2039        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2040        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2041
2042    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2043        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2044        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2045        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2046
2047        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2048        if enforced is not None:
2049            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2050
2051        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2052
2053    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2054        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2055        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2056
2057        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2058        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2059        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2060
2061    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2062        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2063
2064    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2065        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2066
2067    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2068        return self.sql(
2069            exp.Cast(
2070                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2071                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2072            )
2073        )
2074
2075    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2076        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2077
2078    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2079        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2080
2081    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2082        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2083
2084    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2085        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2086
2087    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2088        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2089
2090    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2091        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2092
2093    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2094        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2095
2096    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2097        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2098
2099    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2100        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2101
2102    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2103        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2104
2105    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2106        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2107
2108    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2109        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2110
2111    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2112        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2113
2114    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2115        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2116
2117    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2118        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2119
2120    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2121        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2122
2123    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2124        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2125
2126    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2127        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2128
2129    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2130        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2131
2132    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2133        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2134
2135    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2136        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2137
2138    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2139        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2140
2141    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2142        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2143
2144    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2145        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2146
2147    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2148        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2149
2150    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2151        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2152
2153    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2154        return f"TRY_CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')})"
2155
2156    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2157        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2158        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2159        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2160        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2161        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2162
2163    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2164        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2165        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2166
2167    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2168        args = []
2169        for arg_value in expression.args.values():
2170            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2171                for value in arg_value:
2172                    args.append(value)
2173            else:
2174                args.append(arg_value)
2175
2176        return self.func(expression.sql_name(), *args)
2177
2178    def func(self, name: str, *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str]) -> str:
2179        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}({self.format_args(*args)})"
2180
2181    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2182        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2183        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self._max_text_width:
2184            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2185        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2186
2187    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2188        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2189
2190    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2191        return format_time(self.sql(expression, "format"), self.time_mapping, self.time_trie)
2192
2193    def expressions(
2194        self,
2195        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2196        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2197        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2198        flat: bool = False,
2199        indent: bool = True,
2200        sep: str = ", ",
2201        prefix: str = "",
2202    ) -> str:
2203        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2204
2205        if not expressions:
2206            return ""
2207
2208        if flat:
2209            return sep.join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2210
2211        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2212
2213        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2214        pad = " " * self.pad
2215        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2216
2217        result_sqls = []
2218        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2219            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2220            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2221
2222            if self.pretty:
2223                if self._leading_comma:
2224                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2225                else:
2226                    result_sqls.append(
2227                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2228                    )
2229            else:
2230                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2231
2232        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2233        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=False) if indent else result_sql
2234
2235    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2236        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2237        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2238        if flat:
2239            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2240        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2241
2242    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2243        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2244        if not property_name:
2245            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2246        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2247
2248    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2249        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2250        op = self.seg(op)
2251        return self.query_modifiers(
2252            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2253        )
2254
2255    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2256        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2257
2258    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2259        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2260
2261    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2262        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2263        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2264        expressions = (
2265            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2266        )
2267        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2268
2269    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2270        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2271        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2272        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2273
2274    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2275        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2276
2277    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2278        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2279        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2280        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2281        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2282
2283        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2284        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2285            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2286            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2287                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2288        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2289            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2290                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2291            else:
2292                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2293        else:
2294            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2295        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2296
2297    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2298        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2299        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2300        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2301        return f"MERGE INTO {this} {using} {on} {self.expressions(expression, sep=' ')}"
2302
2303    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2304        if expression.args.get("format"):
2305            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2306
2307        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
class Generator:
  16class Generator:
  17    """
  18    Generator interprets the given syntax tree and produces a SQL string as an output.
  19
  20    Args:
  21        time_mapping (dict): the dictionary of custom time mappings in which the key
  22            represents a python time format and the output the target time format
  23        time_trie (trie): a trie of the time_mapping keys
  24        pretty (bool): if set to True the returned string will be formatted. Default: False.
  25        quote_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit quotes. Default: '.
  26        quote_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit quotes. Default: '.
  27        identifier_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit identifiers. Default: ".
  28        identifier_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit identifiers. Default: ".
  29        bit_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit bit literals. Default: None.
  30        bit_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit bit literals. Default: None.
  31        hex_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit hex literals. Default: None.
  32        hex_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit hex literals. Default: None.
  33        byte_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit byte literals. Default: None.
  34        byte_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit byte literals. Default: None.
  35        identify (bool | str): 'always': always quote, 'safe': quote identifiers if they don't contain an upcase, True defaults to always.
  36        normalize (bool): if set to True all identifiers will lower cased
  37        string_escape (str): specifies a string escape character. Default: '.
  38        identifier_escape (str): specifies an identifier escape character. Default: ".
  39        pad (int): determines padding in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  40        indent (int): determines the size of indentation in a formatted string. Default: 4.
  41        unnest_column_only (bool): if true unnest table aliases are considered only as column aliases
  42        normalize_functions (str): normalize function names, "upper", "lower", or None
  43            Default: "upper"
  44        alias_post_tablesample (bool): if the table alias comes after tablesample
  45            Default: False
  46        unsupported_level (ErrorLevel): determines the generator's behavior when it encounters
  47            unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  48        null_ordering (str): Indicates the default null ordering method to use if not explicitly set.
  49            Options are "nulls_are_small", "nulls_are_large", "nulls_are_last".
  50            Default: "nulls_are_small"
  51        max_unsupported (int): Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  52            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  53            Default: 3
  54        leading_comma (bool): if the the comma is leading or trailing in select statements
  55            Default: False
  56        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  57            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  58            line length.
  59            Default: 80
  60        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  61            Default: True
  62    """
  63
  64    TRANSFORMS = {
  65        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  66            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  67        ),
  68        exp.TsOrDsAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  69            "TS_OR_DS_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  70        ),
  71        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
  72        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  73        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  74        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  75        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  76        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  77        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  78        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  79        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  80        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: "ON COMMIT PRESERVE ROWS",
  81        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  82        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  83        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  84        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
  85        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'GLOBAL ' if e.args.get('global_') else ''}TEMPORARY",
  86        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
  87        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
  88        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
  89        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  91        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  92        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
  95        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  96        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  97        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  98        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  99        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 100        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 101        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 102        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 103    }
 104
 105    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
 106    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
 107
 108    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 109    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 110
 111    # Always do union distinct or union all
 112    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 113
 114    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 115    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 116
 117    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 118    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 119
 120    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 121    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 122
 123    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 124    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 125
 126    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 127    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 128
 129    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 130    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 131
 132    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 133    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 134
 135    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 136    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 137
 138    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 139    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 140
 141    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 142    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 143
 144    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 145        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 146        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 147        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 148        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 149        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 150        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 151        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 152    }
 153
 154    STAR_MAPPING = {
 155        "except": "EXCEPT",
 156        "replace": "REPLACE",
 157    }
 158
 159    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 160        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 161        "seconds": "second",
 162        "minutes": "minute",
 163        "hours": "hour",
 164        "days": "day",
 165        "weeks": "week",
 166        "months": "month",
 167        "quarters": "quarter",
 168        "years": "year",
 169    }
 170
 171    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 172
 173    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 174
 175    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 176
 177    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 178        exp.AfterJournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 179        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 180        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 181        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 182        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 183        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 184        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 185        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 186        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 187        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 188        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 189        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 190        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 191        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 192        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 193        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 194        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 195        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 196        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 197        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 198        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 199        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 200        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 201        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 202        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 203        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 204        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 205        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 206        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 207        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 208        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 209        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 210        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 211        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 212        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 213        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 214        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 215        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 216        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 217        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 218        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 219        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 220        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 221        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 222        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 223        exp.TableFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 224        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 225        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 226        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 227        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 228        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 229        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 230    }
 231
 232    JOIN_HINTS = True
 233    TABLE_HINTS = True
 234
 235    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 236    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS = (exp.Select, exp.From, exp.Where, exp.With)
 237    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES = (exp.Literal, exp.Paren, exp.Column)
 238
 239    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 240
 241    __slots__ = (
 242        "time_mapping",
 243        "time_trie",
 244        "pretty",
 245        "quote_start",
 246        "quote_end",
 247        "identifier_start",
 248        "identifier_end",
 249        "bit_start",
 250        "bit_end",
 251        "hex_start",
 252        "hex_end",
 253        "byte_start",
 254        "byte_end",
 255        "identify",
 256        "normalize",
 257        "string_escape",
 258        "identifier_escape",
 259        "pad",
 260        "index_offset",
 261        "unnest_column_only",
 262        "alias_post_tablesample",
 263        "normalize_functions",
 264        "unsupported_level",
 265        "unsupported_messages",
 266        "null_ordering",
 267        "max_unsupported",
 268        "_indent",
 269        "_escaped_quote_end",
 270        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 271        "_leading_comma",
 272        "_max_text_width",
 273        "_comments",
 274        "_cache",
 275    )
 276
 277    def __init__(
 278        self,
 279        time_mapping=None,
 280        time_trie=None,
 281        pretty=None,
 282        quote_start=None,
 283        quote_end=None,
 284        identifier_start=None,
 285        identifier_end=None,
 286        bit_start=None,
 287        bit_end=None,
 288        hex_start=None,
 289        hex_end=None,
 290        byte_start=None,
 291        byte_end=None,
 292        identify=False,
 293        normalize=False,
 294        string_escape=None,
 295        identifier_escape=None,
 296        pad=2,
 297        indent=2,
 298        index_offset=0,
 299        unnest_column_only=False,
 300        alias_post_tablesample=False,
 301        normalize_functions="upper",
 302        unsupported_level=ErrorLevel.WARN,
 303        null_ordering=None,
 304        max_unsupported=3,
 305        leading_comma=False,
 306        max_text_width=80,
 307        comments=True,
 308    ):
 309        import sqlglot
 310
 311        self.time_mapping = time_mapping or {}
 312        self.time_trie = time_trie
 313        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 314        self.quote_start = quote_start or "'"
 315        self.quote_end = quote_end or "'"
 316        self.identifier_start = identifier_start or '"'
 317        self.identifier_end = identifier_end or '"'
 318        self.bit_start = bit_start
 319        self.bit_end = bit_end
 320        self.hex_start = hex_start
 321        self.hex_end = hex_end
 322        self.byte_start = byte_start
 323        self.byte_end = byte_end
 324        self.identify = identify
 325        self.normalize = normalize
 326        self.string_escape = string_escape or "'"
 327        self.identifier_escape = identifier_escape or '"'
 328        self.pad = pad
 329        self.index_offset = index_offset
 330        self.unnest_column_only = unnest_column_only
 331        self.alias_post_tablesample = alias_post_tablesample
 332        self.normalize_functions = normalize_functions
 333        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 334        self.unsupported_messages = []
 335        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 336        self.null_ordering = null_ordering
 337        self._indent = indent
 338        self._escaped_quote_end = self.string_escape + self.quote_end
 339        self._escaped_identifier_end = self.identifier_escape + self.identifier_end
 340        self._leading_comma = leading_comma
 341        self._max_text_width = max_text_width
 342        self._comments = comments
 343        self._cache = None
 344
 345    def generate(
 346        self,
 347        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
 348        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
 349    ) -> str:
 350        """
 351        Generates a SQL string by interpreting the given syntax tree.
 352
 353        Args
 354            expression: the syntax tree.
 355            cache: an optional sql string cache. this leverages the hash of an expression which is slow, so only use this if you set _hash on each node.
 356
 357        Returns
 358            the SQL string.
 359        """
 360        if cache is not None:
 361            self._cache = cache
 362        self.unsupported_messages = []
 363        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 364        self._cache = None
 365
 366        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 367            return sql
 368
 369        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 370            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 371                logger.warning(msg)
 372        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 373            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 374
 375        if self.pretty:
 376            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 377        return sql
 378
 379    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 380        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 381            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 382        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 383
 384    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 385        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 386
 387    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 388        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 389
 390    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 391        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 392        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 393        return comment
 394
 395    def maybe_comment(
 396        self,
 397        sql: str,
 398        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 399        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 400    ) -> str:
 401        comments = ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments) if self._comments else None  # type: ignore
 402
 403        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
 404            return sql
 405
 406        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
 407        comments_sql = sep.join(
 408            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 409        )
 410
 411        if not comments_sql:
 412            return sql
 413
 414        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 415            return (
 416                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 417                if sql[0].isspace()
 418                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 419            )
 420
 421        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 422
 423    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 424        this_sql = self.indent(
 425            self.sql(expression)
 426            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 427            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 428            level=1,
 429            pad=0,
 430        )
 431        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 432
 433    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 434        original = self.identify
 435        self.identify = False
 436        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 437        self.identify = original
 438        return result
 439
 440    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 441        if self.normalize_functions == "upper":
 442            return name.upper()
 443        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 444            return name.lower()
 445        return name
 446
 447    def indent(
 448        self,
 449        sql: str,
 450        level: int = 0,
 451        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 452        skip_first: bool = False,
 453        skip_last: bool = False,
 454    ) -> str:
 455        if not self.pretty:
 456            return sql
 457
 458        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 459        lines = sql.split("\n")
 460
 461        return "\n".join(
 462            line
 463            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 464            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 465            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 466        )
 467
 468    def sql(
 469        self,
 470        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 471        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 472        comment: bool = True,
 473    ) -> str:
 474        if not expression:
 475            return ""
 476
 477        if isinstance(expression, str):
 478            return expression
 479
 480        if key:
 481            return self.sql(expression.args.get(key))
 482
 483        if self._cache is not None:
 484            expression_id = hash(expression)
 485
 486            if expression_id in self._cache:
 487                return self._cache[expression_id]
 488
 489        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 490
 491        if callable(transform):
 492            sql = transform(self, expression)
 493        elif transform:
 494            sql = transform
 495        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 496            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 497
 498            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 499                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 500            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 501                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 502            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 503                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 504            else:
 505                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 506        else:
 507            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 508
 509        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self._comments and comment else sql
 510
 511        if self._cache is not None:
 512            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
 513        return sql
 514
 515    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 516        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 517        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 518        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 519
 520    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 521        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 522        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 523        options = expression.args.get("options")
 524        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 525        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 526        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 527        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 528        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 529
 530    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 531        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 532            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 533        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 534        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 535
 536    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 537        return ".".join(
 538            self.sql(part)
 539            for part in (
 540                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 541                expression.args.get("db"),
 542                expression.args.get("table"),
 543                expression.args.get("this"),
 544            )
 545            if part
 546        )
 547
 548    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 549        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 550        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 551        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 552        return f"{position}{this}"
 553
 554    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 555        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 556        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 557        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 558        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 559        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 560        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 561        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 562        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 563
 564        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 565
 566    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 567        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 568        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 569        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 570
 571    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 572        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 573
 574    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 575        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 576            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 577        else:
 578            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 579
 580        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 581
 582    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 583        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 584    ) -> str:
 585        this = ""
 586        if expression.this is not None:
 587            on_null = "ON NULL " if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 588            this = " ALWAYS " if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT {on_null}"
 589
 590        start = expression.args.get("start")
 591        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 592        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 593        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 594        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 595        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 596        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 597        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 598        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 599        cycle_sql = ""
 600        if cycle is not None:
 601            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 602            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 603        sequence_opts = ""
 604        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 605            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 606            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 607        return f"GENERATED{this}AS IDENTITY{sequence_opts}"
 608
 609    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 610        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 611
 612    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 613        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 614        if desc is not None:
 615            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 616        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 617
 618    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 619        return "UNIQUE"
 620
 621    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 622        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 623        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 624        properties_exp = expression.copy()
 625        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else {}
 626        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 627            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 628        ):
 629            properties_exp.set(
 630                "properties",
 631                exp.Properties(
 632                    expressions=[
 633                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 634                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 635                    ]
 636                ),
 637            )
 638        if kind == "TABLE" and properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME):
 639            this_name = self.sql(expression.this, "this")
 640            this_properties = self.properties(
 641                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME]),
 642                wrapped=False,
 643            )
 644            this_schema = f"({self.expressions(expression.this)})"
 645            this = f"{this_name}, {this_properties} {this_schema}"
 646            properties_sql = ""
 647        else:
 648            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 649            properties_sql = self.sql(properties_exp, "properties")
 650        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 651        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 652        if expression_sql:
 653            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
 654
 655            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 656                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 657                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 658                        exp.Properties(
 659                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 660                        ),
 661                        wrapped=False,
 662                    )
 663                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 664                else:
 665                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 666
 667        postindex_props_sql = ""
 668        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 669            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 670                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 671                wrapped=False,
 672                prefix=" ",
 673            )
 674
 675        indexes = expression.args.get("indexes")
 676        if indexes:
 677            indexes_sql: t.List[str] = []
 678            for index in indexes:
 679                ind_unique = " UNIQUE" if index.args.get("unique") else ""
 680                ind_primary = " PRIMARY" if index.args.get("primary") else ""
 681                ind_amp = " AMP" if index.args.get("amp") else ""
 682                ind_name = f" {index.name}" if index.name else ""
 683                ind_columns = (
 684                    f' ({self.expressions(index, key="columns", flat=True)})'
 685                    if index.args.get("columns")
 686                    else ""
 687                )
 688                ind_sql = f"{ind_unique}{ind_primary}{ind_amp} INDEX{ind_name}{ind_columns}"
 689
 690                if indexes_sql:
 691                    indexes_sql.append(ind_sql)
 692                else:
 693                    indexes_sql.append(
 694                        f"{ind_sql}{postindex_props_sql}"
 695                        if index.args.get("primary")
 696                        else f"{postindex_props_sql}{ind_sql}"
 697                    )
 698
 699            index_sql = "".join(indexes_sql)
 700        else:
 701            index_sql = postindex_props_sql
 702
 703        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 704        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 705
 706        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 707        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 708            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 709                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 710                sep=" ",
 711                prefix=" ",
 712                wrapped=False,
 713            )
 714
 715        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 716
 717        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 718        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 719            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 720                exp.Properties(
 721                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 722                ),
 723                sep=" ",
 724                prefix=" ",
 725                wrapped=False,
 726            )
 727
 728        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 729        no_schema_binding = (
 730            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 731        )
 732
 733        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 734        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 735
 736        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 737        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 738
 739    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 740        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 741        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 742
 743        if when:
 744            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 745            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 746            return f"CLONE {this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 747
 748        return f"CLONE {this}"
 749
 750    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 751        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 752
 753    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 754        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 755        if with_:
 756            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 757        return sql
 758
 759    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 760        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 761        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
 762
 763        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 764
 765    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 766        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 767        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 768
 769    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 770        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 771        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 772        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 773        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 774
 775    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 776        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 777        if self.bit_start:
 778            return f"{self.bit_start}{this}{self.bit_end}"
 779        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 780
 781    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 782        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 783        if self.hex_start:
 784            return f"{self.hex_start}{this}{self.hex_end}"
 785        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 786
 787    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 788        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 789        if self.byte_start:
 790            return f"{self.byte_start}{this}{self.byte_end}"
 791        return this
 792
 793    def datatypesize_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeSize) -> str:
 794        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 795        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 796        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
 797        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 798
 799    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 800        type_value = expression.this
 801        type_sql = self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 802        nested = ""
 803        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 804        values = ""
 805        if interior:
 806            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 807                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 808                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 809                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 810                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{self.expressions(expression, key='values')}{delimiters[1]}"
 811            else:
 812                nested = f"({interior})"
 813
 814        return f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 815
 816    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 817        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 818        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 819        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 820        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
 821
 822    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 823        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 824        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 825        using_sql = (
 826            f" USING {self.expressions(expression, key='using', sep=', USING ')}"
 827            if expression.args.get("using")
 828            else ""
 829        )
 830        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
 831        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
 832        sql = f"DELETE{this}{using_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
 833        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 834
 835    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
 836        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 837        kind = expression.args["kind"]
 838        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
 839        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
 840        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
 841        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
 842        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
 843        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
 844        return (
 845            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
 846        )
 847
 848    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 849        return self.prepend_ctes(
 850            expression,
 851            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
 852        )
 853
 854    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 855        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
 856
 857    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
 858        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
 859        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
 860        count = expression.args.get("count")
 861        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
 862        if expression.args.get("percent"):
 863            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
 864        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
 865        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
 866
 867    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
 868        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 869        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
 870        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
 871
 872    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
 873        if self.sql(expression, "this"):
 874            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
 875        return ""
 876
 877    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
 878        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 879        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
 880        columns = self.sql(expression, "columns")
 881        return f"{this} ON {table} {columns}"
 882
 883    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
 884        text = expression.name
 885        lower = text.lower()
 886        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
 887        text = text.replace(self.identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
 888        if (
 889            expression.quoted
 890            or should_identify(text, self.identify)
 891            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
 892        ):
 893            text = f"{self.identifier_start}{text}{self.identifier_end}"
 894        return text
 895
 896    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
 897        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
 898        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
 899        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
 900        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
 901        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
 902
 903    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National) -> str:
 904        return f"N{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 905
 906    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
 907        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression)})"
 908
 909    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
 910        root_properties = []
 911        with_properties = []
 912
 913        for p in expression.expressions:
 914            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
 915            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
 916                with_properties.append(p)
 917            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
 918                root_properties.append(p)
 919
 920        return self.root_properties(
 921            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
 922        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
 923
 924    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
 925        if properties.expressions:
 926            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
 927        return ""
 928
 929    def properties(
 930        self,
 931        properties: exp.Properties,
 932        prefix: str = "",
 933        sep: str = ", ",
 934        suffix: str = "",
 935        wrapped: bool = True,
 936    ) -> str:
 937        if properties.expressions:
 938            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
 939            expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
 940            return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
 941        return ""
 942
 943    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
 944        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
 945
 946    def locate_properties(
 947        self, properties: exp.Properties
 948    ) -> t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]:
 949        properties_locs: t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]] = {
 950            key: [] for key in exp.Properties.Location
 951        }
 952
 953        for p in properties.expressions:
 954            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
 955            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME:
 956                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME].append(p)
 957            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX:
 958                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX].append(p)
 959            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
 960                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA].append(p)
 961            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
 962                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH].append(p)
 963            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE:
 964                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE].append(p)
 965            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS:
 966                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS].append(p)
 967            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION:
 968                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION].append(p)
 969            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
 970                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
 971
 972        return properties_locs
 973
 974    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
 975        property_cls = expression.__class__
 976        if property_cls == exp.Property:
 977            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
 978
 979        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
 980        if not property_name:
 981            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
 982
 983        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 984
 985    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
 986        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
 987        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
 988        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
 989
 990    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
 991        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
 992        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
 993        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
 994
 995    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
 996        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
 997        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
 998        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
 999        return f"{no}{dual}{before}JOURNAL"
1000
1001    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1002        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1003        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1004        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1005
1006    def afterjournalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.AfterJournalProperty) -> str:
1007        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1008        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1009        local = ""
1010        if expression.args.get("local") is not None:
1011            local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else "NOT LOCAL "
1012        return f"{no}{dual}{local}AFTER JOURNAL"
1013
1014    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1015        if expression.args.get("default"):
1016            property = "DEFAULT"
1017        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1018            property = "ON"
1019        else:
1020            property = "OFF"
1021        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1022
1023    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1024        if expression.args.get("no"):
1025            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1026        if expression.args.get("default"):
1027            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1028
1029        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1030        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1031
1032    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1033        default = expression.args.get("default")
1034        min = expression.args.get("min")
1035        if default is not None or min is not None:
1036            if default:
1037                property = "DEFAULT"
1038            elif min:
1039                property = "MINIMUM"
1040            else:
1041                property = "MAXIMUM"
1042            return f"{property} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1043        else:
1044            units = expression.args.get("units")
1045            units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1046            return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1047
1048    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1049        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1050        always = expression.args.get("always")
1051        default = expression.args.get("default")
1052        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1053        never = expression.args.get("never")
1054
1055        if autotemp is not None:
1056            property = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1057        elif always:
1058            property = "ALWAYS"
1059        elif default:
1060            property = "DEFAULT"
1061        elif manual:
1062            property = "MANUAL"
1063        elif never:
1064            property = "NEVER"
1065        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={property}"
1066
1067    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1068        no = expression.args.get("no")
1069        no = " NO" if no else ""
1070        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1071        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1072
1073        for_ = ""
1074        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1075            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1076        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1077            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1078        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1079            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1080        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1081
1082    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1083        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1084        this: str = f" {this}" if expression.this else ""
1085        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1086        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1087        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1088        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1089
1090    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1091        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1092        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1093        statistics_sql = ""
1094        if statistics is not None:
1095            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1096        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1097
1098    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1099        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1100
1101        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1102            this = "OVERWRITE " if overwrite else "INTO "
1103        else:
1104            this = "OVERWRITE TABLE " if overwrite else "INTO "
1105
1106        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1107        alternative = f" OR {alternative} " if alternative else " "
1108        this = f"{this}{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1109
1110        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1111        partition_sql = (
1112            self.sql(expression, "partition") if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1113        )
1114        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1115        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1116        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1117        sep = self.sep() if partition_sql else ""
1118        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{this}{exists}{partition_sql}{sep}{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1119        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1120
1121    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1122        return self.prepend_ctes(
1123            expression,
1124            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1125        )
1126
1127    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1128        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1129
1130    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1131        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1132
1133    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1134        return expression.name.upper()
1135
1136    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1137        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1138        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1139        if constraint:
1140            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1141        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1142        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1143        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1144        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1145        if expressions:
1146            expressions = f"UPDATE SET {expressions}"
1147        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1148
1149    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1150        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1151
1152    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1153        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1154        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1155        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1156        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1157        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1158        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1159        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1160        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1161        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1162        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1163        null = expression.args.get("null")
1164        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1165        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1166
1167    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1168        table = ".".join(
1169            part
1170            for part in [
1171                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1172                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1173                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1174            ]
1175            if part
1176        )
1177
1178        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1179        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1180        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", flat=True)
1181        hints = f" WITH ({hints})" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1182        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1183        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1184        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="")
1185        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1186        system_time = expression.args.get("system_time")
1187        system_time = f" {self.sql(expression, 'system_time')}" if system_time else ""
1188
1189        return f"{table}{system_time}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
1190
1191    def tablesample_sql(
1192        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1193    ) -> str:
1194        if self.alias_post_tablesample and expression.this.alias:
1195            table = expression.this.copy()
1196            table.set("alias", None)
1197            this = self.sql(table)
1198            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1199        else:
1200            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1201            alias = ""
1202        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1203        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1204        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1205        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1206        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1207        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1208        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1209        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1210        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1211        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1212        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1213        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1214        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1215            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1216        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1217        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1218        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1219        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
1220
1221    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1222        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1223        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1224        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1225        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1226        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1227        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1228        return f"{direction}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1229
1230    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1231        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1232
1233    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1234        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1235        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1236        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1237        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1238        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1239        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1240        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1241
1242    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1243        args = self.expressions(expression)
1244        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1245        values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1246        values = (
1247            f"({values})"
1248            if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1249            else values
1250        )
1251        return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1252
1253    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1254        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1255
1256    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1257        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1258        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1259        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1260
1261    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1262        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1263
1264    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1265        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1266        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1267        grouping_sets = (
1268            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1269        )
1270
1271        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1272        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1273            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1274        else:
1275            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1276            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1277
1278        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1279        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1280            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1281        else:
1282            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1283            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1284
1285        groupings = csv(
1286            grouping_sets,
1287            cube_sql,
1288            rollup_sql,
1289            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1290            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1291        )
1292
1293        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1294            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1295
1296        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1297
1298    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1299        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1300        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1301
1302    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1303        op_sql = " ".join(
1304            op
1305            for op in (
1306                "NATURAL" if expression.args.get("natural") else None,
1307                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1308                expression.side,
1309                expression.kind,
1310                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1311            )
1312            if op
1313        )
1314        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1315        using = expression.args.get("using")
1316
1317        if not on_sql and using:
1318            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1319
1320        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1321
1322        if on_sql:
1323            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1324            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1325            if using:
1326                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1327            else:
1328                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1329        elif not op_sql:
1330            return f", {this_sql}"
1331
1332        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1333        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1334
1335    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1336        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1337        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1338        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1339
1340    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1341        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1342
1343        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1344            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1345
1346        if expression.args.get("view"):
1347            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1348            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1349            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1350            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1351            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1352            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1353
1354        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1355        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1356        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1357
1358    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit) -> str:
1359        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1360        return f"{this}{self.seg('LIMIT')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1361
1362    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1363        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1364        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1365
1366    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1367        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1368        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1369        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1370        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1371        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1372        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1373        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1374        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1375
1376    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1377        expressions = (
1378            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1379        )
1380        return f"SET{expressions}"
1381
1382    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1383        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1384
1385    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1386        if self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1387            lock_type = "UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "SHARE"
1388            return self.seg(f"FOR {lock_type}")
1389
1390        self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1391        return ""
1392
1393    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1394        text = expression.this or ""
1395        if expression.is_string:
1396            text = text.replace(self.quote_end, self._escaped_quote_end)
1397            if self.pretty:
1398                text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1399            text = f"{self.quote_start}{text}{self.quote_end}"
1400        return text
1401
1402    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1403        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1404        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1405        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1406        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1407        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1408        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1409        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1410        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1411        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1412        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1413        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1414
1415    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1416        return "NULL"
1417
1418    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1419        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1420
1421    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1422        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1423        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1424        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1425
1426    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1427        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1428
1429    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1430        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1431
1432    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1433        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1434
1435    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1436        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1437        asc = not desc
1438
1439        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1440        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1441        nulls_are_large = self.null_ordering == "nulls_are_large"
1442        nulls_are_small = self.null_ordering == "nulls_are_small"
1443        nulls_are_last = self.null_ordering == "nulls_are_last"
1444
1445        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1446        nulls_sort_change = ""
1447        if nulls_first and (
1448            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1449        ):
1450            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1451        elif (
1452            nulls_last
1453            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1454            and not nulls_are_last
1455        ):
1456            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1457
1458        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1459            self.unsupported(
1460                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1461            )
1462            nulls_sort_change = ""
1463
1464        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1465
1466    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1467        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1468        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1469        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1470        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1471        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1472        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1473        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1474        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1475        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1476        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1477        definition_sqls = [
1478            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1479            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1480        ]
1481        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1482        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1483        body = "".join(
1484            (
1485                partition,
1486                order,
1487                measures,
1488                rows,
1489                after,
1490                pattern,
1491                define,
1492            )
1493        )
1494        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1495        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1496        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1497
1498    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1499        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1500
1501        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1502            limit = exp.Limit(expression=limit.args.get("count"))
1503        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1504            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=limit.expression)
1505
1506        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1507
1508        return csv(
1509            *sqls,
1510            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1511            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1512            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1513            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1514            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1515            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1516            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1517            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1518            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1519            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1520            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1521            sep="",
1522        )
1523
1524    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression):
1525        return [
1526            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1527            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1528            if expression.args.get("windows")
1529            else "",
1530        ]
1531
1532    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression):
1533        return [
1534            self.sql(expression, "lock"),
1535            self.sql(expression, "sample"),
1536        ]
1537
1538    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1539        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1540        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1541        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1542        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1543        kind = f" AS {kind}" if kind else ""
1544        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1545        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1546        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1547            expression,
1548            f"SELECT{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1549            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1550            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1551        )
1552        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1553
1554    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1555        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1556        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1557        sql = f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1558        return f"{this}{sql}"
1559
1560    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1561        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1562        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1563        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1564        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1565        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
1566
1567    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1568        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1569        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1570        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
1571
1572    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1573        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1574        kind = expression.text("kind")
1575        if kind:
1576            kind = f"{kind}."
1577        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
1578
1579    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1580        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
1581
1582    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1583        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1584        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1585
1586        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1587        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1588
1589        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1590        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1591
1592    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1593        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1594        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1595
1596    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1597        return self.prepend_ctes(
1598            expression,
1599            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1600        )
1601
1602    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1603        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1604        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1605        return f"UNION{kind}"
1606
1607    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1608        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1609        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1610        if alias and self.unnest_column_only:
1611            columns = alias.columns
1612            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1613        else:
1614            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1615        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1616        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1617        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1618        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1619        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
1620
1621    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1622        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1623        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1624
1625    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1626        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1627
1628        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1629
1630        order = expression.args.get("order")
1631        order_sql = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1632
1633        partition_sql = partition + " " if partition and order else partition
1634
1635        spec = expression.args.get("spec")
1636        spec_sql = " " + self.windowspec_sql(spec) if spec else ""
1637
1638        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1639        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1640        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1641
1642        first = expression.args.get("first")
1643        if first is not None:
1644            first = " FIRST " if first else " LAST "
1645        first = first or ""
1646
1647        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1648            return f"{this} {alias}"
1649
1650        window_args = alias + first + partition_sql + order_sql + spec_sql
1651
1652        return f"{this} ({window_args.strip()})"
1653
1654    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1655        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1656        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
1657
1658    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1659        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1660        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1661        end = (
1662            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1663            or "CURRENT ROW"
1664        )
1665        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
1666
1667    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1668        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1669        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1670        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
1671
1672    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1673        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1674        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1675        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1676        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
1677
1678    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1679        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.index_offset)
1680        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1681
1682        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
1683
1684    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1685        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
1686
1687    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1688        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1689        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1690            this = self.wrap(this)
1691        return f"ANY {this}"
1692
1693    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1694        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
1695
1696    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1697        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1698        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1699
1700        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1701            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1702            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1703
1704        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1705
1706        if default:
1707            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1708
1709        statements.append("END")
1710
1711        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self._max_text_width:
1712            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1713
1714        return " ".join(statements)
1715
1716    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1717        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1718        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1719        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
1720
1721    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1722        order = expression.args.get("order")
1723        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1724        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
1725
1726    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1727        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1728        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1729        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
1730
1731    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1732        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1733
1734        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1735            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1736        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1737            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1738        else:
1739            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
1740
1741    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
1742        if len(expression.expressions) == 1:
1743            return self.sql(expression.expressions[0])
1744        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
1745
1746    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1747        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1748        return f"CHECK ({this})"
1749
1750    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1751        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1752        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1753        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1754        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
1755        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
1756        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
1757        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
1758        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
1759
1760    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1761        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1762        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1763        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1764        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
1765
1766    def unique_sql(self, expression: exp.Unique) -> str:
1767        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions")
1768        return f"UNIQUE ({columns})"
1769
1770    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
1771        return self.case_sql(
1772            exp.Case(ifs=[expression.copy()], default=expression.args.get("false"))
1773        )
1774
1775    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1776        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
1777        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
1778        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
1779
1780    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1781        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1782
1783    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
1784        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1785        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
1786        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
1787        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
1788        if unique_keys is not None:
1789            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
1790        else:
1791            unique_keys = ""
1792        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
1793        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
1794        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
1795        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
1796        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
1797        return f"JSON_OBJECT({expressions}{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})"
1798
1799    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
1800        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1801        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1802        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1803        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
1804        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
1805        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
1806
1807    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
1808        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1809        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1810        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
1811        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1812        with_ = (
1813            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1814            if expressions
1815            else ""
1816        )
1817        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
1818
1819    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
1820        query = expression.args.get("query")
1821        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
1822        field = expression.args.get("field")
1823        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
1824
1825        if query:
1826            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
1827        elif unnest:
1828            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
1829        elif field:
1830            in_sql = self.sql(field)
1831        else:
1832            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1833
1834        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
1835
1836    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1837        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
1838
1839    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
1840        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
1841        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
1842            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
1843        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
1844
1845        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
1846            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
1847            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'"
1848
1849        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1850        if this:
1851            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
1852            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
1853
1854        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
1855
1856    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
1857        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1858
1859    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
1860        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1861        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1862        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1863        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1864        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1865        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
1866
1867    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
1868        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
1869
1870    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
1871        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
1872            sql = self.wrap(expression)
1873        else:
1874            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
1875            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1876
1877        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1878
1879    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
1880        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
1881        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1882        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
1883        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
1884
1885    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
1886        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1887
1888    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
1889        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1890        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1891        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
1892
1893    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
1894        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1895
1896    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
1897        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1898        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
1899        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
1900
1901    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
1902        return self.binary(expression, "+")
1903
1904    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
1905        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
1906
1907    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
1908        if not self.pretty:
1909            return self.binary(expression, op)
1910
1911        sqls = tuple(
1912            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
1913            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
1914        )
1915
1916        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self._max_text_width else " "
1917        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
1918
1919    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
1920        return self.binary(expression, "&")
1921
1922    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
1923        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
1924
1925    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
1926        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1927
1928    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
1929        return self.binary(expression, "|")
1930
1931    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
1932        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
1933
1934    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
1935        return self.binary(expression, "^")
1936
1937    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast) -> str:
1938        return f"CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')})"
1939
1940    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
1941        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
1942        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
1943
1944    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
1945        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
1946
1947    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
1948        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
1949
1950    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
1951        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1952        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1953        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1954        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1955        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
1956
1957    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
1958        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1959        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
1960        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
1961        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
1962        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
1963        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
1964        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
1965        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
1966        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
1967
1968    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
1969        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1970        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1971        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
1972        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
1973
1974        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
1975            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1976
1977        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
1978
1979    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
1980        return "BEGIN"
1981
1982    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
1983        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
1984        if chain is not None:
1985            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
1986
1987        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
1988
1989    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
1990        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
1991        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
1992        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
1993
1994    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
1995        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1996
1997        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
1998        if dtype:
1999            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2000            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2001            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2002            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2003            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2004
2005        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2006        if default:
2007            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2008
2009        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2010            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2011
2012        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2013
2014    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2015        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2016            # Remove db from tables
2017            expression = expression.transform(
2018                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2019            )
2020        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2021        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2022
2023    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2024        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2025
2026        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2027            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMN ")
2028        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2029            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2030        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2031            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2032        else:
2033            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2034
2035        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2036        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2037
2038    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2039        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2040        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2041        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2042
2043    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2044        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2045        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2046        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2047
2048        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2049        if enforced is not None:
2050            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2051
2052        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2053
2054    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2055        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2056        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2057
2058        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2059        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2060        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2061
2062    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2063        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2064
2065    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2066        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2067
2068    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2069        return self.sql(
2070            exp.Cast(
2071                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2072                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2073            )
2074        )
2075
2076    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2077        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2078
2079    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2080        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2081
2082    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2083        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2084
2085    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2086        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2087
2088    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2089        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2090
2091    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2092        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2093
2094    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2095        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2096
2097    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2098        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2099
2100    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2101        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2102
2103    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2104        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2105
2106    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2107        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2108
2109    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2110        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2111
2112    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2113        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2114
2115    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2116        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2117
2118    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2119        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2120
2121    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2122        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2123
2124    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2125        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2126
2127    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2128        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2129
2130    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2131        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2132
2133    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2134        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2135
2136    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2137        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2138
2139    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2140        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2141
2142    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2143        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2144
2145    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2146        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2147
2148    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2149        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2150
2151    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2152        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2153
2154    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2155        return f"TRY_CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')})"
2156
2157    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2158        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2159        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2160        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2161        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2162        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2163
2164    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2165        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2166        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2167
2168    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2169        args = []
2170        for arg_value in expression.args.values():
2171            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2172                for value in arg_value:
2173                    args.append(value)
2174            else:
2175                args.append(arg_value)
2176
2177        return self.func(expression.sql_name(), *args)
2178
2179    def func(self, name: str, *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str]) -> str:
2180        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}({self.format_args(*args)})"
2181
2182    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2183        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2184        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self._max_text_width:
2185            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2186        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2187
2188    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2189        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2190
2191    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2192        return format_time(self.sql(expression, "format"), self.time_mapping, self.time_trie)
2193
2194    def expressions(
2195        self,
2196        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2197        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2198        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2199        flat: bool = False,
2200        indent: bool = True,
2201        sep: str = ", ",
2202        prefix: str = "",
2203    ) -> str:
2204        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2205
2206        if not expressions:
2207            return ""
2208
2209        if flat:
2210            return sep.join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2211
2212        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2213
2214        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2215        pad = " " * self.pad
2216        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2217
2218        result_sqls = []
2219        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2220            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2221            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2222
2223            if self.pretty:
2224                if self._leading_comma:
2225                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2226                else:
2227                    result_sqls.append(
2228                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2229                    )
2230            else:
2231                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2232
2233        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2234        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=False) if indent else result_sql
2235
2236    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2237        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2238        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2239        if flat:
2240            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2241        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2242
2243    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2244        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2245        if not property_name:
2246            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2247        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2248
2249    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2250        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2251        op = self.seg(op)
2252        return self.query_modifiers(
2253            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2254        )
2255
2256    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2257        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2258
2259    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2260        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2261
2262    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2263        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2264        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2265        expressions = (
2266            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2267        )
2268        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2269
2270    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2271        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2272        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2273        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2274
2275    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2276        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2277
2278    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2279        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2280        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2281        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2282        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2283
2284        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2285        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2286            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2287            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2288                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2289        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2290            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2291                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2292            else:
2293                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2294        else:
2295            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2296        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2297
2298    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2299        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2300        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2301        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2302        return f"MERGE INTO {this} {using} {on} {self.expressions(expression, sep=' ')}"
2303
2304    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2305        if expression.args.get("format"):
2306            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2307
2308        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))

Generator interprets the given syntax tree and produces a SQL string as an output.

Arguments:
  • time_mapping (dict): the dictionary of custom time mappings in which the key represents a python time format and the output the target time format
  • time_trie (trie): a trie of the time_mapping keys
  • pretty (bool): if set to True the returned string will be formatted. Default: False.
  • quote_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit quotes. Default: '.
  • quote_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit quotes. Default: '.
  • identifier_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit identifiers. Default: ".
  • identifier_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit identifiers. Default: ".
  • bit_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit bit literals. Default: None.
  • bit_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit bit literals. Default: None.
  • hex_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit hex literals. Default: None.
  • hex_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit hex literals. Default: None.
  • byte_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit byte literals. Default: None.
  • byte_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit byte literals. Default: None.
  • identify (bool | str): 'always': always quote, 'safe': quote identifiers if they don't contain an upcase, True defaults to always.
  • normalize (bool): if set to True all identifiers will lower cased
  • string_escape (str): specifies a string escape character. Default: '.
  • identifier_escape (str): specifies an identifier escape character. Default: ".
  • pad (int): determines padding in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • indent (int): determines the size of indentation in a formatted string. Default: 4.
  • unnest_column_only (bool): if true unnest table aliases are considered only as column aliases
  • normalize_functions (str): normalize function names, "upper", "lower", or None Default: "upper"
  • alias_post_tablesample (bool): if the table alias comes after tablesample Default: False
  • unsupported_level (ErrorLevel): determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • null_ordering (str): Indicates the default null ordering method to use if not explicitly set. Options are "nulls_are_small", "nulls_are_large", "nulls_are_last". Default: "nulls_are_small"
  • max_unsupported (int): Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma (bool): if the the comma is leading or trailing in select statements Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( time_mapping=None, time_trie=None, pretty=None, quote_start=None, quote_end=None, identifier_start=None, identifier_end=None, bit_start=None, bit_end=None, hex_start=None, hex_end=None, byte_start=None, byte_end=None, identify=False, normalize=False, string_escape=None, identifier_escape=None, pad=2, indent=2, index_offset=0, unnest_column_only=False, alias_post_tablesample=False, normalize_functions='upper', unsupported_level=<ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, null_ordering=None, max_unsupported=3, leading_comma=False, max_text_width=80, comments=True)
277    def __init__(
278        self,
279        time_mapping=None,
280        time_trie=None,
281        pretty=None,
282        quote_start=None,
283        quote_end=None,
284        identifier_start=None,
285        identifier_end=None,
286        bit_start=None,
287        bit_end=None,
288        hex_start=None,
289        hex_end=None,
290        byte_start=None,
291        byte_end=None,
292        identify=False,
293        normalize=False,
294        string_escape=None,
295        identifier_escape=None,
296        pad=2,
297        indent=2,
298        index_offset=0,
299        unnest_column_only=False,
300        alias_post_tablesample=False,
301        normalize_functions="upper",
302        unsupported_level=ErrorLevel.WARN,
303        null_ordering=None,
304        max_unsupported=3,
305        leading_comma=False,
306        max_text_width=80,
307        comments=True,
308    ):
309        import sqlglot
310
311        self.time_mapping = time_mapping or {}
312        self.time_trie = time_trie
313        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
314        self.quote_start = quote_start or "'"
315        self.quote_end = quote_end or "'"
316        self.identifier_start = identifier_start or '"'
317        self.identifier_end = identifier_end or '"'
318        self.bit_start = bit_start
319        self.bit_end = bit_end
320        self.hex_start = hex_start
321        self.hex_end = hex_end
322        self.byte_start = byte_start
323        self.byte_end = byte_end
324        self.identify = identify
325        self.normalize = normalize
326        self.string_escape = string_escape or "'"
327        self.identifier_escape = identifier_escape or '"'
328        self.pad = pad
329        self.index_offset = index_offset
330        self.unnest_column_only = unnest_column_only
331        self.alias_post_tablesample = alias_post_tablesample
332        self.normalize_functions = normalize_functions
333        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
334        self.unsupported_messages = []
335        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
336        self.null_ordering = null_ordering
337        self._indent = indent
338        self._escaped_quote_end = self.string_escape + self.quote_end
339        self._escaped_identifier_end = self.identifier_escape + self.identifier_end
340        self._leading_comma = leading_comma
341        self._max_text_width = max_text_width
342        self._comments = comments
343        self._cache = None
def generate( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], cache: Optional[Dict[int, str]] = None) -> str:
345    def generate(
346        self,
347        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
348        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
349    ) -> str:
350        """
351        Generates a SQL string by interpreting the given syntax tree.
352
353        Args
354            expression: the syntax tree.
355            cache: an optional sql string cache. this leverages the hash of an expression which is slow, so only use this if you set _hash on each node.
356
357        Returns
358            the SQL string.
359        """
360        if cache is not None:
361            self._cache = cache
362        self.unsupported_messages = []
363        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
364        self._cache = None
365
366        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
367            return sql
368
369        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
370            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
371                logger.warning(msg)
372        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
373            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
374
375        if self.pretty:
376            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
377        return sql

Generates a SQL string by interpreting the given syntax tree.

Args expression: the syntax tree. cache: an optional sql string cache. this leverages the hash of an expression which is slow, so only use this if you set _hash on each node.

Returns the SQL string.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
379    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
380        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
381            raise UnsupportedError(message)
382        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
384    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
385        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
387    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
388        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
390    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
391        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
392        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
393        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None) -> str:
395    def maybe_comment(
396        self,
397        sql: str,
398        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
399        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
400    ) -> str:
401        comments = ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments) if self._comments else None  # type: ignore
402
403        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
404            return sql
405
406        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
407        comments_sql = sep.join(
408            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
409        )
410
411        if not comments_sql:
412            return sql
413
414        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
415            return (
416                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
417                if sql[0].isspace()
418                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
419            )
420
421        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
423    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
424        this_sql = self.indent(
425            self.sql(expression)
426            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
427            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
428            level=1,
429            pad=0,
430        )
431        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
433    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
434        original = self.identify
435        self.identify = False
436        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
437        self.identify = original
438        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
440    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
441        if self.normalize_functions == "upper":
442            return name.upper()
443        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
444            return name.lower()
445        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
447    def indent(
448        self,
449        sql: str,
450        level: int = 0,
451        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
452        skip_first: bool = False,
453        skip_last: bool = False,
454    ) -> str:
455        if not self.pretty:
456            return sql
457
458        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
459        lines = sql.split("\n")
460
461        return "\n".join(
462            line
463            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
464            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
465            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
466        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
468    def sql(
469        self,
470        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
471        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
472        comment: bool = True,
473    ) -> str:
474        if not expression:
475            return ""
476
477        if isinstance(expression, str):
478            return expression
479
480        if key:
481            return self.sql(expression.args.get(key))
482
483        if self._cache is not None:
484            expression_id = hash(expression)
485
486            if expression_id in self._cache:
487                return self._cache[expression_id]
488
489        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
490
491        if callable(transform):
492            sql = transform(self, expression)
493        elif transform:
494            sql = transform
495        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
496            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
497
498            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
499                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
500            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
501                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
502            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
503                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
504            else:
505                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
506        else:
507            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
508
509        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self._comments and comment else sql
510
511        if self._cache is not None:
512            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
513        return sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
515    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
516        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
517        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
518        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
520    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
521        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
522        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
523        options = expression.args.get("options")
524        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
525        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
526        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
527        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
528        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
530    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
531        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
532            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
533        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
534        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
536    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
537        return ".".join(
538            self.sql(part)
539            for part in (
540                expression.args.get("catalog"),
541                expression.args.get("db"),
542                expression.args.get("table"),
543                expression.args.get("this"),
544            )
545            if part
546        )
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
548    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
549        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
550        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
551        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
552        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
554    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
555        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
556        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
557        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
558        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
559        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
560        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
561        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
562        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
563
564        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
566    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
567        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
568        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
569        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
571    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
572        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
574    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
575        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
576            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
577        else:
578            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
579
580        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
582    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
583        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
584    ) -> str:
585        this = ""
586        if expression.this is not None:
587            on_null = "ON NULL " if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
588            this = " ALWAYS " if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT {on_null}"
589
590        start = expression.args.get("start")
591        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
592        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
593        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
594        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
595        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
596        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
597        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
598        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
599        cycle_sql = ""
600        if cycle is not None:
601            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
602            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
603        sequence_opts = ""
604        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
605            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
606            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
607        return f"GENERATED{this}AS IDENTITY{sequence_opts}"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
609    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
610        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
612    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
613        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
614        if desc is not None:
615            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
616        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
618    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
619        return "UNIQUE"
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
621    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
622        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
623        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
624        properties_exp = expression.copy()
625        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else {}
626        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
627            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
628        ):
629            properties_exp.set(
630                "properties",
631                exp.Properties(
632                    expressions=[
633                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
634                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
635                    ]
636                ),
637            )
638        if kind == "TABLE" and properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME):
639            this_name = self.sql(expression.this, "this")
640            this_properties = self.properties(
641                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME]),
642                wrapped=False,
643            )
644            this_schema = f"({self.expressions(expression.this)})"
645            this = f"{this_name}, {this_properties} {this_schema}"
646            properties_sql = ""
647        else:
648            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
649            properties_sql = self.sql(properties_exp, "properties")
650        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
651        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
652        if expression_sql:
653            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
654
655            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
656                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
657                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
658                        exp.Properties(
659                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
660                        ),
661                        wrapped=False,
662                    )
663                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
664                else:
665                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
666
667        postindex_props_sql = ""
668        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
669            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
670                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
671                wrapped=False,
672                prefix=" ",
673            )
674
675        indexes = expression.args.get("indexes")
676        if indexes:
677            indexes_sql: t.List[str] = []
678            for index in indexes:
679                ind_unique = " UNIQUE" if index.args.get("unique") else ""
680                ind_primary = " PRIMARY" if index.args.get("primary") else ""
681                ind_amp = " AMP" if index.args.get("amp") else ""
682                ind_name = f" {index.name}" if index.name else ""
683                ind_columns = (
684                    f' ({self.expressions(index, key="columns", flat=True)})'
685                    if index.args.get("columns")
686                    else ""
687                )
688                ind_sql = f"{ind_unique}{ind_primary}{ind_amp} INDEX{ind_name}{ind_columns}"
689
690                if indexes_sql:
691                    indexes_sql.append(ind_sql)
692                else:
693                    indexes_sql.append(
694                        f"{ind_sql}{postindex_props_sql}"
695                        if index.args.get("primary")
696                        else f"{postindex_props_sql}{ind_sql}"
697                    )
698
699            index_sql = "".join(indexes_sql)
700        else:
701            index_sql = postindex_props_sql
702
703        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
704        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
705
706        postcreate_props_sql = ""
707        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
708            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
709                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
710                sep=" ",
711                prefix=" ",
712                wrapped=False,
713            )
714
715        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
716
717        postexpression_props_sql = ""
718        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
719            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
720                exp.Properties(
721                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
722                ),
723                sep=" ",
724                prefix=" ",
725                wrapped=False,
726            )
727
728        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
729        no_schema_binding = (
730            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
731        )
732
733        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
734        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
735
736        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
737        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
739    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
740        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
741        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
742
743        if when:
744            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
745            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
746            return f"CLONE {this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
747
748        return f"CLONE {this}"
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
750    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
751        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
753    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
754        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
755        if with_:
756            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
757        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
759    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
760        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
761        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
762
763        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
765    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
766        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
767        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
769    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
770        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
771        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
772        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
773        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
775    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
776        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
777        if self.bit_start:
778            return f"{self.bit_start}{this}{self.bit_end}"
779        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
781    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
782        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
783        if self.hex_start:
784            return f"{self.hex_start}{this}{self.hex_end}"
785        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
787    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
788        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
789        if self.byte_start:
790            return f"{self.byte_start}{this}{self.byte_end}"
791        return this
def datatypesize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeSize) -> str:
793    def datatypesize_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeSize) -> str:
794        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
795        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
796        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
797        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
799    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
800        type_value = expression.this
801        type_sql = self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
802        nested = ""
803        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
804        values = ""
805        if interior:
806            if expression.args.get("nested"):
807                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
808                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
809                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
810                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{self.expressions(expression, key='values')}{delimiters[1]}"
811            else:
812                nested = f"({interior})"
813
814        return f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
816    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
817        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
818        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
819        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
820        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
822    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
823        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
824        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
825        using_sql = (
826            f" USING {self.expressions(expression, key='using', sep=', USING ')}"
827            if expression.args.get("using")
828            else ""
829        )
830        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
831        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
832        sql = f"DELETE{this}{using_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
833        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
835    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
836        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
837        kind = expression.args["kind"]
838        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
839        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
840        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
841        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
842        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
843        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
844        return (
845            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
846        )
def except_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
848    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
849        return self.prepend_ctes(
850            expression,
851            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
852        )
def except_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
854    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
855        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
857    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
858        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
859        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
860        count = expression.args.get("count")
861        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
862        if expression.args.get("percent"):
863            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
864        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
865        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
867    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
868        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
869        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
870        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
872    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
873        if self.sql(expression, "this"):
874            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
875        return ""
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
877    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
878        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
879        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
880        columns = self.sql(expression, "columns")
881        return f"{this} ON {table} {columns}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
883    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
884        text = expression.name
885        lower = text.lower()
886        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
887        text = text.replace(self.identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
888        if (
889            expression.quoted
890            or should_identify(text, self.identify)
891            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
892        ):
893            text = f"{self.identifier_start}{text}{self.identifier_end}"
894        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
896    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
897        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
898        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
899        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
900        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
901        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National) -> str:
903    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National) -> str:
904        return f"N{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
906    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
907        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
909    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
910        root_properties = []
911        with_properties = []
912
913        for p in expression.expressions:
914            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
915            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
916                with_properties.append(p)
917            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
918                root_properties.append(p)
919
920        return self.root_properties(
921            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
922        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
924    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
925        if properties.expressions:
926            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
927        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
929    def properties(
930        self,
931        properties: exp.Properties,
932        prefix: str = "",
933        sep: str = ", ",
934        suffix: str = "",
935        wrapped: bool = True,
936    ) -> str:
937        if properties.expressions:
938            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
939            expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
940            return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
941        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
943    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
944        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
def locate_properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> Dict[sqlglot.expressions.Properties.Location, list[sqlglot.expressions.Property]]:
946    def locate_properties(
947        self, properties: exp.Properties
948    ) -> t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]:
949        properties_locs: t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]] = {
950            key: [] for key in exp.Properties.Location
951        }
952
953        for p in properties.expressions:
954            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
955            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME:
956                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME].append(p)
957            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX:
958                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX].append(p)
959            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
960                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA].append(p)
961            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
962                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH].append(p)
963            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE:
964                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE].append(p)
965            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS:
966                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS].append(p)
967            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION:
968                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION].append(p)
969            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
970                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
971
972        return properties_locs
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
974    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
975        property_cls = expression.__class__
976        if property_cls == exp.Property:
977            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
978
979        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
980        if not property_name:
981            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
982
983        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
985    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
986        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
987        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
988        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
990    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
991        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
992        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
993        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
995    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
996        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
997        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
998        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
999        return f"{no}{dual}{before}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1001    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1002        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1003        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1004        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def afterjournalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AfterJournalProperty) -> str:
1006    def afterjournalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.AfterJournalProperty) -> str:
1007        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1008        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1009        local = ""
1010        if expression.args.get("local") is not None:
1011            local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else "NOT LOCAL "
1012        return f"{no}{dual}{local}AFTER JOURNAL"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1014    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1015        if expression.args.get("default"):
1016            property = "DEFAULT"
1017        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1018            property = "ON"
1019        else:
1020            property = "OFF"
1021        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1023    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1024        if expression.args.get("no"):
1025            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1026        if expression.args.get("default"):
1027            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1028
1029        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1030        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1032    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1033        default = expression.args.get("default")
1034        min = expression.args.get("min")
1035        if default is not None or min is not None:
1036            if default:
1037                property = "DEFAULT"
1038            elif min:
1039                property = "MINIMUM"
1040            else:
1041                property = "MAXIMUM"
1042            return f"{property} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1043        else:
1044            units = expression.args.get("units")
1045            units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1046            return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1048    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1049        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1050        always = expression.args.get("always")
1051        default = expression.args.get("default")
1052        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1053        never = expression.args.get("never")
1054
1055        if autotemp is not None:
1056            property = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1057        elif always:
1058            property = "ALWAYS"
1059        elif default:
1060            property = "DEFAULT"
1061        elif manual:
1062            property = "MANUAL"
1063        elif never:
1064            property = "NEVER"
1065        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={property}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1067    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1068        no = expression.args.get("no")
1069        no = " NO" if no else ""
1070        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1071        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1072
1073        for_ = ""
1074        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1075            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1076        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1077            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1078        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1079            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1080        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1082    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1083        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1084        this: str = f" {this}" if expression.this else ""
1085        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1086        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1087        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1088        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1090    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1091        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1092        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1093        statistics_sql = ""
1094        if statistics is not None:
1095            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1096        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1098    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1099        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1100
1101        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1102            this = "OVERWRITE " if overwrite else "INTO "
1103        else:
1104            this = "OVERWRITE TABLE " if overwrite else "INTO "
1105
1106        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1107        alternative = f" OR {alternative} " if alternative else " "
1108        this = f"{this}{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1109
1110        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1111        partition_sql = (
1112            self.sql(expression, "partition") if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1113        )
1114        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1115        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1116        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1117        sep = self.sep() if partition_sql else ""
1118        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{this}{exists}{partition_sql}{sep}{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1119        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def intersect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1121    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1122        return self.prepend_ctes(
1123            expression,
1124            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1125        )
def intersect_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1127    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1128        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1130    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1131        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1133    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1134        return expression.name.upper()
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1136    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1137        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1138        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1139        if constraint:
1140            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1141        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1142        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1143        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1144        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1145        if expressions:
1146            expressions = f"UPDATE SET {expressions}"
1147        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1149    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1150        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1152    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1153        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1154        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1155        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1156        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1157        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1158        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1159        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1160        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1161        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1162        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1163        null = expression.args.get("null")
1164        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1165        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1167    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1168        table = ".".join(
1169            part
1170            for part in [
1171                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1172                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1173                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1174            ]
1175            if part
1176        )
1177
1178        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1179        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1180        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", flat=True)
1181        hints = f" WITH ({hints})" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1182        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1183        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1184        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="")
1185        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1186        system_time = expression.args.get("system_time")
1187        system_time = f" {self.sql(expression, 'system_time')}" if system_time else ""
1188
1189        return f"{table}{system_time}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = 'SEED', sep=' AS ') -> str:
1191    def tablesample_sql(
1192        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1193    ) -> str:
1194        if self.alias_post_tablesample and expression.this.alias:
1195            table = expression.this.copy()
1196            table.set("alias", None)
1197            this = self.sql(table)
1198            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1199        else:
1200            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1201            alias = ""
1202        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1203        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1204        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1205        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1206        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1207        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1208        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1209        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1210        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1211        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1212        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1213        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1214        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1215            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1216        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1217        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1218        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1219        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1221    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1222        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1223        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1224        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1225        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1226        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1227        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1228        return f"{direction}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
1230    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1231        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
1233    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1234        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1235        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1236        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1237        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1238        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1239        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1240        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values) -> str:
1242    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1243        args = self.expressions(expression)
1244        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1245        values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1246        values = (
1247            f"({values})"
1248            if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1249            else values
1250        )
1251        return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
1253    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1254        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
1256    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1257        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1258        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1259        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
1261    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1262        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
1264    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1265        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1266        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1267        grouping_sets = (
1268            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1269        )
1270
1271        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1272        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1273            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1274        else:
1275            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1276            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1277
1278        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1279        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1280            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1281        else:
1282            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1283            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1284
1285        groupings = csv(
1286            grouping_sets,
1287            cube_sql,
1288            rollup_sql,
1289            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1290            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1291        )
1292
1293        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1294            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1295
1296        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
1298    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1299        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1300        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
1302    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1303        op_sql = " ".join(
1304            op
1305            for op in (
1306                "NATURAL" if expression.args.get("natural") else None,
1307                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1308                expression.side,
1309                expression.kind,
1310                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1311            )
1312            if op
1313        )
1314        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1315        using = expression.args.get("using")
1316
1317        if not on_sql and using:
1318            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1319
1320        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1321
1322        if on_sql:
1323            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1324            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1325            if using:
1326                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1327            else:
1328                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1329        elif not op_sql:
1330            return f", {this_sql}"
1331
1332        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1333        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
1335    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1336        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1337        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1338        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
1340    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1341        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1342
1343        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1344            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1345
1346        if expression.args.get("view"):
1347            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1348            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1349            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1350            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1351            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1352            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1353
1354        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1355        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1356        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit) -> str:
1358    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit) -> str:
1359        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1360        return f"{this}{self.seg('LIMIT')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
1362    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1363        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1364        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
1366    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1367        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1368        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1369        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1370        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1371        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1372        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1373        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1374        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
1376    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1377        expressions = (
1378            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1379        )
1380        return f"SET{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
1382    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1383        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
1385    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1386        if self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1387            lock_type = "UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "SHARE"
1388            return self.seg(f"FOR {lock_type}")
1389
1390        self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1391        return ""
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
1393    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1394        text = expression.this or ""
1395        if expression.is_string:
1396            text = text.replace(self.quote_end, self._escaped_quote_end)
1397            if self.pretty:
1398                text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1399            text = f"{self.quote_start}{text}{self.quote_end}"
1400        return text
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
1402    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1403        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1404        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1405        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1406        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1407        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1408        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1409        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1410        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1411        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1412        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1413        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1415    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1416        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
1418    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1419        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1421    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1422        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1423        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1424        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
1426    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1427        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
1429    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1430        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
1432    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1433        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
1435    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1436        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1437        asc = not desc
1438
1439        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1440        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1441        nulls_are_large = self.null_ordering == "nulls_are_large"
1442        nulls_are_small = self.null_ordering == "nulls_are_small"
1443        nulls_are_last = self.null_ordering == "nulls_are_last"
1444
1445        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1446        nulls_sort_change = ""
1447        if nulls_first and (
1448            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1449        ):
1450            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1451        elif (
1452            nulls_last
1453            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1454            and not nulls_are_last
1455        ):
1456            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1457
1458        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1459            self.unsupported(
1460                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1461            )
1462            nulls_sort_change = ""
1463
1464        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1466    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1467        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1468        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1469        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1470        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1471        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1472        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1473        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1474        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1475        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1476        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1477        definition_sqls = [
1478            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1479            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1480        ]
1481        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1482        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1483        body = "".join(
1484            (
1485                partition,
1486                order,
1487                measures,
1488                rows,
1489                after,
1490                pattern,
1491                define,
1492            )
1493        )
1494        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1495        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1496        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1498    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1499        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1500
1501        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1502            limit = exp.Limit(expression=limit.args.get("count"))
1503        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1504            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=limit.expression)
1505
1506        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1507
1508        return csv(
1509            *sqls,
1510            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1511            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1512            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1513            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1514            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1515            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1516            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1517            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1518            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1519            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1520            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1521            sep="",
1522        )
def after_having_modifiers(self, expression):
1524    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression):
1525        return [
1526            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1527            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1528            if expression.args.get("windows")
1529            else "",
1530        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression):
1532    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression):
1533        return [
1534            self.sql(expression, "lock"),
1535            self.sql(expression, "sample"),
1536        ]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
1538    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1539        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1540        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1541        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1542        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1543        kind = f" AS {kind}" if kind else ""
1544        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1545        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1546        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1547            expression,
1548            f"SELECT{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1549            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1550            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1551        )
1552        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
1554    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1555        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1556        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1557        sql = f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1558        return f"{this}{sql}"
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
1560    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1561        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1562        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1563        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1564        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1565        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
1567    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1568        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1569        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1570        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
1572    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1573        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1574        kind = expression.text("kind")
1575        if kind:
1576            kind = f"{kind}."
1577        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
1579    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1580        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1582    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1583        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1584        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1585
1586        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1587        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1588
1589        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1590        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
1592    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1593        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1594        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def union_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
1596    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1597        return self.prepend_ctes(
1598            expression,
1599            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1600        )
def union_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
1602    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1603        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1604        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1605        return f"UNION{kind}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
1607    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1608        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1609        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1610        if alias and self.unnest_column_only:
1611            columns = alias.columns
1612            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1613        else:
1614            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1615        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1616        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1617        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1618        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1619        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
1621    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1622        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1623        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
1625    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1626        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1627
1628        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1629
1630        order = expression.args.get("order")
1631        order_sql = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1632
1633        partition_sql = partition + " " if partition and order else partition
1634
1635        spec = expression.args.get("spec")
1636        spec_sql = " " + self.windowspec_sql(spec) if spec else ""
1637
1638        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1639        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1640        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1641
1642        first = expression.args.get("first")
1643        if first is not None:
1644            first = " FIRST " if first else " LAST "
1645        first = first or ""
1646
1647        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1648            return f"{this} {alias}"
1649
1650        window_args = alias + first + partition_sql + order_sql + spec_sql
1651
1652        return f"{this} ({window_args.strip()})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1654    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1655        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1656        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
1658    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1659        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1660        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1661        end = (
1662            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1663            or "CURRENT ROW"
1664        )
1665        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
1667    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1668        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1669        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1670        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
1672    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1673        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1674        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1675        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1676        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
1678    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1679        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.index_offset)
1680        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1681
1682        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
1684    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1685        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
1687    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1688        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1689        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1690            this = self.wrap(this)
1691        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
1693    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1694        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
1696    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1697        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1698        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1699
1700        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1701            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1702            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1703
1704        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1705
1706        if default:
1707            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1708
1709        statements.append("END")
1710
1711        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self._max_text_width:
1712            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1713
1714        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
1716    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1717        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1718        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1719        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
1721    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1722        order = expression.args.get("order")
1723        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1724        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
1726    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1727        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1728        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1729        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
1731    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1732        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1733
1734        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1735            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1736        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1737            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1738        else:
1739            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
def concat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat) -> str:
1741    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
1742        if len(expression.expressions) == 1:
1743            return self.sql(expression.expressions[0])
1744        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
1746    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1747        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1748        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
1750    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1751        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1752        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1753        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1754        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
1755        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
1756        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
1757        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
1758        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
1760    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1761        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1762        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1763        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1764        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def unique_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unique) -> str:
1766    def unique_sql(self, expression: exp.Unique) -> str:
1767        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions")
1768        return f"UNIQUE ({columns})"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
1770    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
1771        return self.case_sql(
1772            exp.Case(ifs=[expression.copy()], default=expression.args.get("false"))
1773        )
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1775    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1776        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
1777        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
1778        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1780    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1781        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject) -> str:
1783    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
1784        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1785        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
1786        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
1787        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
1788        if unique_keys is not None:
1789            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
1790        else:
1791            unique_keys = ""
1792        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
1793        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
1794        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
1795        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
1796        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
1797        return f"JSON_OBJECT({expressions}{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})"
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
1799    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
1800        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1801        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1802        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1803        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
1804        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
1805        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
1807    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
1808        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1809        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1810        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
1811        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1812        with_ = (
1813            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1814            if expressions
1815            else ""
1816        )
1817        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
1819    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
1820        query = expression.args.get("query")
1821        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
1822        field = expression.args.get("field")
1823        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
1824
1825        if query:
1826            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
1827        elif unnest:
1828            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
1829        elif field:
1830            in_sql = self.sql(field)
1831        else:
1832            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1833
1834        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
1836    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1837        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
1839    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
1840        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
1841        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
1842            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
1843        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
1844
1845        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
1846            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
1847            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'"
1848
1849        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1850        if this:
1851            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
1852            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
1853
1854        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
1856    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
1857        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
1859    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
1860        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1861        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1862        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1863        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1864        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1865        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
1867    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
1868        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
1870    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
1871        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
1872            sql = self.wrap(expression)
1873        else:
1874            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
1875            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1876
1877        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
1879    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
1880        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
1881        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1882        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
1883        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
1885    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
1886        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
1888    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
1889        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1890        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1891        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
1893    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
1894        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
1896    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
1897        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1898        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
1899        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
1901    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
1902        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And) -> str:
1904    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
1905        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
def connector_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str) -> str:
1907    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
1908        if not self.pretty:
1909            return self.binary(expression, op)
1910
1911        sqls = tuple(
1912            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
1913            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
1914        )
1915
1916        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self._max_text_width else " "
1917        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
1919    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
1920        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
1922    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
1923        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
1925    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
1926        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
1928    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
1929        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
1931    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
1932        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
1934    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
1935        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast) -> str:
1937    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast) -> str:
1938        return f"CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
1940    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
1941        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
1942        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
1944    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
1945        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
1947    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
1948        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
1950    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
1951        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1952        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1953        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1954        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1955        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
1957    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
1958        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1959        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
1960        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
1961        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
1962        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
1963        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
1964        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
1965        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
1966        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
1968    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
1969        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1970        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1971        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
1972        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
1973
1974        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
1975            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1976
1977        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
1979    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
1980        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
1982    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
1983        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
1984        if chain is not None:
1985            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
1986
1987        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
1989    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
1990        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
1991        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
1992        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
1994    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
1995        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1996
1997        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
1998        if dtype:
1999            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2000            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2001            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2002            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2003            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2004
2005        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2006        if default:
2007            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2008
2009        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2010            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2011
2012        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str:
2014    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2015        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2016            # Remove db from tables
2017            expression = expression.transform(
2018                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2019            )
2020        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2021        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def altertable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
2023    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2024        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2025
2026        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2027            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMN ")
2028        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2029            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2030        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2031            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2032        else:
2033            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2034
2035        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2036        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
2038    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2039        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2040        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2041        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
2043    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2044        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2045        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2046        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2047
2048        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2049        if enforced is not None:
2050            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2051
2052        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
2054    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2055        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2056        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2057
2058        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2059        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2060        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2062    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2063        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
2065    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2066        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
2068    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2069        return self.sql(
2070            exp.Cast(
2071                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2072                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2073            )
2074        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
2076    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2077        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
2079    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2080        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
2082    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2083        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
2085    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2086        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
2088    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2089        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
2091    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2092        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
2094    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2095        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
2097    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2098        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
2100    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2101        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
2103    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2104        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
2106    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2107        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
2109    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2110        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
2112    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2113        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
2115    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2116        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
2118    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2119        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
2121    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2122        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
2124    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2125        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
2127    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2128        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
2130    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2131        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
2133    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2134        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
2136    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2137        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2139    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2140        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2142    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2143        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def or_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or) -> str:
2145    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2146        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
2148    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2149        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
2151    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2152        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
2154    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2155        return f"TRY_CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')})"
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
2157    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2158        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2159        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2160        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2161        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2162        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2164    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2165        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2166        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
2168    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2169        args = []
2170        for arg_value in expression.args.values():
2171            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2172                for value in arg_value:
2173                    args.append(value)
2174            else:
2175                args.append(arg_value)
2176
2177        return self.func(expression.sql_name(), *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
2179    def func(self, name: str, *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str]) -> str:
2180        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}({self.format_args(*args)})"
def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
2182    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2183        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2184        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self._max_text_width:
2185            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2186        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
def text_width(self, args: Iterable) -> int:
2188    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2189        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
def format_time(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> Optional[str]:
2191    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2192        return format_time(self.sql(expression, "format"), self.time_mapping, self.time_trie)
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[List[str]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '') -> str:
2194    def expressions(
2195        self,
2196        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2197        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2198        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2199        flat: bool = False,
2200        indent: bool = True,
2201        sep: str = ", ",
2202        prefix: str = "",
2203    ) -> str:
2204        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2205
2206        if not expressions:
2207            return ""
2208
2209        if flat:
2210            return sep.join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2211
2212        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2213
2214        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2215        pad = " " * self.pad
2216        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2217
2218        result_sqls = []
2219        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2220            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2221            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2222
2223            if self.pretty:
2224                if self._leading_comma:
2225                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2226                else:
2227                    result_sqls.append(
2228                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2229                    )
2230            else:
2231                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2232
2233        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2234        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=False) if indent else result_sql
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2236    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2237        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2238        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2239        if flat:
2240            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2241        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
2243    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2244        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2245        if not property_name:
2246            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2247        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def set_operation(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2249    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2250        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2251        op = self.seg(op)
2252        return self.query_modifiers(
2253            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2254        )
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
2256    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2257        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
2259    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2260        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2262    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2263        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2264        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2265        expressions = (
2266            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2267        )
2268        return f"{this}{expressions}"
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
2270    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2271        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2272        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2273        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
2275    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2276        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
2278    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2279        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2280        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2281        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2282        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2283
2284        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2285        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2286            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2287            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2288                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2289        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2290            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2291                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2292            else:
2293                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2294        else:
2295            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2296        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
2298    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2299        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2300        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2301        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2302        return f"MERGE INTO {this} {using} {on} {self.expressions(expression, sep=' ')}"
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
2304    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2305        if expression.args.get("format"):
2306            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2307
2308        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))