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sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import typing as t
   5from collections import defaultdict
   6from functools import reduce
   7
   8from sqlglot import exp
   9from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  10from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, seq_get
  11from sqlglot.time import format_time
  12from sqlglot.tokens import Tokenizer, TokenType
  13
  14logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  15
  16
  17class Generator:
  18    """
  19    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  20
  21    Args:
  22        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  23            Default: False.
  24        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  25            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  26            True or 'always': Always quote.
  27            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  28        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  29            Default: False.
  30        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  31            Default: 2.
  32        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  33            Default: 2.
  34        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  35            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  36            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  37            False: Disables function name normalization.
  38        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  39            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  40        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  41            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  42            Default: 3
  43        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  44            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  45            Default: False
  46        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  47            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  48            line length.
  49            Default: 80
  50        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  51            Default: True
  52    """
  53
  54    TRANSFORMS = {
  55        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  56            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  57        ),
  58        exp.TsOrDsAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  59            "TS_OR_DS_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  60        ),
  61        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  62        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  63        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  64        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  65        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  66        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  67        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  68        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  69        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  70        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  71        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  72        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  73        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  74        exp.HeapProperty: lambda self, e: "HEAP",
  75        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  76        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
  77        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  78        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  79        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  80        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  81        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  82        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  83        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
  84        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  85        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  86        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  87        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  88        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  89        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  90        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  91        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
  92        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
  93        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
  94        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
  95        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
  96        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  97        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
  98        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
  99        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
 100        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 101    }
 102
 103    # Whether the base comes first
 104    LOG_BASE_FIRST = True
 105
 106    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
 107    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
 108
 109    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 110    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 111
 112    # Always do union distinct or union all
 113    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 114
 115    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 116    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 117
 118    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 119    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 120
 121    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 122    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 123
 124    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 125    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 126
 127    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 128    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 129
 130    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 131    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 132
 133    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 134    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 135
 136    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 137    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 138
 139    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 140    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 141
 142    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 143    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 144
 145    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 146    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 147
 148    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 149    JOIN_HINTS = True
 150
 151    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 152    TABLE_HINTS = True
 153
 154    # Whether or not query hints should be generated
 155    QUERY_HINTS = True
 156
 157    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 158    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 159
 160    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 161    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 162
 163    # Whether or not to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 164    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 165
 166    # Whether or not to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 167    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 168
 169    # Whether or not to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 170    RETURNING_END = True
 171
 172    # Whether or not to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 173    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 174
 175    # Whether or not to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 176    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 177
 178    # Whether or not TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 179    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 180
 181    # Whether or not the NVL2 function is supported
 182    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 183
 184    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 185    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 186
 187    # Whether or not VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 188    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 189    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 190    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 191
 192    # Whether or not the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 193    ALTER_TABLE_ADD_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 194
 195    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 196    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 197
 198    # Whether or not FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 199    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 200
 201    # Whether or not JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 202    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 203
 204    # Whether or not session variables / parameters are supported, e.g. @x in T-SQL
 205    SUPPORTS_PARAMETERS = True
 206
 207    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 208        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 209        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 210        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 211        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 212        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 213        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 214        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 215        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 216        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 217    }
 218
 219    STAR_MAPPING = {
 220        "except": "EXCEPT",
 221        "replace": "REPLACE",
 222    }
 223
 224    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 225        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 226        "seconds": "second",
 227        "minutes": "minute",
 228        "hours": "hour",
 229        "days": "day",
 230        "weeks": "week",
 231        "months": "month",
 232        "quarters": "quarter",
 233        "years": "year",
 234    }
 235
 236    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 237
 238    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 239
 240    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 241
 242    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 243        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 244        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 245        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 246        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 247        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 248        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 249        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 250        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 251        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 252        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 253        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 254        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 255        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 256        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 257        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 258        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 259        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 260        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 261        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 262        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 263        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 264        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 265        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 266        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 267        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 268        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 269        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 270        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 271        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 272        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 273        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 274        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 275        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 276        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 277        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 278        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 279        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 280        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 281        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 282        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 283        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 284        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 285        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 286        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 287        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 288        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 289        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 290        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 291        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 292        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 293        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 294        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 295        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 296        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 297        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 298        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 299        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 300    }
 301
 302    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 303    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 304
 305    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 306    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 307        exp.Create,
 308        exp.Delete,
 309        exp.Drop,
 310        exp.From,
 311        exp.Insert,
 312        exp.Join,
 313        exp.Select,
 314        exp.Update,
 315        exp.Where,
 316        exp.With,
 317    )
 318
 319    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 320    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 321        exp.Column,
 322        exp.Literal,
 323        exp.Neg,
 324        exp.Paren,
 325    )
 326
 327    UNESCAPED_SEQUENCE_TABLE = None  # type: ignore
 328
 329    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 330
 331    # Autofilled
 332    INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 333    INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: t.Dict = {}
 334    INDEX_OFFSET = 0
 335    UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
 336    ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
 337    IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
 338    STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
 339    NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = "upper"
 340    NULL_ORDERING = "nulls_are_small"
 341
 342    can_identify: t.Callable[[str, str | bool], bool]
 343
 344    # Delimiters for quotes, identifiers and the corresponding escape characters
 345    QUOTE_START = "'"
 346    QUOTE_END = "'"
 347    IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
 348    IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
 349    TOKENIZER_CLASS = Tokenizer
 350
 351    # Delimiters for bit, hex, byte and raw literals
 352    BIT_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 353    BIT_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 354    HEX_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 355    HEX_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 356    BYTE_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 357    BYTE_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 358
 359    __slots__ = (
 360        "pretty",
 361        "identify",
 362        "normalize",
 363        "pad",
 364        "_indent",
 365        "normalize_functions",
 366        "unsupported_level",
 367        "max_unsupported",
 368        "leading_comma",
 369        "max_text_width",
 370        "comments",
 371        "unsupported_messages",
 372        "_escaped_quote_end",
 373        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 374        "_cache",
 375    )
 376
 377    def __init__(
 378        self,
 379        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 380        identify: str | bool = False,
 381        normalize: bool = False,
 382        pad: int = 2,
 383        indent: int = 2,
 384        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 385        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 386        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 387        leading_comma: bool = False,
 388        max_text_width: int = 80,
 389        comments: bool = True,
 390    ):
 391        import sqlglot
 392
 393        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 394        self.identify = identify
 395        self.normalize = normalize
 396        self.pad = pad
 397        self._indent = indent
 398        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 399        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 400        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 401        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 402        self.comments = comments
 403
 404        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 405        self.normalize_functions = (
 406            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 407        )
 408
 409        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 410        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.QUOTE_END
 411        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 412            self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.IDENTIFIER_END
 413        )
 414        self._cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
 415
 416    def generate(
 417        self,
 418        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
 419        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
 420    ) -> str:
 421        """
 422        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 423
 424        Args:
 425            expression: The syntax tree.
 426            cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression
 427                which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
 428
 429        Returns:
 430            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 431        """
 432        if cache is not None:
 433            self._cache = cache
 434
 435        self.unsupported_messages = []
 436        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 437        self._cache = None
 438
 439        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 440            return sql
 441
 442        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 443            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 444                logger.warning(msg)
 445        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 446            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 447
 448        if self.pretty:
 449            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 450        return sql
 451
 452    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 453        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 454            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 455        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 456
 457    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 458        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 459
 460    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 461        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 462
 463    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 464        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 465        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 466        return comment
 467
 468    def maybe_comment(
 469        self,
 470        sql: str,
 471        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 472        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 473    ) -> str:
 474        comments = (
 475            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 476            if self.comments
 477            else None
 478        )
 479
 480        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
 481            return sql
 482
 483        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
 484        comments_sql = sep.join(
 485            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 486        )
 487
 488        if not comments_sql:
 489            return sql
 490
 491        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 492            return (
 493                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 494                if sql[0].isspace()
 495                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 496            )
 497
 498        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 499
 500    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 501        this_sql = self.indent(
 502            self.sql(expression)
 503            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 504            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 505            level=1,
 506            pad=0,
 507        )
 508        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 509
 510    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 511        original = self.identify
 512        self.identify = False
 513        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 514        self.identify = original
 515        return result
 516
 517    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 518        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 519            return name.upper()
 520        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 521            return name.lower()
 522        return name
 523
 524    def indent(
 525        self,
 526        sql: str,
 527        level: int = 0,
 528        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 529        skip_first: bool = False,
 530        skip_last: bool = False,
 531    ) -> str:
 532        if not self.pretty:
 533            return sql
 534
 535        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 536        lines = sql.split("\n")
 537
 538        return "\n".join(
 539            line
 540            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 541            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 542            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 543        )
 544
 545    def sql(
 546        self,
 547        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 548        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 549        comment: bool = True,
 550    ) -> str:
 551        if not expression:
 552            return ""
 553
 554        if isinstance(expression, str):
 555            return expression
 556
 557        if key:
 558            value = expression.args.get(key)
 559            if value:
 560                return self.sql(value)
 561            return ""
 562
 563        if self._cache is not None:
 564            expression_id = hash(expression)
 565
 566            if expression_id in self._cache:
 567                return self._cache[expression_id]
 568
 569        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 570
 571        if callable(transform):
 572            sql = transform(self, expression)
 573        elif transform:
 574            sql = transform
 575        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 576            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 577
 578            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 579                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 580            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 581                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 582            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 583                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 584            else:
 585                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 586        else:
 587            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 588
 589        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 590
 591        if self._cache is not None:
 592            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
 593        return sql
 594
 595    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 596        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 597        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 598        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 599
 600    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 601        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 602        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 603        options = expression.args.get("options")
 604        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 605        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 606        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 607        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 608        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 609
 610    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 611        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 612            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 613        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 614        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 615
 616    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 617        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 618
 619        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 620            join_mark = ""
 621            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 622
 623        column = ".".join(
 624            self.sql(part)
 625            for part in (
 626                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 627                expression.args.get("db"),
 628                expression.args.get("table"),
 629                expression.args.get("this"),
 630            )
 631            if part
 632        )
 633
 634        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 635
 636    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 637        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 638        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 639        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 640        return f"{position}{this}"
 641
 642    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 643        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 644        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 645        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 646        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 647        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 648        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 649        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 650        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 651
 652        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 653
 654    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 655        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 656        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 657        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 658
 659    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 660        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 661        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 662            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 663        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 664            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 665        else:
 666            persisted = ""
 667        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 668
 669    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 670        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 671
 672    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 673        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 674            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 675        else:
 676            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 677
 678        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 679
 680    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 681        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 682    ) -> str:
 683        this = ""
 684        if expression.this is not None:
 685            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 686            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 687
 688        start = expression.args.get("start")
 689        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 690        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 691        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 692        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 693        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 694        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 695        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 696        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 697        cycle_sql = ""
 698
 699        if cycle is not None:
 700            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 701            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 702
 703        sequence_opts = ""
 704        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 705            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 706            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 707
 708        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 709        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 710
 711        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 712
 713    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 714        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 715
 716    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 717        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 718        if desc is not None:
 719            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 720        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 721
 722    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 723        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 724        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 725        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 726        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 727        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}"
 728
 729    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 730        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 731
 732    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 733        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 734        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 735        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 736
 737        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 738
 739        properties_sql = ""
 740        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 741            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 742        ):
 743            properties_sql = self.sql(
 744                exp.Properties(
 745                    expressions=[
 746                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 747                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 748                    ]
 749                )
 750            )
 751
 752        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 753        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 754        if expression_sql:
 755            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
 756
 757            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 758                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 759                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 760                        exp.Properties(
 761                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 762                        ),
 763                        wrapped=False,
 764                    )
 765                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 766                else:
 767                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 768
 769        postindex_props_sql = ""
 770        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 771            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 772                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 773                wrapped=False,
 774                prefix=" ",
 775            )
 776
 777        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 778        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 779        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 780
 781        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 782        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 783
 784        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 785        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 786            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 787                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 788                sep=" ",
 789                prefix=" ",
 790                wrapped=False,
 791            )
 792
 793        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 794
 795        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 796        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 797            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 798                exp.Properties(
 799                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 800                ),
 801                sep=" ",
 802                prefix=" ",
 803                wrapped=False,
 804            )
 805
 806        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 807        no_schema_binding = (
 808            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 809        )
 810
 811        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 812        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 813
 814        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 815        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 816
 817    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 818        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 819        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
 820        this = f"{shallow}CLONE {this}"
 821        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 822
 823        if when:
 824            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 825            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 826            return f"{this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 827
 828        return this
 829
 830    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 831        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 832
 833    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 834        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 835        if with_:
 836            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 837        return sql
 838
 839    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 840        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 841        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
 842
 843        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 844
 845    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 846        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 847        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 848
 849    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 850        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 851        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 852        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 853        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 854
 855    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 856        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 857        if self.BIT_START:
 858            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
 859        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 860
 861    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 862        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 863        if self.HEX_START:
 864            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
 865        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 866
 867    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 868        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 869        if self.BYTE_START:
 870            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
 871        return this
 872
 873    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 874        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
 875        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
 876
 877    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
 878        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 879        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 880        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
 881        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 882
 883    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 884        type_value = expression.this
 885
 886        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
 887            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 888        else:
 889            type_sql = (
 890                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 891                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
 892                else type_value
 893            )
 894
 895        nested = ""
 896        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 897        values = ""
 898
 899        if interior:
 900            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 901                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 902                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 903                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 904                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 905                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 906            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
 907                nested = f" {interior}"
 908            else:
 909                nested = f"({interior})"
 910
 911        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 912        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
 913            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
 914            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
 915        ):
 916            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
 917
 918        return type_sql
 919
 920    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 921        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 922        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 923        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 924        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
 925
 926    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 927        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 928        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 929        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 930        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
 931        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
 932        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
 933        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
 934        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
 935        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
 936        if self.RETURNING_END:
 937            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
 938        else:
 939            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
 940        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
 941
 942    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
 943        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 944        kind = expression.args["kind"]
 945        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
 946        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
 947        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
 948        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
 949        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
 950        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
 951        return (
 952            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
 953        )
 954
 955    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 956        return self.prepend_ctes(
 957            expression,
 958            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
 959        )
 960
 961    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 962        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
 963
 964    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
 965        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
 966        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
 967        count = expression.args.get("count")
 968        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
 969        if expression.args.get("percent"):
 970            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
 971        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
 972        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
 973
 974    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
 975        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
 976            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 977            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
 978            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
 979
 980        agg = expression.this.copy()
 981        agg_arg = agg.this
 982        cond = expression.expression.this
 983        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
 984        return self.sql(agg)
 985
 986    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
 987        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
 988            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
 989            return ""
 990
 991        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
 992
 993    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
 994        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 995        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
 996        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
 997        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
 998        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
 999        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1000        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1001        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1002        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1003        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1004        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1005        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1006        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1007        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1008        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1009        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}{where}"
1010
1011    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1012        text = expression.name
1013        lower = text.lower()
1014        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1015        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1016        if (
1017            expression.quoted
1018            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1019            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1020            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1021        ):
1022            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1023        return text
1024
1025    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1026        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1027        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1028        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1029        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1030        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1031
1032    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1033        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1034        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1035
1036    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1037        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1038
1039    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1040        root_properties = []
1041        with_properties = []
1042
1043        for p in expression.expressions:
1044            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1045            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1046                with_properties.append(p.copy())
1047            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1048                root_properties.append(p.copy())
1049
1050        return self.root_properties(
1051            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1052        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1053
1054    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1055        if properties.expressions:
1056            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1057        return ""
1058
1059    def properties(
1060        self,
1061        properties: exp.Properties,
1062        prefix: str = "",
1063        sep: str = ", ",
1064        suffix: str = "",
1065        wrapped: bool = True,
1066    ) -> str:
1067        if properties.expressions:
1068            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1069            if expressions:
1070                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1071                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1072        return ""
1073
1074    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1075        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1076
1077    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1078        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1079        for p in properties.expressions:
1080            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1081            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1082                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p.copy())
1083            else:
1084                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1085
1086        return properties_locs
1087
1088    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1089        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1090            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1091        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1092
1093    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1094        property_cls = expression.__class__
1095        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1096            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1097
1098        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1099        if not property_name:
1100            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1101
1102        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1103
1104    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1105        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1106        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1107        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1108
1109    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1110        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1111        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1112        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1113
1114    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1115        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1116        local = expression.args.get("local")
1117        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1118        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1119        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1120        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1121        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1122
1123    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1124        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1125        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1126        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1127
1128    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1129        if expression.args.get("default"):
1130            property = "DEFAULT"
1131        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1132            property = "ON"
1133        else:
1134            property = "OFF"
1135        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1136
1137    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1138        if expression.args.get("no"):
1139            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1140        if expression.args.get("default"):
1141            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1142
1143        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1144        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1145
1146    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1147        default = expression.args.get("default")
1148        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1149        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1150        if default or minimum or maximum:
1151            if default:
1152                prop = "DEFAULT"
1153            elif minimum:
1154                prop = "MINIMUM"
1155            else:
1156                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1157            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1158        units = expression.args.get("units")
1159        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1160        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1161
1162    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1163        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1164        always = expression.args.get("always")
1165        default = expression.args.get("default")
1166        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1167        never = expression.args.get("never")
1168
1169        if autotemp is not None:
1170            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1171        elif always:
1172            prop = "ALWAYS"
1173        elif default:
1174            prop = "DEFAULT"
1175        elif manual:
1176            prop = "MANUAL"
1177        elif never:
1178            prop = "NEVER"
1179        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1180
1181    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1182        no = expression.args.get("no")
1183        no = " NO" if no else ""
1184        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1185        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1186
1187        for_ = ""
1188        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1189            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1190        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1191            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1192        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1193            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1194        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1195
1196    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1197        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1198        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1199        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1200        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1201        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1202        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1203
1204    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1205        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1206        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1207        statistics_sql = ""
1208        if statistics is not None:
1209            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1210        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1211
1212    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1213        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1214
1215        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1216            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1217        else:
1218            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1219
1220        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1221        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1222        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1223
1224        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1225
1226        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1227        partition_sql = (
1228            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1229        )
1230        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1231        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1232        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1233        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1234        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1235        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1236
1237        if self.RETURNING_END:
1238            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1239        else:
1240            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1241
1242        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1243        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1244
1245    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1246        return self.prepend_ctes(
1247            expression,
1248            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1249        )
1250
1251    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1252        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1253
1254    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1255        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1256
1257    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1258        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1259        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1260        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1261        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1262        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1263
1264    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1265        return expression.name.upper()
1266
1267    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1268        return expression.name.upper()
1269
1270    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1271        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1272        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1273        if constraint:
1274            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1275        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1276        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1277        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1278        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1279        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1280        if expressions:
1281            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1282        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1283
1284    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1285        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1286
1287    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1288        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1289        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1290        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1291        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1292        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1293        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1294        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1295        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1296        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1297        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1298        null = expression.args.get("null")
1299        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1300        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1301
1302    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1303        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1304
1305    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1306        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1307        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1308        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1309        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1310
1311    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1312        table = ".".join(
1313            part
1314            for part in [
1315                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1316                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1317                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1318            ]
1319            if part
1320        )
1321
1322        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1323        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1324        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1325        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1326        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1327        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1328        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1329        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1330        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1331        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1332
1333        return f"{table}{version}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
1334
1335    def tablesample_sql(
1336        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1337    ) -> str:
1338        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1339            table = expression.this.copy()
1340            table.set("alias", None)
1341            this = self.sql(table)
1342            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1343        else:
1344            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1345            alias = ""
1346        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1347        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1348        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1349        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1350        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1351        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1352        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1353        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1354        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1355        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1356        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1357        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1358        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1359            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1360        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1361        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1362        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1363        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
1364
1365    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1366        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1367
1368        if expression.this:
1369            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1370            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1371            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1372            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1373            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1374            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1375
1376        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1377        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1378        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1379        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1380        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1381        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1382        if include_nulls is not None:
1383            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1384        else:
1385            nulls = ""
1386        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1387
1388    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1389        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1390        kind = expression.text("kind")
1391        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1392        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1393
1394    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1395        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1396
1397    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1398        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1399        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1400        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1401        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1402        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1403        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1404        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1405        if self.RETURNING_END:
1406            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1407        else:
1408            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1409        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1410        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1411
1412    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1413        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1414        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1415            args = self.expressions(expression)
1416            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1417            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1418            values = (
1419                f"({values})"
1420                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1421                else values
1422            )
1423            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1424
1425        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1426        expression = expression.copy()
1427        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1428        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1429
1430        selects: t.List[exp.Subqueryable] = []
1431
1432        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1433            row = tup.expressions
1434
1435            if i == 0 and column_names:
1436                row = [
1437                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1438                ]
1439
1440            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1441
1442        if self.pretty:
1443            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1444            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1445            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1446            subqueryable = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1447            return self.subquery_sql(
1448                subqueryable.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False)
1449            )
1450
1451        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1452        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1453        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1454
1455    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1456        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1457
1458    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1459        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1460        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1461        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1462
1463    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1464        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1465
1466    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1467        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1468
1469        if expression.args.get("all"):
1470            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1471
1472        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1473        grouping_sets = (
1474            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1475        )
1476
1477        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1478        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1479            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1480        else:
1481            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1482            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1483
1484        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1485        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1486            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1487        else:
1488            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1489            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1490
1491        groupings = csv(
1492            grouping_sets,
1493            cube_sql,
1494            rollup_sql,
1495            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1496            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1497        )
1498
1499        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1500            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1501
1502        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1503
1504    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1505        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1506        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1507
1508    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1509        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1510        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1511        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1512        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY {connect}")
1513        return start + connect
1514
1515    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1516        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1517
1518    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1519        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1520            side = None
1521        else:
1522            side = expression.side
1523
1524        op_sql = " ".join(
1525            op
1526            for op in (
1527                expression.method,
1528                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1529                side,
1530                expression.kind,
1531                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1532            )
1533            if op
1534        )
1535        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1536        using = expression.args.get("using")
1537
1538        if not on_sql and using:
1539            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1540
1541        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1542
1543        if on_sql:
1544            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1545            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1546            if using:
1547                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1548            else:
1549                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1550        elif not op_sql:
1551            return f", {this_sql}"
1552
1553        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1554        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1555
1556    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1557        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1558        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1559        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1560
1561    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1562        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1563
1564        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1565            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1566
1567        if expression.args.get("view"):
1568            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1569            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1570            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1571            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1572            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1573            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1574
1575        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1576        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1577        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1578
1579    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1580        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1581        args = ", ".join(
1582            sql
1583            for sql in (
1584                self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1585                self.sql(expression, "expression"),
1586            )
1587            if sql
1588        )
1589        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args}"
1590
1591    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1592        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1593        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1594
1595    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1596        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1597        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1598        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1599        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1600        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1601        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1602        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1603        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1604
1605    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1606        expressions = (
1607            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1608        )
1609        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1610        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1611
1612    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1613        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1614
1615    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1616        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1617            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1618            return ""
1619
1620        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1621        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1622        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1623        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1624
1625        if wait is not None:
1626            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1627                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1628            else:
1629                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1630
1631        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1632
1633    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1634        text = expression.this or ""
1635        if expression.is_string:
1636            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1637        return text
1638
1639    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1640        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1641        if self.UNESCAPED_SEQUENCE_TABLE:
1642            text = text.translate(self.UNESCAPED_SEQUENCE_TABLE)
1643        elif self.pretty:
1644            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1645        return text
1646
1647    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1648        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1649        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1650        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1651        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1652        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1653        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1654        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1655        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1656        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1657        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1658        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1659
1660    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1661        return "NULL"
1662
1663    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1664        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1665
1666    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1667        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1668        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1669        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1670
1671    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1672        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1673
1674    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1675        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1676
1677    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1678        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1679
1680    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1681        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1682        asc = not desc
1683
1684        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1685        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1686        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1687        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1688        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1689
1690        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
1691        nulls_sort_change = ""
1692        if nulls_first and (
1693            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1694        ):
1695            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1696        elif (
1697            nulls_last
1698            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1699            and not nulls_are_last
1700        ):
1701            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1702
1703        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1704            self.unsupported(
1705                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1706            )
1707            nulls_sort_change = ""
1708
1709        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1710
1711    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1712        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1713        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1714        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1715        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1716        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1717        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1718        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1719        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1720        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1721        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1722        definition_sqls = [
1723            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1724            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1725        ]
1726        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1727        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1728        body = "".join(
1729            (
1730                partition,
1731                order,
1732                measures,
1733                rows,
1734                after,
1735                pattern,
1736                define,
1737            )
1738        )
1739        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1740        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1741        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1742
1743    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1744        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1745
1746        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1747        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1748
1749        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1750            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1751        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1752            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1753
1754        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1755
1756        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1757            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1758            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1759            else []
1760        )
1761
1762        return csv(
1763            *sqls,
1764            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1765            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
1766            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1767            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1768            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1769            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1770            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1771            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1772            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1773            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1774            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1775            sep="",
1776        )
1777
1778    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1779        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1780    ) -> t.List[str]:
1781        return [
1782            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1783            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1784        ]
1785
1786    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1787        return [
1788            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1789            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1790            if expression.args.get("windows")
1791            else "",
1792            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1793            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1794            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1795        ]
1796
1797    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1798        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1799        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1800        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1801
1802    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1803        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1804        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1805        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1806        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1807        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1808        top = (
1809            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1810            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1811            else ""
1812        )
1813
1814        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1815
1816        if kind:
1817            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1818                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1819            else:
1820                if kind == "STRUCT":
1821                    expressions = self.expressions(
1822                        sqls=[
1823                            self.sql(
1824                                exp.Struct(
1825                                    expressions=[
1826                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1827                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1828                                        )
1829                                        for e in expression.expressions
1830                                    ]
1831                                )
1832                            )
1833                        ]
1834                    )
1835                kind = ""
1836
1837        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1838        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1839            expression,
1840            f"SELECT{top}{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1841            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1842            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1843        )
1844        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1845
1846    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1847        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1848        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1849        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1850        return f"{this}{sql}"
1851
1852    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1853        return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1854
1855    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1856        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1857        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1858        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1859        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1860        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
1861
1862    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1863        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1864        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}" if self.SUPPORTS_PARAMETERS else this
1865
1866    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1867        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1868        kind = expression.text("kind")
1869        if kind:
1870            kind = f"{kind}."
1871        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
1872
1873    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1874        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
1875
1876    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1877        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1878        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1879
1880        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1881        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1882
1883        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1884        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1885
1886    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1887        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1888        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1889
1890    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1891        return self.prepend_ctes(
1892            expression,
1893            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1894        )
1895
1896    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1897        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1898        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1899        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1900        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
1901
1902    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1903        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1904
1905        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1906        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1907
1908        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
1909            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
1910                alias = alias.copy()
1911                alias.append("columns", offset.copy())
1912
1913        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1914            columns = alias.columns
1915            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1916        else:
1917            alias = self.sql(alias)
1918
1919        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1920        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
1921            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
1922        else:
1923            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
1924                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
1925            elif offset:
1926                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
1927            else:
1928                suffix = alias
1929
1930        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
1931
1932    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1933        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1934        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1935
1936    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1937        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1938        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1939        order = expression.args.get("order")
1940        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1941        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1942        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1943        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1944
1945        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1946
1947        first = expression.args.get("first")
1948        if first is None:
1949            first = ""
1950        else:
1951            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1952
1953        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1954            return f"{this} {alias}"
1955
1956        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1957        return f"{this} ({args})"
1958
1959    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1960        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1961        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
1962
1963    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1964        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1965        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1966        end = (
1967            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1968            or "CURRENT ROW"
1969        )
1970        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
1971
1972    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1973        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1974        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1975        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
1976
1977    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1978        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1979        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1980        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1981        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
1982
1983    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1984        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
1985        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1986
1987        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
1988
1989    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
1990        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
1991
1992    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1993        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
1994
1995    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1996        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1997        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1998            this = self.wrap(this)
1999        return f"ANY {this}"
2000
2001    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2002        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2003
2004    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2005        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2006        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2007
2008        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2009            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2010            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2011
2012        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2013
2014        if default:
2015            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2016
2017        statements.append("END")
2018
2019        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
2020            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2021
2022        return " ".join(statements)
2023
2024    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2025        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2026        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2027        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2028
2029    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2030        order = expression.args.get("order")
2031        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2032        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2033
2034    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2035        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2036        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2037        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2038
2039    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2040        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2041
2042        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2043            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2044        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2045            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2046        else:
2047            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2048
2049    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
2050        expressions = expression.expressions
2051        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2052            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
2053        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2054
2055    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2056        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2057        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2058
2059    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2060        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2061        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2062        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2063        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2064        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2065        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2066        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2067        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2068
2069    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2070        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2071        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2072        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2073        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2074
2075    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2076        expression = expression.copy()
2077        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2078
2079    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2080        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2081        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2082        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2083
2084    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2085        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2086
2087    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2088        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2089
2090    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
2091        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2092        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2093        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2094        if unique_keys is not None:
2095            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2096        else:
2097            unique_keys = ""
2098        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2099        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2100        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2101        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2102        return self.func(
2103            "JSON_OBJECT",
2104            *expression.expressions,
2105            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2106        )
2107
2108    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2109        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2110        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2111        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2112        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2113        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2114        return self.func(
2115            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2116        )
2117
2118    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2119        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2120        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2121        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2122        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2123        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2124        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2125        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2126        return self.func(
2127            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2128            this,
2129            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2130        )
2131
2132    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2133        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2134        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2135        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2136        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2137        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2138        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2139
2140    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2141        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2142        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2143        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2144        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2145        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2146        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2147        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2148        columns = f" COLUMNS ({self.expressions(expression, skip_first=True)})"
2149        return self.func(
2150            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling}{columns})"
2151        )
2152
2153    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2154        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2155        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2156        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2157        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2158        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2159        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2160
2161    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2162        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2163        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2164        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2165        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2166        with_ = (
2167            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2168            if expressions
2169            else ""
2170        )
2171        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2172
2173    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2174        query = expression.args.get("query")
2175        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2176        field = expression.args.get("field")
2177        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2178
2179        if query:
2180            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2181        elif unnest:
2182            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2183        elif field:
2184            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2185        else:
2186            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2187
2188        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2189
2190    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2191        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2192
2193    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2194        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2195        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2196            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
2197        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2198
2199        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2200            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2201            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2202
2203        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2204        if this:
2205            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2206            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2207
2208        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2209
2210    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2211        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2212
2213    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2214        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2215        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2216        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2217        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2218        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2219        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2220
2221    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2222        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
2223
2224    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2225        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2226            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2227        else:
2228            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2229            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2230
2231        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2232
2233    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2234        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2235        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2236        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2237        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2238
2239    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2240        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2241
2242    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2243        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2244        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2245        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2246
2247    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2248        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2249
2250    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2251        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2252        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2253        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2254
2255    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2256        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2257
2258    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2259        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
2260
2261    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2262        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
2263
2264    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2265        if not self.pretty:
2266            return self.binary(expression, op)
2267
2268        sqls = tuple(
2269            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2270            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2271        )
2272
2273        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2274        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
2275
2276    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2277        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2278
2279    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2280        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2281
2282    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2283        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2284
2285    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2286        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2287
2288    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2289        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2290
2291    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2292        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2293
2294    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2295        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2296        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2297        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')}{format_sql})"
2298
2299    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2300        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2301        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2302
2303    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2304        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2305
2306    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2307        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2308
2309    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2310        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2311        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2312        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2313        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2314        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2315
2316    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2317        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2318        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2319        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2320        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2321        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2322        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2323        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2324        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2325        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2326
2327    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2328        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2329        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2330        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2331        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2332
2333        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2334            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2335
2336        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2337
2338    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2339        return "BEGIN"
2340
2341    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2342        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2343        if chain is not None:
2344            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2345
2346        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2347
2348    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2349        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2350        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2351        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2352
2353    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2354        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2355
2356        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2357        if dtype:
2358            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2359            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2360            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2361            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2362            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2363
2364        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2365        if default:
2366            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2367
2368        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2369            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2370
2371        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2372
2373    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2374        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2375            # Remove db from tables
2376            expression = expression.transform(
2377                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2378            )
2379        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2380        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2381
2382    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2383        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2384
2385        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2386            if self.ALTER_TABLE_ADD_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
2387                actions = self.expressions(
2388                    expression,
2389                    key="actions",
2390                    prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
2391                )
2392            else:
2393                actions = f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions')}"
2394        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2395            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2396        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2397            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2398        else:
2399            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2400
2401        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2402        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2403        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2404
2405    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2406        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2407        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2408        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2409
2410    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2411        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2412        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2413        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2414
2415        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2416        if enforced is not None:
2417            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2418
2419        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2420
2421    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2422        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2423        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2424
2425        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2426        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2427        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2428
2429    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2430        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2431
2432    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2433        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2434
2435    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2436        return self.sql(
2437            exp.Cast(
2438                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this.copy(), expression=expression.expression.copy()),
2439                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2440            )
2441        )
2442
2443    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2444        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2445
2446    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2447        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2448            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2449        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
2450
2451    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2452        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2453
2454    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2455        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2456
2457    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2458        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2459
2460    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2461        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2462
2463    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2464        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2465
2466    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2467        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2468
2469    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2470        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2471
2472    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2473        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2474
2475    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2476        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2477
2478    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2479        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2480
2481    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2482        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2483
2484    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2485        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2486            return self.sql(
2487                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2488            )
2489        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2490
2491    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2492        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2493
2494    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2495        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2496
2497    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2498        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2499
2500    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2501        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2502
2503    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2504        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2505
2506    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2507        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2508
2509    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2510        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2511
2512    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2513        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2514
2515    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2516        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2517
2518    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2519        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2520
2521    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2522        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2523
2524    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2525        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2526
2527    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2528        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2529
2530    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2531        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
2532
2533    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
2534        args = list(expression.args.values())
2535        if not self.LOG_BASE_FIRST:
2536            args.reverse()
2537        return self.func("LOG", *args)
2538
2539    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2540        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2541        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2542        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2543        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2544        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2545
2546    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2547        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2548        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2549
2550    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2551        args = []
2552
2553        for key in expression.arg_types:
2554            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2555
2556            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2557                for value in arg_value:
2558                    args.append(value)
2559            elif arg_value is not None:
2560                args.append(arg_value)
2561
2562        if self.normalize_functions:
2563            name = expression.sql_name()
2564        else:
2565            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2566
2567        return self.func(name, *args)
2568
2569    def func(
2570        self,
2571        name: str,
2572        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2573        prefix: str = "(",
2574        suffix: str = ")",
2575    ) -> str:
2576        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2577
2578    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2579        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2580        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2581            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2582        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2583
2584    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2585        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2586
2587    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2588        return format_time(
2589            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2590        )
2591
2592    def expressions(
2593        self,
2594        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2595        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2596        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2597        flat: bool = False,
2598        indent: bool = True,
2599        skip_first: bool = False,
2600        sep: str = ", ",
2601        prefix: str = "",
2602    ) -> str:
2603        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2604
2605        if not expressions:
2606            return ""
2607
2608        if flat:
2609            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2610
2611        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2612
2613        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2614        pad = " " * self.pad
2615        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2616
2617        result_sqls = []
2618        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2619            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2620            if not sql:
2621                continue
2622
2623            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2624
2625            if self.pretty:
2626                if self.leading_comma:
2627                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2628                else:
2629                    result_sqls.append(
2630                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2631                    )
2632            else:
2633                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2634
2635        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2636        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
2637
2638    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2639        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2640        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2641        if flat:
2642            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2643        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2644
2645    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2646        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2647        if not property_name:
2648            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2649        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2650
2651    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2652        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2653        op = self.seg(op)
2654        return self.query_modifiers(
2655            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2656        )
2657
2658    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2659        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2660
2661    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2662        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2663
2664    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2665        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2666        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2667        expressions = (
2668            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2669        )
2670        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2671
2672    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2673        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2674        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2675        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2676
2677    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2678        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2679
2680    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2681        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2682        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2683        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2684        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2685
2686        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2687        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2688            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2689            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2690                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2691        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2692            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2693                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2694            else:
2695                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2696        else:
2697            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2698        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2699
2700    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2701        table = expression.this
2702        table_alias = ""
2703
2704        hints = table.args.get("hints")
2705        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
2706            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
2707            table = table.copy()
2708            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
2709
2710        this = self.sql(table)
2711        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2712        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2713        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
2714
2715        return f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
2716
2717    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2718        if expression.args.get("format"):
2719            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2720
2721        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2722
2723    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2724        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2725        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2726        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2727        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2728        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2729
2730    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2731        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2732        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2733        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2734        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2735
2736    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2737        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
2738
2739    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2740        return ""
2741
2742    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2743        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2744        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2745        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2746        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2747        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
2748
2749    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2750        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2751        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2752
2753        if having:
2754            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2755
2756        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
2757
2758    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2759        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2760        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2761        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2762        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2763        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2764        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2765        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2766        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2767        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2768        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2769        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2770        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
2771        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
2772
2773    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2774        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
2775        if key_block_size:
2776            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
2777
2778        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2779        if using:
2780            return f"USING {using}"
2781
2782        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
2783        if parser:
2784            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
2785
2786        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2787        if comment:
2788            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
2789
2790        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
2791        if visible is not None:
2792            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
2793
2794        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
2795        if engine_attr:
2796            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
2797
2798        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
2799        if secondary_engine_attr:
2800            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
2801
2802        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
2803        return ""
2804
2805    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2806        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2807        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
2808        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2809        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2810        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
2811        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
2812        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2813        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
2814        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
2815        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2816        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{schema}{options}"
2817
2818    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
2819        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
2820            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2821
2822        case = exp.Case().when(
2823            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
2824            expression.args["true"].copy(),
2825            copy=False,
2826        )
2827        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
2828        if else_cond:
2829            case.else_(else_cond.copy(), copy=False)
2830
2831        return self.sql(case)
2832
2833    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
2834        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2835        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2836        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
2837        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2838        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
2839        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
2840
2841    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
2842        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
2843
2844
2845def cached_generator(
2846    cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
2847) -> t.Callable[[exp.Expression], str]:
2848    """Returns a cached generator."""
2849    cache = {} if cache is None else cache
2850    generator = Generator(normalize=True, identify="safe")
2851    return lambda e: generator.generate(e, cache)
logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
class Generator:
  18class Generator:
  19    """
  20    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  21
  22    Args:
  23        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  24            Default: False.
  25        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  26            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  27            True or 'always': Always quote.
  28            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  29        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  30            Default: False.
  31        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  32            Default: 2.
  33        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  34            Default: 2.
  35        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  36            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  37            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  38            False: Disables function name normalization.
  39        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  40            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  41        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  42            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  43            Default: 3
  44        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  45            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  46            Default: False
  47        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  48            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  49            line length.
  50            Default: 80
  51        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  52            Default: True
  53    """
  54
  55    TRANSFORMS = {
  56        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  57            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  58        ),
  59        exp.TsOrDsAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  60            "TS_OR_DS_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  61        ),
  62        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  63        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  64        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  65        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  66        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  67        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  68        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  69        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  70        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  71        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  72        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  73        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  74        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  75        exp.HeapProperty: lambda self, e: "HEAP",
  76        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  77        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
  78        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  79        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  80        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  81        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  82        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  83        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  84        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
  85        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  86        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  87        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  88        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  89        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  90        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  91        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  92        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
  93        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
  94        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
  95        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
  96        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
  97        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  98        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
  99        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 100        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
 101        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 102    }
 103
 104    # Whether the base comes first
 105    LOG_BASE_FIRST = True
 106
 107    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
 108    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
 109
 110    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 111    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 112
 113    # Always do union distinct or union all
 114    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 115
 116    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 117    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 118
 119    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 120    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 121
 122    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 123    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 124
 125    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 126    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 127
 128    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 129    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 130
 131    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 132    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 133
 134    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 135    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 136
 137    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 138    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 139
 140    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 141    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 142
 143    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 144    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 145
 146    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 147    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 148
 149    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 150    JOIN_HINTS = True
 151
 152    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 153    TABLE_HINTS = True
 154
 155    # Whether or not query hints should be generated
 156    QUERY_HINTS = True
 157
 158    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 159    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 160
 161    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 162    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 163
 164    # Whether or not to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 165    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 166
 167    # Whether or not to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 168    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 169
 170    # Whether or not to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 171    RETURNING_END = True
 172
 173    # Whether or not to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 174    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 175
 176    # Whether or not to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 177    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 178
 179    # Whether or not TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 180    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 181
 182    # Whether or not the NVL2 function is supported
 183    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 184
 185    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 186    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 187
 188    # Whether or not VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 189    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 190    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 191    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 192
 193    # Whether or not the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 194    ALTER_TABLE_ADD_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 195
 196    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 197    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 198
 199    # Whether or not FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 200    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 201
 202    # Whether or not JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 203    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 204
 205    # Whether or not session variables / parameters are supported, e.g. @x in T-SQL
 206    SUPPORTS_PARAMETERS = True
 207
 208    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 209        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 210        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 211        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 212        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 213        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 214        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 215        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 216        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 217        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 218    }
 219
 220    STAR_MAPPING = {
 221        "except": "EXCEPT",
 222        "replace": "REPLACE",
 223    }
 224
 225    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 226        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 227        "seconds": "second",
 228        "minutes": "minute",
 229        "hours": "hour",
 230        "days": "day",
 231        "weeks": "week",
 232        "months": "month",
 233        "quarters": "quarter",
 234        "years": "year",
 235    }
 236
 237    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 238
 239    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 240
 241    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 242
 243    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 244        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 245        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 246        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 247        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 248        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 249        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 250        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 251        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 252        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 253        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 254        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 255        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 256        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 257        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 258        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 259        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 260        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 261        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 262        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 263        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 264        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 265        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 266        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 267        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 268        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 269        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 270        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 271        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 272        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 273        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 274        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 275        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 276        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 277        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 278        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 279        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 280        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 281        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 282        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 283        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 284        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 285        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 286        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 287        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 288        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 289        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 290        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 291        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 292        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 293        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 294        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 295        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 296        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 297        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 298        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 299        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 300        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 301    }
 302
 303    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 304    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 305
 306    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 307    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 308        exp.Create,
 309        exp.Delete,
 310        exp.Drop,
 311        exp.From,
 312        exp.Insert,
 313        exp.Join,
 314        exp.Select,
 315        exp.Update,
 316        exp.Where,
 317        exp.With,
 318    )
 319
 320    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 321    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 322        exp.Column,
 323        exp.Literal,
 324        exp.Neg,
 325        exp.Paren,
 326    )
 327
 328    UNESCAPED_SEQUENCE_TABLE = None  # type: ignore
 329
 330    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 331
 332    # Autofilled
 333    INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 334    INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: t.Dict = {}
 335    INDEX_OFFSET = 0
 336    UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
 337    ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
 338    IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
 339    STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
 340    NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = "upper"
 341    NULL_ORDERING = "nulls_are_small"
 342
 343    can_identify: t.Callable[[str, str | bool], bool]
 344
 345    # Delimiters for quotes, identifiers and the corresponding escape characters
 346    QUOTE_START = "'"
 347    QUOTE_END = "'"
 348    IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
 349    IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
 350    TOKENIZER_CLASS = Tokenizer
 351
 352    # Delimiters for bit, hex, byte and raw literals
 353    BIT_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 354    BIT_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 355    HEX_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 356    HEX_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 357    BYTE_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 358    BYTE_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 359
 360    __slots__ = (
 361        "pretty",
 362        "identify",
 363        "normalize",
 364        "pad",
 365        "_indent",
 366        "normalize_functions",
 367        "unsupported_level",
 368        "max_unsupported",
 369        "leading_comma",
 370        "max_text_width",
 371        "comments",
 372        "unsupported_messages",
 373        "_escaped_quote_end",
 374        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 375        "_cache",
 376    )
 377
 378    def __init__(
 379        self,
 380        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 381        identify: str | bool = False,
 382        normalize: bool = False,
 383        pad: int = 2,
 384        indent: int = 2,
 385        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 386        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 387        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 388        leading_comma: bool = False,
 389        max_text_width: int = 80,
 390        comments: bool = True,
 391    ):
 392        import sqlglot
 393
 394        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 395        self.identify = identify
 396        self.normalize = normalize
 397        self.pad = pad
 398        self._indent = indent
 399        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 400        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 401        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 402        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 403        self.comments = comments
 404
 405        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 406        self.normalize_functions = (
 407            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 408        )
 409
 410        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 411        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.QUOTE_END
 412        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 413            self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.IDENTIFIER_END
 414        )
 415        self._cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
 416
 417    def generate(
 418        self,
 419        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
 420        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
 421    ) -> str:
 422        """
 423        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 424
 425        Args:
 426            expression: The syntax tree.
 427            cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression
 428                which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
 429
 430        Returns:
 431            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 432        """
 433        if cache is not None:
 434            self._cache = cache
 435
 436        self.unsupported_messages = []
 437        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 438        self._cache = None
 439
 440        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 441            return sql
 442
 443        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 444            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 445                logger.warning(msg)
 446        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 447            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 448
 449        if self.pretty:
 450            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 451        return sql
 452
 453    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 454        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 455            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 456        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 457
 458    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 459        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 460
 461    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 462        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 463
 464    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 465        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 466        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 467        return comment
 468
 469    def maybe_comment(
 470        self,
 471        sql: str,
 472        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 473        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 474    ) -> str:
 475        comments = (
 476            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 477            if self.comments
 478            else None
 479        )
 480
 481        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
 482            return sql
 483
 484        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
 485        comments_sql = sep.join(
 486            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 487        )
 488
 489        if not comments_sql:
 490            return sql
 491
 492        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 493            return (
 494                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 495                if sql[0].isspace()
 496                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 497            )
 498
 499        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 500
 501    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 502        this_sql = self.indent(
 503            self.sql(expression)
 504            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 505            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 506            level=1,
 507            pad=0,
 508        )
 509        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 510
 511    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 512        original = self.identify
 513        self.identify = False
 514        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 515        self.identify = original
 516        return result
 517
 518    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 519        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 520            return name.upper()
 521        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 522            return name.lower()
 523        return name
 524
 525    def indent(
 526        self,
 527        sql: str,
 528        level: int = 0,
 529        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 530        skip_first: bool = False,
 531        skip_last: bool = False,
 532    ) -> str:
 533        if not self.pretty:
 534            return sql
 535
 536        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 537        lines = sql.split("\n")
 538
 539        return "\n".join(
 540            line
 541            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 542            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 543            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 544        )
 545
 546    def sql(
 547        self,
 548        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 549        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 550        comment: bool = True,
 551    ) -> str:
 552        if not expression:
 553            return ""
 554
 555        if isinstance(expression, str):
 556            return expression
 557
 558        if key:
 559            value = expression.args.get(key)
 560            if value:
 561                return self.sql(value)
 562            return ""
 563
 564        if self._cache is not None:
 565            expression_id = hash(expression)
 566
 567            if expression_id in self._cache:
 568                return self._cache[expression_id]
 569
 570        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 571
 572        if callable(transform):
 573            sql = transform(self, expression)
 574        elif transform:
 575            sql = transform
 576        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 577            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 578
 579            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 580                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 581            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 582                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 583            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 584                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 585            else:
 586                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 587        else:
 588            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 589
 590        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 591
 592        if self._cache is not None:
 593            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
 594        return sql
 595
 596    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 597        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 598        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 599        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 600
 601    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 602        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 603        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 604        options = expression.args.get("options")
 605        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 606        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 607        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 608        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 609        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 610
 611    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 612        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 613            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 614        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 615        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 616
 617    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 618        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 619
 620        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 621            join_mark = ""
 622            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 623
 624        column = ".".join(
 625            self.sql(part)
 626            for part in (
 627                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 628                expression.args.get("db"),
 629                expression.args.get("table"),
 630                expression.args.get("this"),
 631            )
 632            if part
 633        )
 634
 635        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 636
 637    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 638        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 639        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 640        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 641        return f"{position}{this}"
 642
 643    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 644        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 645        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 646        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 647        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 648        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 649        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 650        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 651        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 652
 653        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 654
 655    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 656        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 657        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 658        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 659
 660    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 661        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 662        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 663            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 664        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 665            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 666        else:
 667            persisted = ""
 668        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 669
 670    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 671        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 672
 673    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 674        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 675            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 676        else:
 677            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 678
 679        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 680
 681    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 682        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 683    ) -> str:
 684        this = ""
 685        if expression.this is not None:
 686            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 687            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 688
 689        start = expression.args.get("start")
 690        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 691        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 692        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 693        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 694        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 695        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 696        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 697        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 698        cycle_sql = ""
 699
 700        if cycle is not None:
 701            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 702            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 703
 704        sequence_opts = ""
 705        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 706            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 707            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 708
 709        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 710        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 711
 712        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 713
 714    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 715        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 716
 717    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 718        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 719        if desc is not None:
 720            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 721        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 722
 723    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 724        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 725        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 726        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 727        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 728        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}"
 729
 730    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 731        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 732
 733    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 734        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 735        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 736        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 737
 738        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 739
 740        properties_sql = ""
 741        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 742            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 743        ):
 744            properties_sql = self.sql(
 745                exp.Properties(
 746                    expressions=[
 747                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 748                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 749                    ]
 750                )
 751            )
 752
 753        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 754        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 755        if expression_sql:
 756            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
 757
 758            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 759                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 760                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 761                        exp.Properties(
 762                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 763                        ),
 764                        wrapped=False,
 765                    )
 766                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 767                else:
 768                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 769
 770        postindex_props_sql = ""
 771        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 772            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 773                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 774                wrapped=False,
 775                prefix=" ",
 776            )
 777
 778        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 779        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 780        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 781
 782        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 783        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 784
 785        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 786        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 787            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 788                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 789                sep=" ",
 790                prefix=" ",
 791                wrapped=False,
 792            )
 793
 794        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 795
 796        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 797        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 798            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 799                exp.Properties(
 800                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 801                ),
 802                sep=" ",
 803                prefix=" ",
 804                wrapped=False,
 805            )
 806
 807        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 808        no_schema_binding = (
 809            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 810        )
 811
 812        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 813        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 814
 815        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 816        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 817
 818    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 819        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 820        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
 821        this = f"{shallow}CLONE {this}"
 822        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 823
 824        if when:
 825            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 826            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 827            return f"{this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 828
 829        return this
 830
 831    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 832        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 833
 834    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 835        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 836        if with_:
 837            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 838        return sql
 839
 840    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 841        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 842        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
 843
 844        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 845
 846    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 847        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 848        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 849
 850    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 851        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 852        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 853        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 854        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 855
 856    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 857        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 858        if self.BIT_START:
 859            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
 860        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 861
 862    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 863        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 864        if self.HEX_START:
 865            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
 866        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 867
 868    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 869        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 870        if self.BYTE_START:
 871            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
 872        return this
 873
 874    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 875        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
 876        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
 877
 878    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
 879        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 880        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 881        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
 882        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 883
 884    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 885        type_value = expression.this
 886
 887        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
 888            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 889        else:
 890            type_sql = (
 891                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 892                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
 893                else type_value
 894            )
 895
 896        nested = ""
 897        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 898        values = ""
 899
 900        if interior:
 901            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 902                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 903                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 904                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 905                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 906                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 907            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
 908                nested = f" {interior}"
 909            else:
 910                nested = f"({interior})"
 911
 912        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 913        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
 914            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
 915            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
 916        ):
 917            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
 918
 919        return type_sql
 920
 921    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 922        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 923        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 924        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 925        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
 926
 927    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 928        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 929        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 930        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 931        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
 932        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
 933        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
 934        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
 935        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
 936        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
 937        if self.RETURNING_END:
 938            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
 939        else:
 940            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
 941        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
 942
 943    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
 944        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 945        kind = expression.args["kind"]
 946        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
 947        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
 948        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
 949        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
 950        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
 951        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
 952        return (
 953            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
 954        )
 955
 956    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 957        return self.prepend_ctes(
 958            expression,
 959            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
 960        )
 961
 962    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 963        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
 964
 965    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
 966        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
 967        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
 968        count = expression.args.get("count")
 969        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
 970        if expression.args.get("percent"):
 971            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
 972        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
 973        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
 974
 975    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
 976        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
 977            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 978            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
 979            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
 980
 981        agg = expression.this.copy()
 982        agg_arg = agg.this
 983        cond = expression.expression.this
 984        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
 985        return self.sql(agg)
 986
 987    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
 988        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
 989            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
 990            return ""
 991
 992        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
 993
 994    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
 995        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 996        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
 997        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
 998        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
 999        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1000        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1001        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1002        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1003        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1004        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1005        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1006        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1007        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1008        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1009        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1010        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}{where}"
1011
1012    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1013        text = expression.name
1014        lower = text.lower()
1015        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1016        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1017        if (
1018            expression.quoted
1019            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1020            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1021            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1022        ):
1023            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1024        return text
1025
1026    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1027        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1028        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1029        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1030        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1031        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1032
1033    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1034        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1035        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1036
1037    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1038        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1039
1040    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1041        root_properties = []
1042        with_properties = []
1043
1044        for p in expression.expressions:
1045            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1046            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1047                with_properties.append(p.copy())
1048            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1049                root_properties.append(p.copy())
1050
1051        return self.root_properties(
1052            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1053        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1054
1055    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1056        if properties.expressions:
1057            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1058        return ""
1059
1060    def properties(
1061        self,
1062        properties: exp.Properties,
1063        prefix: str = "",
1064        sep: str = ", ",
1065        suffix: str = "",
1066        wrapped: bool = True,
1067    ) -> str:
1068        if properties.expressions:
1069            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1070            if expressions:
1071                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1072                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1073        return ""
1074
1075    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1076        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1077
1078    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1079        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1080        for p in properties.expressions:
1081            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1082            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1083                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p.copy())
1084            else:
1085                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1086
1087        return properties_locs
1088
1089    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1090        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1091            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1092        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1093
1094    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1095        property_cls = expression.__class__
1096        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1097            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1098
1099        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1100        if not property_name:
1101            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1102
1103        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1104
1105    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1106        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1107        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1108        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1109
1110    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1111        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1112        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1113        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1114
1115    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1116        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1117        local = expression.args.get("local")
1118        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1119        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1120        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1121        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1122        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1123
1124    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1125        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1126        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1127        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1128
1129    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1130        if expression.args.get("default"):
1131            property = "DEFAULT"
1132        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1133            property = "ON"
1134        else:
1135            property = "OFF"
1136        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1137
1138    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1139        if expression.args.get("no"):
1140            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1141        if expression.args.get("default"):
1142            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1143
1144        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1145        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1146
1147    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1148        default = expression.args.get("default")
1149        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1150        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1151        if default or minimum or maximum:
1152            if default:
1153                prop = "DEFAULT"
1154            elif minimum:
1155                prop = "MINIMUM"
1156            else:
1157                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1158            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1159        units = expression.args.get("units")
1160        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1161        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1162
1163    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1164        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1165        always = expression.args.get("always")
1166        default = expression.args.get("default")
1167        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1168        never = expression.args.get("never")
1169
1170        if autotemp is not None:
1171            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1172        elif always:
1173            prop = "ALWAYS"
1174        elif default:
1175            prop = "DEFAULT"
1176        elif manual:
1177            prop = "MANUAL"
1178        elif never:
1179            prop = "NEVER"
1180        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1181
1182    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1183        no = expression.args.get("no")
1184        no = " NO" if no else ""
1185        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1186        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1187
1188        for_ = ""
1189        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1190            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1191        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1192            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1193        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1194            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1195        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1196
1197    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1198        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1199        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1200        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1201        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1202        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1203        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1204
1205    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1206        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1207        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1208        statistics_sql = ""
1209        if statistics is not None:
1210            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1211        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1212
1213    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1214        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1215
1216        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1217            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1218        else:
1219            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1220
1221        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1222        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1223        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1224
1225        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1226
1227        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1228        partition_sql = (
1229            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1230        )
1231        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1232        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1233        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1234        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1235        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1236        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1237
1238        if self.RETURNING_END:
1239            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1240        else:
1241            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1242
1243        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1244        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1245
1246    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1247        return self.prepend_ctes(
1248            expression,
1249            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1250        )
1251
1252    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1253        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1254
1255    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1256        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1257
1258    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1259        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1260        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1261        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1262        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1263        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1264
1265    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1266        return expression.name.upper()
1267
1268    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1269        return expression.name.upper()
1270
1271    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1272        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1273        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1274        if constraint:
1275            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1276        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1277        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1278        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1279        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1280        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1281        if expressions:
1282            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1283        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1284
1285    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1286        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1287
1288    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1289        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1290        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1291        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1292        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1293        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1294        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1295        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1296        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1297        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1298        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1299        null = expression.args.get("null")
1300        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1301        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1302
1303    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1304        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1305
1306    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1307        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1308        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1309        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1310        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1311
1312    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1313        table = ".".join(
1314            part
1315            for part in [
1316                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1317                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1318                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1319            ]
1320            if part
1321        )
1322
1323        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1324        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1325        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1326        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1327        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1328        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1329        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1330        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1331        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1332        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1333
1334        return f"{table}{version}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
1335
1336    def tablesample_sql(
1337        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1338    ) -> str:
1339        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1340            table = expression.this.copy()
1341            table.set("alias", None)
1342            this = self.sql(table)
1343            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1344        else:
1345            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1346            alias = ""
1347        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1348        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1349        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1350        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1351        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1352        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1353        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1354        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1355        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1356        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1357        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1358        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1359        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1360            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1361        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1362        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1363        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1364        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
1365
1366    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1367        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1368
1369        if expression.this:
1370            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1371            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1372            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1373            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1374            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1375            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1376
1377        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1378        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1379        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1380        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1381        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1382        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1383        if include_nulls is not None:
1384            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1385        else:
1386            nulls = ""
1387        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1388
1389    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1390        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1391        kind = expression.text("kind")
1392        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1393        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1394
1395    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1396        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1397
1398    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1399        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1400        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1401        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1402        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1403        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1404        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1405        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1406        if self.RETURNING_END:
1407            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1408        else:
1409            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1410        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1411        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1412
1413    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1414        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1415        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1416            args = self.expressions(expression)
1417            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1418            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1419            values = (
1420                f"({values})"
1421                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1422                else values
1423            )
1424            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1425
1426        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1427        expression = expression.copy()
1428        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1429        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1430
1431        selects: t.List[exp.Subqueryable] = []
1432
1433        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1434            row = tup.expressions
1435
1436            if i == 0 and column_names:
1437                row = [
1438                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1439                ]
1440
1441            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1442
1443        if self.pretty:
1444            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1445            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1446            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1447            subqueryable = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1448            return self.subquery_sql(
1449                subqueryable.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False)
1450            )
1451
1452        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1453        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1454        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1455
1456    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1457        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1458
1459    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1460        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1461        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1462        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1463
1464    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1465        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1466
1467    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1468        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1469
1470        if expression.args.get("all"):
1471            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1472
1473        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1474        grouping_sets = (
1475            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1476        )
1477
1478        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1479        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1480            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1481        else:
1482            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1483            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1484
1485        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1486        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1487            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1488        else:
1489            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1490            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1491
1492        groupings = csv(
1493            grouping_sets,
1494            cube_sql,
1495            rollup_sql,
1496            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1497            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1498        )
1499
1500        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1501            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1502
1503        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1504
1505    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1506        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1507        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1508
1509    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1510        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1511        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1512        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1513        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY {connect}")
1514        return start + connect
1515
1516    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1517        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1518
1519    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1520        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1521            side = None
1522        else:
1523            side = expression.side
1524
1525        op_sql = " ".join(
1526            op
1527            for op in (
1528                expression.method,
1529                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1530                side,
1531                expression.kind,
1532                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1533            )
1534            if op
1535        )
1536        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1537        using = expression.args.get("using")
1538
1539        if not on_sql and using:
1540            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1541
1542        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1543
1544        if on_sql:
1545            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1546            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1547            if using:
1548                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1549            else:
1550                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1551        elif not op_sql:
1552            return f", {this_sql}"
1553
1554        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1555        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1556
1557    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1558        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1559        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1560        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1561
1562    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1563        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1564
1565        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1566            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1567
1568        if expression.args.get("view"):
1569            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1570            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1571            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1572            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1573            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1574            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1575
1576        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1577        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1578        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1579
1580    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1581        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1582        args = ", ".join(
1583            sql
1584            for sql in (
1585                self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1586                self.sql(expression, "expression"),
1587            )
1588            if sql
1589        )
1590        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args}"
1591
1592    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1593        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1594        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1595
1596    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1597        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1598        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1599        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1600        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1601        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1602        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1603        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1604        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1605
1606    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1607        expressions = (
1608            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1609        )
1610        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1611        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1612
1613    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1614        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1615
1616    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1617        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1618            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1619            return ""
1620
1621        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1622        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1623        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1624        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1625
1626        if wait is not None:
1627            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1628                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1629            else:
1630                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1631
1632        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1633
1634    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1635        text = expression.this or ""
1636        if expression.is_string:
1637            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1638        return text
1639
1640    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1641        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1642        if self.UNESCAPED_SEQUENCE_TABLE:
1643            text = text.translate(self.UNESCAPED_SEQUENCE_TABLE)
1644        elif self.pretty:
1645            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1646        return text
1647
1648    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1649        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1650        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1651        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1652        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1653        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1654        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1655        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1656        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1657        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1658        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1659        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1660
1661    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1662        return "NULL"
1663
1664    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1665        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1666
1667    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1668        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1669        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1670        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1671
1672    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1673        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1674
1675    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1676        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1677
1678    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1679        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1680
1681    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1682        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1683        asc = not desc
1684
1685        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1686        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1687        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1688        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1689        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1690
1691        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
1692        nulls_sort_change = ""
1693        if nulls_first and (
1694            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1695        ):
1696            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1697        elif (
1698            nulls_last
1699            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1700            and not nulls_are_last
1701        ):
1702            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1703
1704        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1705            self.unsupported(
1706                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1707            )
1708            nulls_sort_change = ""
1709
1710        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1711
1712    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1713        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1714        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1715        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1716        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1717        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1718        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1719        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1720        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1721        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1722        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1723        definition_sqls = [
1724            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1725            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1726        ]
1727        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1728        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1729        body = "".join(
1730            (
1731                partition,
1732                order,
1733                measures,
1734                rows,
1735                after,
1736                pattern,
1737                define,
1738            )
1739        )
1740        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1741        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1742        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1743
1744    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1745        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1746
1747        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1748        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1749
1750        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1751            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1752        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1753            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1754
1755        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1756
1757        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1758            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1759            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1760            else []
1761        )
1762
1763        return csv(
1764            *sqls,
1765            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1766            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
1767            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1768            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1769            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1770            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1771            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1772            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1773            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1774            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1775            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1776            sep="",
1777        )
1778
1779    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1780        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1781    ) -> t.List[str]:
1782        return [
1783            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1784            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1785        ]
1786
1787    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1788        return [
1789            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1790            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1791            if expression.args.get("windows")
1792            else "",
1793            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1794            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1795            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1796        ]
1797
1798    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1799        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1800        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1801        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1802
1803    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1804        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1805        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1806        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1807        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1808        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1809        top = (
1810            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1811            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1812            else ""
1813        )
1814
1815        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1816
1817        if kind:
1818            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1819                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1820            else:
1821                if kind == "STRUCT":
1822                    expressions = self.expressions(
1823                        sqls=[
1824                            self.sql(
1825                                exp.Struct(
1826                                    expressions=[
1827                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1828                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1829                                        )
1830                                        for e in expression.expressions
1831                                    ]
1832                                )
1833                            )
1834                        ]
1835                    )
1836                kind = ""
1837
1838        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1839        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1840            expression,
1841            f"SELECT{top}{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1842            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1843            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1844        )
1845        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1846
1847    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1848        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1849        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1850        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1851        return f"{this}{sql}"
1852
1853    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1854        return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1855
1856    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1857        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1858        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1859        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1860        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1861        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
1862
1863    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1864        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1865        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}" if self.SUPPORTS_PARAMETERS else this
1866
1867    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1868        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1869        kind = expression.text("kind")
1870        if kind:
1871            kind = f"{kind}."
1872        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
1873
1874    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1875        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
1876
1877    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1878        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1879        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1880
1881        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1882        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1883
1884        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1885        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1886
1887    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1888        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1889        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1890
1891    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1892        return self.prepend_ctes(
1893            expression,
1894            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1895        )
1896
1897    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1898        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1899        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1900        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1901        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
1902
1903    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1904        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1905
1906        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1907        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1908
1909        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
1910            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
1911                alias = alias.copy()
1912                alias.append("columns", offset.copy())
1913
1914        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1915            columns = alias.columns
1916            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1917        else:
1918            alias = self.sql(alias)
1919
1920        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1921        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
1922            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
1923        else:
1924            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
1925                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
1926            elif offset:
1927                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
1928            else:
1929                suffix = alias
1930
1931        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
1932
1933    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1934        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1935        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1936
1937    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1938        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1939        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1940        order = expression.args.get("order")
1941        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1942        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1943        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1944        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1945
1946        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1947
1948        first = expression.args.get("first")
1949        if first is None:
1950            first = ""
1951        else:
1952            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1953
1954        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1955            return f"{this} {alias}"
1956
1957        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1958        return f"{this} ({args})"
1959
1960    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1961        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1962        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
1963
1964    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1965        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1966        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1967        end = (
1968            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1969            or "CURRENT ROW"
1970        )
1971        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
1972
1973    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1974        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1975        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1976        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
1977
1978    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1979        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1980        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1981        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1982        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
1983
1984    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1985        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
1986        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1987
1988        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
1989
1990    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
1991        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
1992
1993    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1994        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
1995
1996    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1997        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1998        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1999            this = self.wrap(this)
2000        return f"ANY {this}"
2001
2002    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2003        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2004
2005    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2006        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2007        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2008
2009        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2010            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2011            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2012
2013        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2014
2015        if default:
2016            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2017
2018        statements.append("END")
2019
2020        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
2021            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2022
2023        return " ".join(statements)
2024
2025    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2026        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2027        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2028        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2029
2030    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2031        order = expression.args.get("order")
2032        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2033        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2034
2035    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2036        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2037        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2038        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2039
2040    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2041        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2042
2043        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2044            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2045        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2046            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2047        else:
2048            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2049
2050    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
2051        expressions = expression.expressions
2052        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2053            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
2054        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2055
2056    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2057        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2058        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2059
2060    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2061        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2062        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2063        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2064        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2065        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2066        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2067        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2068        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2069
2070    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2071        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2072        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2073        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2074        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2075
2076    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2077        expression = expression.copy()
2078        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2079
2080    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2081        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2082        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2083        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2084
2085    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2086        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2087
2088    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2089        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2090
2091    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
2092        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2093        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2094        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2095        if unique_keys is not None:
2096            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2097        else:
2098            unique_keys = ""
2099        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2100        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2101        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2102        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2103        return self.func(
2104            "JSON_OBJECT",
2105            *expression.expressions,
2106            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2107        )
2108
2109    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2110        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2111        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2112        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2113        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2114        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2115        return self.func(
2116            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2117        )
2118
2119    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2120        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2121        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2122        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2123        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2124        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2125        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2126        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2127        return self.func(
2128            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2129            this,
2130            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2131        )
2132
2133    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2134        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2135        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2136        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2137        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2138        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2139        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2140
2141    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2142        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2143        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2144        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2145        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2146        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2147        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2148        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2149        columns = f" COLUMNS ({self.expressions(expression, skip_first=True)})"
2150        return self.func(
2151            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling}{columns})"
2152        )
2153
2154    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2155        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2156        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2157        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2158        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2159        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2160        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2161
2162    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2163        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2164        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2165        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2166        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2167        with_ = (
2168            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2169            if expressions
2170            else ""
2171        )
2172        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2173
2174    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2175        query = expression.args.get("query")
2176        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2177        field = expression.args.get("field")
2178        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2179
2180        if query:
2181            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2182        elif unnest:
2183            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2184        elif field:
2185            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2186        else:
2187            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2188
2189        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2190
2191    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2192        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2193
2194    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2195        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2196        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2197            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
2198        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2199
2200        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2201            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2202            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2203
2204        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2205        if this:
2206            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2207            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2208
2209        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2210
2211    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2212        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2213
2214    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2215        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2216        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2217        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2218        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2219        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2220        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2221
2222    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2223        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
2224
2225    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2226        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2227            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2228        else:
2229            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2230            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2231
2232        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2233
2234    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2235        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2236        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2237        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2238        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2239
2240    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2241        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2242
2243    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2244        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2245        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2246        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2247
2248    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2249        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2250
2251    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2252        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2253        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2254        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2255
2256    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2257        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2258
2259    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2260        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
2261
2262    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2263        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
2264
2265    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2266        if not self.pretty:
2267            return self.binary(expression, op)
2268
2269        sqls = tuple(
2270            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2271            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2272        )
2273
2274        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2275        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
2276
2277    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2278        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2279
2280    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2281        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2282
2283    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2284        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2285
2286    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2287        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2288
2289    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2290        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2291
2292    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2293        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2294
2295    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2296        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2297        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2298        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')}{format_sql})"
2299
2300    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2301        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2302        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2303
2304    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2305        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2306
2307    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2308        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2309
2310    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2311        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2312        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2313        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2314        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2315        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2316
2317    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2318        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2319        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2320        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2321        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2322        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2323        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2324        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2325        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2326        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2327
2328    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2329        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2330        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2331        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2332        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2333
2334        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2335            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2336
2337        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2338
2339    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2340        return "BEGIN"
2341
2342    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2343        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2344        if chain is not None:
2345            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2346
2347        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2348
2349    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2350        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2351        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2352        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2353
2354    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2355        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2356
2357        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2358        if dtype:
2359            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2360            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2361            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2362            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2363            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2364
2365        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2366        if default:
2367            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2368
2369        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2370            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2371
2372        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2373
2374    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2375        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2376            # Remove db from tables
2377            expression = expression.transform(
2378                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2379            )
2380        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2381        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2382
2383    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2384        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2385
2386        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2387            if self.ALTER_TABLE_ADD_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
2388                actions = self.expressions(
2389                    expression,
2390                    key="actions",
2391                    prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
2392                )
2393            else:
2394                actions = f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions')}"
2395        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2396            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2397        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2398            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2399        else:
2400            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2401
2402        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2403        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2404        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2405
2406    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2407        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2408        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2409        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2410
2411    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2412        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2413        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2414        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2415
2416        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2417        if enforced is not None:
2418            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2419
2420        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2421
2422    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2423        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2424        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2425
2426        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2427        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2428        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2429
2430    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2431        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2432
2433    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2434        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2435
2436    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2437        return self.sql(
2438            exp.Cast(
2439                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this.copy(), expression=expression.expression.copy()),
2440                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2441            )
2442        )
2443
2444    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2445        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2446
2447    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2448        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2449            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2450        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
2451
2452    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2453        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2454
2455    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2456        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2457
2458    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2459        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2460
2461    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2462        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2463
2464    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2465        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2466
2467    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2468        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2469
2470    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2471        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2472
2473    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2474        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2475
2476    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2477        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2478
2479    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2480        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2481
2482    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2483        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2484
2485    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2486        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2487            return self.sql(
2488                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2489            )
2490        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2491
2492    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2493        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2494
2495    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2496        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2497
2498    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2499        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2500
2501    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2502        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2503
2504    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2505        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2506
2507    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2508        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2509
2510    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2511        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2512
2513    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2514        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2515
2516    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2517        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2518
2519    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2520        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2521
2522    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2523        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2524
2525    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2526        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2527
2528    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2529        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2530
2531    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2532        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
2533
2534    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
2535        args = list(expression.args.values())
2536        if not self.LOG_BASE_FIRST:
2537            args.reverse()
2538        return self.func("LOG", *args)
2539
2540    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2541        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2542        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2543        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2544        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2545        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2546
2547    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2548        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2549        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2550
2551    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2552        args = []
2553
2554        for key in expression.arg_types:
2555            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2556
2557            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2558                for value in arg_value:
2559                    args.append(value)
2560            elif arg_value is not None:
2561                args.append(arg_value)
2562
2563        if self.normalize_functions:
2564            name = expression.sql_name()
2565        else:
2566            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2567
2568        return self.func(name, *args)
2569
2570    def func(
2571        self,
2572        name: str,
2573        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2574        prefix: str = "(",
2575        suffix: str = ")",
2576    ) -> str:
2577        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2578
2579    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2580        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2581        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2582            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2583        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2584
2585    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2586        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2587
2588    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2589        return format_time(
2590            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2591        )
2592
2593    def expressions(
2594        self,
2595        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2596        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2597        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2598        flat: bool = False,
2599        indent: bool = True,
2600        skip_first: bool = False,
2601        sep: str = ", ",
2602        prefix: str = "",
2603    ) -> str:
2604        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2605
2606        if not expressions:
2607            return ""
2608
2609        if flat:
2610            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2611
2612        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2613
2614        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2615        pad = " " * self.pad
2616        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2617
2618        result_sqls = []
2619        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2620            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2621            if not sql:
2622                continue
2623
2624            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2625
2626            if self.pretty:
2627                if self.leading_comma:
2628                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2629                else:
2630                    result_sqls.append(
2631                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2632                    )
2633            else:
2634                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2635
2636        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2637        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
2638
2639    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2640        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2641        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2642        if flat:
2643            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2644        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2645
2646    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2647        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2648        if not property_name:
2649            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2650        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2651
2652    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2653        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2654        op = self.seg(op)
2655        return self.query_modifiers(
2656            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2657        )
2658
2659    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2660        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2661
2662    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2663        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2664
2665    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2666        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2667        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2668        expressions = (
2669            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2670        )
2671        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2672
2673    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2674        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2675        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2676        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2677
2678    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2679        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2680
2681    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2682        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2683        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2684        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2685        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2686
2687        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2688        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2689            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2690            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2691                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2692        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2693            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2694                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2695            else:
2696                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2697        else:
2698            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2699        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2700
2701    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2702        table = expression.this
2703        table_alias = ""
2704
2705        hints = table.args.get("hints")
2706        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
2707            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
2708            table = table.copy()
2709            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
2710
2711        this = self.sql(table)
2712        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2713        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2714        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
2715
2716        return f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
2717
2718    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2719        if expression.args.get("format"):
2720            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2721
2722        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2723
2724    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2725        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2726        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2727        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2728        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2729        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2730
2731    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2732        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2733        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2734        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2735        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2736
2737    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2738        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
2739
2740    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2741        return ""
2742
2743    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2744        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2745        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2746        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2747        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2748        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
2749
2750    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2751        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2752        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2753
2754        if having:
2755            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2756
2757        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
2758
2759    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2760        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2761        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2762        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2763        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2764        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2765        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2766        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2767        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2768        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2769        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2770        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2771        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
2772        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
2773
2774    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2775        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
2776        if key_block_size:
2777            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
2778
2779        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2780        if using:
2781            return f"USING {using}"
2782
2783        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
2784        if parser:
2785            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
2786
2787        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2788        if comment:
2789            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
2790
2791        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
2792        if visible is not None:
2793            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
2794
2795        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
2796        if engine_attr:
2797            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
2798
2799        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
2800        if secondary_engine_attr:
2801            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
2802
2803        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
2804        return ""
2805
2806    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2807        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2808        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
2809        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2810        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2811        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
2812        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
2813        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2814        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
2815        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
2816        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2817        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{schema}{options}"
2818
2819    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
2820        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
2821            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2822
2823        case = exp.Case().when(
2824            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
2825            expression.args["true"].copy(),
2826            copy=False,
2827        )
2828        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
2829        if else_cond:
2830            case.else_(else_cond.copy(), copy=False)
2831
2832        return self.sql(case)
2833
2834    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
2835        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2836        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2837        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
2838        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2839        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
2840        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
2841
2842    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
2843        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

Arguments:
  • pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
  • identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  • normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
  • pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
  • unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True)
378    def __init__(
379        self,
380        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
381        identify: str | bool = False,
382        normalize: bool = False,
383        pad: int = 2,
384        indent: int = 2,
385        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
386        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
387        max_unsupported: int = 3,
388        leading_comma: bool = False,
389        max_text_width: int = 80,
390        comments: bool = True,
391    ):
392        import sqlglot
393
394        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
395        self.identify = identify
396        self.normalize = normalize
397        self.pad = pad
398        self._indent = indent
399        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
400        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
401        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
402        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
403        self.comments = comments
404
405        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
406        self.normalize_functions = (
407            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
408        )
409
410        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
411        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.QUOTE_END
412        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
413            self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.IDENTIFIER_END
414        )
415        self._cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
TRANSFORMS = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsAdd'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalSpan'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NonClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
LOG_BASE_FIRST = True
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXPLICIT_UNION = False
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINT_SEP = ', '
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
RETURNING_END = True
COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
ALTER_TABLE_ADD_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
SUPPORTS_PARAMETERS = True
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.TINYTEXT: 'TINYTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.TINYBLOB: 'TINYBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET'}
STAR_MAPPING = {'except': 'EXCEPT', 'replace': 'REPLACE'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'microseconds': 'microsecond', 'seconds': 'second', 'minutes': 'minute', 'hours': 'hour', 'days': 'day', 'weeks': 'week', 'months': 'month', 'quarters': 'quarter', 'years': 'year'}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
UNESCAPED_SEQUENCE_TABLE = None
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: Dict[str, str] = {}
INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: Dict = {}
INDEX_OFFSET = 0
UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = 'upper'
NULL_ORDERING = 'nulls_are_small'
@classmethod
def can_identify(text: str, identify: str | bool = 'safe') -> bool:
272    @classmethod
273    def can_identify(cls, text: str, identify: str | bool = "safe") -> bool:
274        """Checks if text can be identified given an identify option.
275
276        Args:
277            text: The text to check.
278            identify:
279                "always" or `True`: Always returns true.
280                "safe": True if the identifier is case-insensitive.
281
282        Returns:
283            Whether or not the given text can be identified.
284        """
285        if identify is True or identify == "always":
286            return True
287
288        if identify == "safe":
289            return not cls.case_sensitive(text)
290
291        return False

Checks if text can be identified given an identify option.

Arguments:
  • text: The text to check.
  • identify: "always" or True: Always returns true. "safe": True if the identifier is case-insensitive.
Returns:

Whether or not the given text can be identified.

QUOTE_START = "'"
QUOTE_END = "'"
IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
TOKENIZER_CLASS = <class 'sqlglot.tokens.Tokenizer'>
BIT_START: Optional[str] = None
BIT_END: Optional[str] = None
HEX_START: Optional[str] = None
HEX_END: Optional[str] = None
BYTE_START: Optional[str] = None
BYTE_END: Optional[str] = None
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], cache: Optional[Dict[int, str]] = None) -> str:
417    def generate(
418        self,
419        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
420        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
421    ) -> str:
422        """
423        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
424
425        Args:
426            expression: The syntax tree.
427            cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression
428                which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
429
430        Returns:
431            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
432        """
433        if cache is not None:
434            self._cache = cache
435
436        self.unsupported_messages = []
437        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
438        self._cache = None
439
440        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
441            return sql
442
443        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
444            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
445                logger.warning(msg)
446        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
447            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
448
449        if self.pretty:
450            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
451        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

Arguments:
  • expression: The syntax tree.
  • cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
Returns:

The SQL string corresponding to expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
453    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
454        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
455            raise UnsupportedError(message)
456        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
458    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
459        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
461    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
462        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
464    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
465        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
466        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
467        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None) -> str:
469    def maybe_comment(
470        self,
471        sql: str,
472        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
473        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
474    ) -> str:
475        comments = (
476            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
477            if self.comments
478            else None
479        )
480
481        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
482            return sql
483
484        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
485        comments_sql = sep.join(
486            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
487        )
488
489        if not comments_sql:
490            return sql
491
492        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
493            return (
494                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
495                if sql[0].isspace()
496                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
497            )
498
499        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
501    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
502        this_sql = self.indent(
503            self.sql(expression)
504            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
505            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
506            level=1,
507            pad=0,
508        )
509        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
511    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
512        original = self.identify
513        self.identify = False
514        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
515        self.identify = original
516        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
518    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
519        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
520            return name.upper()
521        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
522            return name.lower()
523        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
525    def indent(
526        self,
527        sql: str,
528        level: int = 0,
529        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
530        skip_first: bool = False,
531        skip_last: bool = False,
532    ) -> str:
533        if not self.pretty:
534            return sql
535
536        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
537        lines = sql.split("\n")
538
539        return "\n".join(
540            line
541            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
542            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
543            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
544        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
546    def sql(
547        self,
548        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
549        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
550        comment: bool = True,
551    ) -> str:
552        if not expression:
553            return ""
554
555        if isinstance(expression, str):
556            return expression
557
558        if key:
559            value = expression.args.get(key)
560            if value:
561                return self.sql(value)
562            return ""
563
564        if self._cache is not None:
565            expression_id = hash(expression)
566
567            if expression_id in self._cache:
568                return self._cache[expression_id]
569
570        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
571
572        if callable(transform):
573            sql = transform(self, expression)
574        elif transform:
575            sql = transform
576        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
577            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
578
579            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
580                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
581            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
582                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
583            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
584                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
585            else:
586                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
587        else:
588            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
589
590        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
591
592        if self._cache is not None:
593            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
594        return sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
596    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
597        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
598        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
599        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
601    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
602        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
603        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
604        options = expression.args.get("options")
605        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
606        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
607        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
608        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
609        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
611    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
612        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
613            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
614        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
615        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
617    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
618        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
619
620        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
621            join_mark = ""
622            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
623
624        column = ".".join(
625            self.sql(part)
626            for part in (
627                expression.args.get("catalog"),
628                expression.args.get("db"),
629                expression.args.get("table"),
630                expression.args.get("this"),
631            )
632            if part
633        )
634
635        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
637    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
638        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
639        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
640        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
641        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
643    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
644        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
645        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
646        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
647        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
648        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
649        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
650        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
651        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
652
653        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
655    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
656        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
657        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
658        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
660    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
661        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
662        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
663            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
664        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
665            persisted = " PERSISTED"
666        else:
667            persisted = ""
668        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
670    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
671        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
673    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
674        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
675            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
676        else:
677            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
678
679        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
681    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
682        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
683    ) -> str:
684        this = ""
685        if expression.this is not None:
686            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
687            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
688
689        start = expression.args.get("start")
690        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
691        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
692        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
693        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
694        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
695        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
696        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
697        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
698        cycle_sql = ""
699
700        if cycle is not None:
701            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
702            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
703
704        sequence_opts = ""
705        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
706            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
707            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
708
709        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
710        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
711
712        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
714    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
715        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
717    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
718        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
719        if desc is not None:
720            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
721        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
723    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
724        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
725        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
726        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
727        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
728        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}"
def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: DefaultDict) -> str:
730    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
731        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
733    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
734        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
735        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
736        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
737
738        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
739
740        properties_sql = ""
741        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
742            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
743        ):
744            properties_sql = self.sql(
745                exp.Properties(
746                    expressions=[
747                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
748                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
749                    ]
750                )
751            )
752
753        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
754        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
755        if expression_sql:
756            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
757
758            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
759                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
760                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
761                        exp.Properties(
762                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
763                        ),
764                        wrapped=False,
765                    )
766                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
767                else:
768                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
769
770        postindex_props_sql = ""
771        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
772            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
773                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
774                wrapped=False,
775                prefix=" ",
776            )
777
778        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
779        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
780        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
781
782        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
783        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
784
785        postcreate_props_sql = ""
786        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
787            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
788                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
789                sep=" ",
790                prefix=" ",
791                wrapped=False,
792            )
793
794        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
795
796        postexpression_props_sql = ""
797        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
798            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
799                exp.Properties(
800                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
801                ),
802                sep=" ",
803                prefix=" ",
804                wrapped=False,
805            )
806
807        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
808        no_schema_binding = (
809            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
810        )
811
812        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
813        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
814
815        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
816        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
818    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
819        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
820        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
821        this = f"{shallow}CLONE {this}"
822        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
823
824        if when:
825            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
826            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
827            return f"{this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
828
829        return this
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
831    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
832        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
834    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
835        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
836        if with_:
837            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
838        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
840    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
841        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
842        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
843
844        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
846    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
847        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
848        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
850    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
851        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
852        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
853        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
854        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
856    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
857        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
858        if self.BIT_START:
859            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
860        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
862    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
863        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
864        if self.HEX_START:
865            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
866        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
868    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
869        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
870        if self.BYTE_START:
871            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
872        return this
def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str:
874    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
875        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
876        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeParam) -> str:
878    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
879        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
880        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
881        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
882        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
884    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
885        type_value = expression.this
886
887        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
888            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
889        else:
890            type_sql = (
891                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
892                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
893                else type_value
894            )
895
896        nested = ""
897        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
898        values = ""
899
900        if interior:
901            if expression.args.get("nested"):
902                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
903                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
904                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
905                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
906                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
907            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
908                nested = f" {interior}"
909            else:
910                nested = f"({interior})"
911
912        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
913        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
914            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
915            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
916        ):
917            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
918
919        return type_sql
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
921    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
922        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
923        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
924        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
925        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
927    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
928        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
929        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
930        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
931        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
932        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
933        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
934        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
935        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
936        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
937        if self.RETURNING_END:
938            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
939        else:
940            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
941        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
943    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
944        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
945        kind = expression.args["kind"]
946        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
947        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
948        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
949        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
950        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
951        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
952        return (
953            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
954        )
def except_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
956    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
957        return self.prepend_ctes(
958            expression,
959            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
960        )
def except_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
962    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
963        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
965    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
966        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
967        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
968        count = expression.args.get("count")
969        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
970        if expression.args.get("percent"):
971            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
972        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
973        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
975    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
976        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
977            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
978            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
979            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
980
981        agg = expression.this.copy()
982        agg_arg = agg.this
983        cond = expression.expression.this
984        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
985        return self.sql(agg)
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
987    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
988        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
989            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
990            return ""
991
992        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
 994    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
 995        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 996        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
 997        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
 998        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
 999        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1000        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1001        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1002        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1003        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1004        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1005        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1006        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1007        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1008        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1009        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1010        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}{where}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
1012    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1013        text = expression.name
1014        lower = text.lower()
1015        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1016        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1017        if (
1018            expression.quoted
1019            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1020            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1021            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1022        ):
1023            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1024        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1026    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1027        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1028        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1029        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1030        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1031        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str:
1033    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1034        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1035        return f"{prefix}{string}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
1037    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1038        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1040    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1041        root_properties = []
1042        with_properties = []
1043
1044        for p in expression.expressions:
1045            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1046            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1047                with_properties.append(p.copy())
1048            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1049                root_properties.append(p.copy())
1050
1051        return self.root_properties(
1052            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1053        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1055    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1056        if properties.expressions:
1057            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1058        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
1060    def properties(
1061        self,
1062        properties: exp.Properties,
1063        prefix: str = "",
1064        sep: str = ", ",
1065        suffix: str = "",
1066        wrapped: bool = True,
1067    ) -> str:
1068        if properties.expressions:
1069            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1070            if expressions:
1071                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1072                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1073        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1075    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1076        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
def locate_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> DefaultDict:
1078    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1079        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1080        for p in properties.expressions:
1081            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1082            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1083                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p.copy())
1084            else:
1085                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1086
1087        return properties_locs
def property_name( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1089    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1090        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1091            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1092        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
1094    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1095        property_cls = expression.__class__
1096        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1097            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1098
1099        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1100        if not property_name:
1101            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1102
1103        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
1105    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1106        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1107        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1108        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1110    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1111        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1112        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1113        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
1115    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1116        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1117        local = expression.args.get("local")
1118        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1119        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1120        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1121        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1122        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1124    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1125        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1126        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1127        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1129    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1130        if expression.args.get("default"):
1131            property = "DEFAULT"
1132        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1133            property = "ON"
1134        else:
1135            property = "OFF"
1136        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1138    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1139        if expression.args.get("no"):
1140            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1141        if expression.args.get("default"):
1142            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1143
1144        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1145        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1147    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1148        default = expression.args.get("default")
1149        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1150        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1151        if default or minimum or maximum:
1152            if default:
1153                prop = "DEFAULT"
1154            elif minimum:
1155                prop = "MINIMUM"
1156            else:
1157                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1158            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1159        units = expression.args.get("units")
1160        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1161        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1163    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1164        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1165        always = expression.args.get("always")
1166        default = expression.args.get("default")
1167        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1168        never = expression.args.get("never")
1169
1170        if autotemp is not None:
1171            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1172        elif always:
1173            prop = "ALWAYS"
1174        elif default:
1175            prop = "DEFAULT"
1176        elif manual:
1177            prop = "MANUAL"
1178        elif never:
1179            prop = "NEVER"
1180        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1182    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1183        no = expression.args.get("no")
1184        no = " NO" if no else ""
1185        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1186        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1187
1188        for_ = ""
1189        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1190            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1191        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1192            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1193        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1194            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1195        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1197    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1198        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1199        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1200        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1201        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1202        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1203        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1205    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1206        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1207        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1208        statistics_sql = ""
1209        if statistics is not None:
1210            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1211        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1213    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1214        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1215
1216        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1217            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1218        else:
1219            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1220
1221        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1222        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1223        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1224
1225        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1226
1227        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1228        partition_sql = (
1229            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1230        )
1231        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1232        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1233        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1234        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1235        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1236        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1237
1238        if self.RETURNING_END:
1239            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1240        else:
1241            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1242
1243        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1244        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def intersect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1246    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1247        return self.prepend_ctes(
1248            expression,
1249            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1250        )
def intersect_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1252    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1253        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1255    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1256        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def kill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kill) -> str:
1258    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1259        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1260        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1261        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1262        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1263        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1265    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1266        return expression.name.upper()
def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1268    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1269        return expression.name.upper()
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1271    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1272        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1273        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1274        if constraint:
1275            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1276        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1277        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1278        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1279        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1280        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1281        if expressions:
1282            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1283        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1285    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1286        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1288    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1289        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1290        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1291        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1292        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1293        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1294        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1295        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1296        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1297        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1298        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1299        null = expression.args.get("null")
1300        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1301        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint) -> str:
1303    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1304        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1306    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1307        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1308        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1309        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1310        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1312    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1313        table = ".".join(
1314            part
1315            for part in [
1316                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1317                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1318                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1319            ]
1320            if part
1321        )
1322
1323        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1324        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1325        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1326        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1327        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1328        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1329        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1330        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1331        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1332        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1333
1334        return f"{table}{version}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = 'SEED', sep=' AS ') -> str:
1336    def tablesample_sql(
1337        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1338    ) -> str:
1339        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1340            table = expression.this.copy()
1341            table.set("alias", None)
1342            this = self.sql(table)
1343            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1344        else:
1345            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1346            alias = ""
1347        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1348        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1349        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1350        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1351        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1352        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1353        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1354        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1355        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1356        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1357        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1358        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1359        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1360            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1361        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1362        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1363        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1364        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1366    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1367        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1368
1369        if expression.this:
1370            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1371            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1372            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1373            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1374            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1375            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1376
1377        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1378        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1379        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1380        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1381        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1382        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1383        if include_nulls is not None:
1384            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1385        else:
1386            nulls = ""
1387        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
def version_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Version) -> str:
1389    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1390        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1391        kind = expression.text("kind")
1392        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1393        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
1395    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1396        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
1398    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1399        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1400        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1401        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1402        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1403        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1404        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1405        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1406        if self.RETURNING_END:
1407            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1408        else:
1409            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1410        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1411        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values) -> str:
1413    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1414        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1415        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1416            args = self.expressions(expression)
1417            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1418            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1419            values = (
1420                f"({values})"
1421                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1422                else values
1423            )
1424            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1425
1426        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1427        expression = expression.copy()
1428        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1429        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1430
1431        selects: t.List[exp.Subqueryable] = []
1432
1433        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1434            row = tup.expressions
1435
1436            if i == 0 and column_names:
1437                row = [
1438                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1439                ]
1440
1441            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1442
1443        if self.pretty:
1444            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1445            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1446            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1447            subqueryable = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1448            return self.subquery_sql(
1449                subqueryable.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False)
1450            )
1451
1452        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1453        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1454        return f"({unions}){alias}"
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
1456    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1457        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
1459    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1460        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1461        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1462        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
1464    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1465        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
1467    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1468        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1469
1470        if expression.args.get("all"):
1471            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1472
1473        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1474        grouping_sets = (
1475            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1476        )
1477
1478        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1479        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1480            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1481        else:
1482            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1483            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1484
1485        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1486        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1487            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1488        else:
1489            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1490            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1491
1492        groupings = csv(
1493            grouping_sets,
1494            cube_sql,
1495            rollup_sql,
1496            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1497            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1498        )
1499
1500        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1501            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1502
1503        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
1505    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1506        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1507        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def connect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connect) -> str:
1509    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1510        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1511        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1512        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1513        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY {connect}")
1514        return start + connect
def prior_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Prior) -> str:
1516    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1517        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
1519    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1520        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1521            side = None
1522        else:
1523            side = expression.side
1524
1525        op_sql = " ".join(
1526            op
1527            for op in (
1528                expression.method,
1529                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1530                side,
1531                expression.kind,
1532                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1533            )
1534            if op
1535        )
1536        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1537        using = expression.args.get("using")
1538
1539        if not on_sql and using:
1540            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1541
1542        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1543
1544        if on_sql:
1545            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1546            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1547            if using:
1548                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1549            else:
1550                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1551        elif not op_sql:
1552            return f", {this_sql}"
1553
1554        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1555        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
1557    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1558        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1559        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1560        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
1562    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1563        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1564
1565        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1566            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1567
1568        if expression.args.get("view"):
1569            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1570            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1571            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1572            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1573            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1574            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1575
1576        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1577        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1578        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1580    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1581        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1582        args = ", ".join(
1583            sql
1584            for sql in (
1585                self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1586                self.sql(expression, "expression"),
1587            )
1588            if sql
1589        )
1590        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
1592    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1593        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1594        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
1596    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1597        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1598        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1599        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1600        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1601        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1602        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1603        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1604        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
1606    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1607        expressions = (
1608            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1609        )
1610        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1611        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
1613    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1614        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
1616    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1617        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1618            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1619            return ""
1620
1621        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1622        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1623        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1624        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1625
1626        if wait is not None:
1627            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1628                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1629            else:
1630                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1631
1632        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
1634    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1635        text = expression.this or ""
1636        if expression.is_string:
1637            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1638        return text
def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1640    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1641        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1642        if self.UNESCAPED_SEQUENCE_TABLE:
1643            text = text.translate(self.UNESCAPED_SEQUENCE_TABLE)
1644        elif self.pretty:
1645            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1646        return text
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
1648    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1649        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1650        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1651        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1652        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1653        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1654        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1655        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1656        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1657        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1658        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1659        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1661    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1662        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
1664    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1665        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1667    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1668        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1669        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1670        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
1672    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1673        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
1675    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1676        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
1678    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1679        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
1681    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1682        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1683        asc = not desc
1684
1685        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1686        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1687        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1688        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1689        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1690
1691        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
1692        nulls_sort_change = ""
1693        if nulls_first and (
1694            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1695        ):
1696            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1697        elif (
1698            nulls_last
1699            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1700            and not nulls_are_last
1701        ):
1702            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1703
1704        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1705            self.unsupported(
1706                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1707            )
1708            nulls_sort_change = ""
1709
1710        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1712    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1713        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1714        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1715        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1716        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1717        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1718        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1719        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1720        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1721        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1722        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1723        definition_sqls = [
1724            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1725            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1726        ]
1727        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1728        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1729        body = "".join(
1730            (
1731                partition,
1732                order,
1733                measures,
1734                rows,
1735                after,
1736                pattern,
1737                define,
1738            )
1739        )
1740        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1741        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1742        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1744    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1745        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1746
1747        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1748        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1749
1750        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1751            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1752        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1753            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1754
1755        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1756
1757        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1758            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1759            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1760            else []
1761        )
1762
1763        return csv(
1764            *sqls,
1765            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1766            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
1767            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1768            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1769            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1770            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1771            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1772            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1773            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1774            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1775            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1776            sep="",
1777        )
def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]:
1779    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1780        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1781    ) -> t.List[str]:
1782        return [
1783            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1784            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1785        ]
def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
1787    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1788        return [
1789            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1790            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1791            if expression.args.get("windows")
1792            else "",
1793            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1794            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1795            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1796        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
1798    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1799        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1800        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1801        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
1803    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1804        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1805        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1806        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1807        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1808        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1809        top = (
1810            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1811            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1812            else ""
1813        )
1814
1815        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1816
1817        if kind:
1818            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1819                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1820            else:
1821                if kind == "STRUCT":
1822                    expressions = self.expressions(
1823                        sqls=[
1824                            self.sql(
1825                                exp.Struct(
1826                                    expressions=[
1827                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1828                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1829                                        )
1830                                        for e in expression.expressions
1831                                    ]
1832                                )
1833                            )
1834                        ]
1835                    )
1836                kind = ""
1837
1838        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1839        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1840            expression,
1841            f"SELECT{top}{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1842            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1843            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1844        )
1845        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
1847    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1848        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1849        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1850        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1851        return f"{this}{sql}"
def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
1853    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1854        return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
1856    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1857        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1858        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1859        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1860        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1861        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
1863    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1864        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1865        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}" if self.SUPPORTS_PARAMETERS else this
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
1867    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1868        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1869        kind = expression.text("kind")
1870        if kind:
1871            kind = f"{kind}."
1872        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
1874    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1875        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1877    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1878        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1879        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1880
1881        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1882        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1883
1884        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1885        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
1887    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1888        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1889        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def union_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
1891    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1892        return self.prepend_ctes(
1893            expression,
1894            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1895        )
def union_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
1897    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1898        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1899        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1900        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1901        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
1903    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1904        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1905
1906        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1907        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1908
1909        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
1910            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
1911                alias = alias.copy()
1912                alias.append("columns", offset.copy())
1913
1914        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1915            columns = alias.columns
1916            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1917        else:
1918            alias = self.sql(alias)
1919
1920        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1921        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
1922            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
1923        else:
1924            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
1925                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
1926            elif offset:
1927                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
1928            else:
1929                suffix = alias
1930
1931        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
1933    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1934        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1935        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
1937    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1938        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1939        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1940        order = expression.args.get("order")
1941        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1942        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1943        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1944        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1945
1946        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1947
1948        first = expression.args.get("first")
1949        if first is None:
1950            first = ""
1951        else:
1952            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1953
1954        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1955            return f"{this} {alias}"
1956
1957        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1958        return f"{this} ({args})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1960    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1961        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1962        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
1964    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1965        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1966        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1967        end = (
1968            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1969            or "CURRENT ROW"
1970        )
1971        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
1973    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1974        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1975        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1976        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
1978    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1979        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1980        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1981        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1982        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
1984    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1985        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
1986        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1987
1988        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def safebracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeBracket) -> str:
1990    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
1991        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
1993    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1994        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
1996    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1997        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1998        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1999            this = self.wrap(this)
2000        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
2002    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2003        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
2005    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2006        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2007        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2008
2009        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2010            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2011            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2012
2013        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2014
2015        if default:
2016            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2017
2018        statements.append("END")
2019
2020        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
2021            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2022
2023        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
2025    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2026        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2027        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2028        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
2030    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2031        order = expression.args.get("order")
2032        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2033        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
2035    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2036        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2037        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2038        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
2040    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2041        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2042
2043        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2044            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2045        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2046            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2047        else:
2048            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeConcat) -> str:
2050    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
2051        expressions = expression.expressions
2052        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2053            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
2054        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
2056    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2057        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2058        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2060    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2061        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2062        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2063        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2064        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2065        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2066        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2067        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2068        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2070    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2071        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2072        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2073        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2074        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
2076    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2077        expression = expression.copy()
2078        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2080    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2081        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2082        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2083        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2085    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2086        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def formatjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FormatJson) -> str:
2088    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2089        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject) -> str:
2091    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
2092        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2093        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2094        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2095        if unique_keys is not None:
2096            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2097        else:
2098            unique_keys = ""
2099        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2100        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2101        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2102        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2103        return self.func(
2104            "JSON_OBJECT",
2105            *expression.expressions,
2106            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2107        )
def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArray) -> str:
2109    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2110        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2111        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2112        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2113        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2114        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2115        return self.func(
2116            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2117        )
def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2119    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2120        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2121        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2122        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2123        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2124        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2125        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2126        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2127        return self.func(
2128            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2129            this,
2130            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2131        )
def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2133    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2134        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2135        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2136        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2137        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2138        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2139        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
def jsontable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONTable) -> str:
2141    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2142        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2143        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2144        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2145        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2146        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2147        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2148        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2149        columns = f" COLUMNS ({self.expressions(expression, skip_first=True)})"
2150        return self.func(
2151            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling}{columns})"
2152        )
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2154    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2155        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2156        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2157        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2158        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2159        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2160        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
2162    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2163        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2164        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2165        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2166        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2167        with_ = (
2168            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2169            if expressions
2170            else ""
2171        )
2172        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
2174    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2175        query = expression.args.get("query")
2176        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2177        field = expression.args.get("field")
2178        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2179
2180        if query:
2181            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2182        elif unnest:
2183            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2184        elif field:
2185            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2186        else:
2187            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2188
2189        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2191    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2192        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
2194    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2195        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2196        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2197            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
2198        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2199
2200        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2201            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2202            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2203
2204        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2205        if this:
2206            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2207            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2208
2209        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
2211    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2212        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
2214    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2215        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2216        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2217        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2218        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2219        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2220        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
2222    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2223        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
2225    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2226        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2227            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2228        else:
2229            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2230            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2231
2232        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
2234    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2235        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2236        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2237        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2238        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
2240    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2241        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
2243    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2244        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2245        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2246        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
2248    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2249        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2251    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2252        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2253        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2254        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
2256    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2257        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And) -> str:
2259    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2260        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
def xor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Xor) -> str:
2262    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2263        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
def connector_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2265    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2266        if not self.pretty:
2267            return self.binary(expression, op)
2268
2269        sqls = tuple(
2270            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2271            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2272        )
2273
2274        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2275        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2277    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2278        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2280    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2281        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2283    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2284        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2286    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2287        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2289    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2290        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2292    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2293        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2295    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2296        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2297        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2298        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')}{format_sql})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
2300    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2301        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2302        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
2304    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2305        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
2307    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2308        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
2310    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2311        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2312        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2313        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2314        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2315        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2317    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2318        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2319        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2320        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2321        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2322        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2323        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2324        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2325        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2326        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2328    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2329        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2330        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2331        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2332        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2333
2334        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2335            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2336
2337        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
2339    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2340        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
2342    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2343        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2344        if chain is not None:
2345            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2346
2347        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
2349    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2350        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2351        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2352        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
2354    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2355        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2356
2357        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2358        if dtype:
2359            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2360            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2361            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2362            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2363            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2364
2365        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2366        if default:
2367            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2368
2369        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2370            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2371
2372        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str:
2374    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2375        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2376            # Remove db from tables
2377            expression = expression.transform(
2378                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2379            )
2380        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2381        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def altertable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
2383    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2384        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2385
2386        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2387            if self.ALTER_TABLE_ADD_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
2388                actions = self.expressions(
2389                    expression,
2390                    key="actions",
2391                    prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
2392                )
2393            else:
2394                actions = f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions')}"
2395        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2396            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2397        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2398            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2399        else:
2400            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2401
2402        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2403        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2404        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
2406    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2407        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2408        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2409        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
2411    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2412        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2413        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2414        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2415
2416        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2417        if enforced is not None:
2418            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2419
2420        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
2422    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2423        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2424        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2425
2426        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2427        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2428        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2430    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2431        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
2433    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2434        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
2436    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2437        return self.sql(
2438            exp.Cast(
2439                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this.copy(), expression=expression.expression.copy()),
2440                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2441            )
2442        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
2444    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2445        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2447    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2448        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2449            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2450        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
2452    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2453        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
2455    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2456        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
2458    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2459        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
2461    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2462        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
2464    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2465        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
2467    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2468        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
2470    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2471        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
2473    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2474        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
2476    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2477        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
2479    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2480        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
2482    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2483        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
2485    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2486        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2487            return self.sql(
2488                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2489            )
2490        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
2492    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2493        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
2495    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2496        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
2498    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2499        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
2501    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2502        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
2504    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2505        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
2507    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2508        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
2510    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2511        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
2513    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2514        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2516    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2517        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2519    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2520        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def or_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or) -> str:
2522    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2523        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
2525    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2526        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
2528    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2529        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
2531    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2532        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
def log_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Log) -> str:
2534    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
2535        args = list(expression.args.values())
2536        if not self.LOG_BASE_FIRST:
2537            args.reverse()
2538        return self.func("LOG", *args)
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
2540    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2541        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2542        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2543        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2544        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2545        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2547    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2548        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2549        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
2551    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2552        args = []
2553
2554        for key in expression.arg_types:
2555            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2556
2557            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2558                for value in arg_value:
2559                    args.append(value)
2560            elif arg_value is not None:
2561                args.append(arg_value)
2562
2563        if self.normalize_functions:
2564            name = expression.sql_name()
2565        else:
2566            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2567
2568        return self.func(name, *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')') -> str:
2570    def func(
2571        self,
2572        name: str,
2573        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2574        prefix: str = "(",
2575        suffix: str = ")",
2576    ) -> str:
2577        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
2579    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2580        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2581        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2582            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2583        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
def text_width(self, args: Iterable) -> int:
2585    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2586        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
def format_time(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> Optional[str]:
2588    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2589        return format_time(
2590            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2591        )
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[List[str]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, skip_first: bool = False, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '') -> str:
2593    def expressions(
2594        self,
2595        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2596        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2597        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2598        flat: bool = False,
2599        indent: bool = True,
2600        skip_first: bool = False,
2601        sep: str = ", ",
2602        prefix: str = "",
2603    ) -> str:
2604        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2605
2606        if not expressions:
2607            return ""
2608
2609        if flat:
2610            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2611
2612        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2613
2614        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2615        pad = " " * self.pad
2616        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2617
2618        result_sqls = []
2619        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2620            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2621            if not sql:
2622                continue
2623
2624            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2625
2626            if self.pretty:
2627                if self.leading_comma:
2628                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2629                else:
2630                    result_sqls.append(
2631                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2632                    )
2633            else:
2634                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2635
2636        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2637        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2639    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2640        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2641        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2642        if flat:
2643            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2644        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
2646    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2647        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2648        if not property_name:
2649            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2650        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def set_operation(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2652    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2653        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2654        op = self.seg(op)
2655        return self.query_modifiers(
2656            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2657        )
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
2659    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2660        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
2662    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2663        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2665    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2666        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2667        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2668        expressions = (
2669            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2670        )
2671        return f"{this}{expressions}"
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
2673    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2674        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2675        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2676        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
2678    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2679        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
2681    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2682        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2683        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2684        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2685        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2686
2687        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2688        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2689            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2690            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2691                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2692        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2693            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2694                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2695            else:
2696                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2697        else:
2698            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2699        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
2701    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2702        table = expression.this
2703        table_alias = ""
2704
2705        hints = table.args.get("hints")
2706        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
2707            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
2708            table = table.copy()
2709            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
2710
2711        this = self.sql(table)
2712        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2713        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2714        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
2715
2716        return f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
2718    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2719        if expression.args.get("format"):
2720            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2721
2722        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str:
2724    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2725        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2726        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2727        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2728        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2729        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str:
2731    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2732        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2733        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2734        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2735        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2737    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2738        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str:
2740    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2741        return ""
def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2743    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2744        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2745        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2746        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2747        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2748        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue) -> str:
2750    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2751        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2752        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2753
2754        if having:
2755            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2756
2757        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
def querytransform_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryTransform) -> str:
2759    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2760        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2761        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2762        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2763        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2764        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2765        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2766        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2767        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2768        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2769        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2770        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2771        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
2772        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2774    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2775        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
2776        if key_block_size:
2777            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
2778
2779        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2780        if using:
2781            return f"USING {using}"
2782
2783        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
2784        if parser:
2785            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
2786
2787        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2788        if comment:
2789            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
2790
2791        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
2792        if visible is not None:
2793            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
2794
2795        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
2796        if engine_attr:
2797            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
2798
2799        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
2800        if secondary_engine_attr:
2801            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
2802
2803        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
2804        return ""
def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2806    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2807        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2808        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
2809        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2810        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2811        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
2812        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
2813        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2814        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
2815        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
2816        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2817        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{schema}{options}"
def nvl2_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Nvl2) -> str:
2819    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
2820        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
2821            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2822
2823        case = exp.Case().when(
2824            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
2825            expression.args["true"].copy(),
2826            copy=False,
2827        )
2828        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
2829        if else_cond:
2830            case.else_(else_cond.copy(), copy=False)
2831
2832        return self.sql(case)
def comprehension_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comprehension) -> str:
2834    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
2835        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2836        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2837        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
2838        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2839        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
2840        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
2842    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
2843        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def cached_generator( cache: Optional[Dict[int, str]] = None) -> Callable[[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], str]:
2846def cached_generator(
2847    cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
2848) -> t.Callable[[exp.Expression], str]:
2849    """Returns a cached generator."""
2850    cache = {} if cache is None else cache
2851    generator = Generator(normalize=True, identify="safe")
2852    return lambda e: generator.generate(e, cache)

Returns a cached generator.