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sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import re
   5import typing as t
   6from collections import defaultdict
   7from functools import reduce
   8
   9from sqlglot import exp
  10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, seq_get
  12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
  13from sqlglot.time import format_time
  14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  15
  16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  17    from sqlglot._typing import E
  18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  19
  20logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  21
  22ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
  23
  24
  25class _Generator(type):
  26    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
  27        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
  28
  29        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
  30        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
  31            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
  32
  33        return klass
  34
  35
  36class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  37    """
  38    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  39
  40    Args:
  41        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  42            Default: False.
  43        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  44            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  45            True or 'always': Always quote.
  46            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  47        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  48            Default: False.
  49        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  50            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  51            Default: 2.
  52        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  53            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  54            Default: 2.
  55        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  56            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  57            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  58            False: Disables function name normalization.
  59        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  60            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  61        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  62            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  63            Default: 3
  64        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  65            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  66            Default: False
  67        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  68            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  69            line length.
  70            Default: 80
  71        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  72            Default: True
  73    """
  74
  75    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
  76        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
  77        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  78        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  79        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
  80        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  81        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  82        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
  83        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  84        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  85        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  86        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  87        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  88        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
  89        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  90            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  91        ),
  92        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  95        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
  96        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  97        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
  98        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
  99        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 100        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 101        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 102        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 103        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 104        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 105        exp.JSONExtract: lambda self, e: self.func(
 106            "JSON_EXTRACT", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 107        ),
 108        exp.JSONExtractScalar: lambda self, e: self.func(
 109            "JSON_EXTRACT_SCALAR", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 110        ),
 111        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 112        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 113        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 114        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 115        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 116        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 117        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 118        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 119        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 120        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 121        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 122        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 123        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 124        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 125        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 126        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 127        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 128        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 129        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 130        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 131        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 132        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 133        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 134        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 135        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 136        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 137        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 138        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 139        exp.Timestamp: lambda self, e: self.func("TIMESTAMP", e.this, e.expression),
 140        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 141        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 142        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 143        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 144        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 145        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 146        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 147        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 148        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 149        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 150        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 151    }
 152
 153    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 154    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
 155    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 156
 157    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 158    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 159    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 160
 161    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 162    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 163
 164    # Always do union distinct or union all
 165    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 166
 167    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 168    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 169
 170    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 171    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 172
 173    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 174    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 175
 176    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 177    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 178
 179    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 180    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 181
 182    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 183    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 184
 185    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 186    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 187
 188    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 189    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 190
 191    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 192    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 193
 194    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 195    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 196
 197    # Whether join hints should be generated
 198    JOIN_HINTS = True
 199
 200    # Whether table hints should be generated
 201    TABLE_HINTS = True
 202
 203    # Whether query hints should be generated
 204    QUERY_HINTS = True
 205
 206    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 207    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 208
 209    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 210    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 211
 212    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 213    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 214
 215    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 216    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 217
 218    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 219    RETURNING_END = True
 220
 221    # Whether to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 222    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 223
 224    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 225    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 226
 227    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 228    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 229
 230    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 231    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 232
 233    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 234    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 235
 236    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 237    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 238    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 239    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 240
 241    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 242    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 243
 244    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 245    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 246
 247    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 248    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 249
 250    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 251    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 252
 253    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 254    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 255
 256    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 257    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 258
 259    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 260    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 261
 262    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 263    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 264
 265    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 266    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 267
 268    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 269    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 270
 271    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 272    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 273
 274    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 275    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 276
 277    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 278    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 279
 280    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 281    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 282
 283    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 284    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 285
 286    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 287    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 288
 289    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 290    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 291
 292    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 293    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 294
 295    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 296    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 297
 298    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 299    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 300
 301    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 302    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 303
 304    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 305    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 306
 307    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 308    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 309
 310    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 311    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 312
 313    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 314    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 315
 316    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 317    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 318    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 319
 320    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 321    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 322
 323    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 324    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 325
 326    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 327    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 328
 329    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 330    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 331
 332    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 333    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 334
 335    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 336    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 337
 338    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 339        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 340        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 341        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 342        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 343        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 344        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 345        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 346        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 347        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 348    }
 349
 350    STAR_MAPPING = {
 351        "except": "EXCEPT",
 352        "replace": "REPLACE",
 353    }
 354
 355    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 356        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 357        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 358        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 359        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 360        "DAYS": "DAY",
 361        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 362        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 363        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 364        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 365    }
 366
 367    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 368        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 369        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 370        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 371        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 372        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 373            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 374            if e.args.get("windows")
 375            else ""
 376        ),
 377    }
 378
 379    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 380
 381    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 382
 383    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 384    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 385
 386    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 387        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 388        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 389        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 390        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 391        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 392        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 393        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 394        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 395        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 396        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 397        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 398        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 399        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 400        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 401        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 402        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 403        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 404        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 405        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 406        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 407        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 408        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 409        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 410        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 411        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 412        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 413        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 414        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 415        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 416        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 417        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 418        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 419        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 420        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 421        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 422        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 423        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 424        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 425        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 426        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 427        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 428        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 429        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 430        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 431        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 432        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 433        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 434        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 435        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 436        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 437        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 438        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 439        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 440        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 441        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 442        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 443        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 444        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 445        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 446        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 447        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 448        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 449        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 450        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 451        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 452        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 453        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 454        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 455        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 456        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 457        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 458        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 459        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 460        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 461        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 462        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 463    }
 464
 465    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 466    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 467
 468    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 469    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 470        exp.Create,
 471        exp.Delete,
 472        exp.Drop,
 473        exp.From,
 474        exp.Insert,
 475        exp.Join,
 476        exp.Select,
 477        exp.Union,
 478        exp.Update,
 479        exp.Where,
 480        exp.With,
 481    )
 482
 483    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 484    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 485        exp.Binary,
 486        exp.Union,
 487    )
 488
 489    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 490    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 491        exp.Column,
 492        exp.Literal,
 493        exp.Neg,
 494        exp.Paren,
 495    )
 496
 497    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 498        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 499        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 500        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 501        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 502    }
 503
 504    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 505    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 506
 507    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 508
 509    __slots__ = (
 510        "pretty",
 511        "identify",
 512        "normalize",
 513        "pad",
 514        "_indent",
 515        "normalize_functions",
 516        "unsupported_level",
 517        "max_unsupported",
 518        "leading_comma",
 519        "max_text_width",
 520        "comments",
 521        "dialect",
 522        "unsupported_messages",
 523        "_escaped_quote_end",
 524        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 525    )
 526
 527    def __init__(
 528        self,
 529        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 530        identify: str | bool = False,
 531        normalize: bool = False,
 532        pad: int = 2,
 533        indent: int = 2,
 534        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 535        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 536        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 537        leading_comma: bool = False,
 538        max_text_width: int = 80,
 539        comments: bool = True,
 540        dialect: DialectType = None,
 541    ):
 542        import sqlglot
 543        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 544
 545        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 546        self.identify = identify
 547        self.normalize = normalize
 548        self.pad = pad
 549        self._indent = indent
 550        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 551        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 552        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 553        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 554        self.comments = comments
 555        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 556
 557        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 558        self.normalize_functions = (
 559            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 560        )
 561
 562        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 563        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 564            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 565        )
 566        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 567            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 568        )
 569
 570    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 571        """
 572        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 573
 574        Args:
 575            expression: The syntax tree.
 576            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 577                it is safer to copy.
 578
 579        Returns:
 580            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 581        """
 582        if copy:
 583            expression = expression.copy()
 584
 585        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 586
 587        self.unsupported_messages = []
 588        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 589
 590        if self.pretty:
 591            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 592
 593        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 594            return sql
 595
 596        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 597            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 598                logger.warning(msg)
 599        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 600            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 601
 602        return sql
 603
 604    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 605        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 606        if (
 607            not expression.parent
 608            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 609            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 610        ):
 611            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 612
 613            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 614
 615        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 616            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 617
 618            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 619
 620        return expression
 621
 622    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 623        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 624            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 625        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 626
 627    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 628        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 629
 630    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 631        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 632
 633    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 634        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 635        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 636        return comment
 637
 638    def maybe_comment(
 639        self,
 640        sql: str,
 641        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 642        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 643    ) -> str:
 644        comments = (
 645            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 646            if self.comments
 647            else None
 648        )
 649
 650        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 651            return sql
 652
 653        comments_sql = " ".join(
 654            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 655        )
 656
 657        if not comments_sql:
 658            return sql
 659
 660        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 661            return (
 662                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 663                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 664                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 665            )
 666
 667        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 668
 669    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 670        this_sql = self.indent(
 671            (
 672                self.sql(expression)
 673                if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 674                else self.sql(expression, "this")
 675            ),
 676            level=1,
 677            pad=0,
 678        )
 679        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 680
 681    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 682        original = self.identify
 683        self.identify = False
 684        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 685        self.identify = original
 686        return result
 687
 688    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 689        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 690            return name.upper()
 691        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 692            return name.lower()
 693        return name
 694
 695    def indent(
 696        self,
 697        sql: str,
 698        level: int = 0,
 699        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 700        skip_first: bool = False,
 701        skip_last: bool = False,
 702    ) -> str:
 703        if not self.pretty:
 704            return sql
 705
 706        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 707        lines = sql.split("\n")
 708
 709        return "\n".join(
 710            (
 711                line
 712                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 713                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 714            )
 715            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 716        )
 717
 718    def sql(
 719        self,
 720        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 721        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 722        comment: bool = True,
 723    ) -> str:
 724        if not expression:
 725            return ""
 726
 727        if isinstance(expression, str):
 728            return expression
 729
 730        if key:
 731            value = expression.args.get(key)
 732            if value:
 733                return self.sql(value)
 734            return ""
 735
 736        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 737
 738        if callable(transform):
 739            sql = transform(self, expression)
 740        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 741            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 742
 743            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 744                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 745            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 746                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 747            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 748                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 749            else:
 750                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 751        else:
 752            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 753
 754        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 755
 756    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 757        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 758        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 759        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 760
 761    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 762        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 763        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 764        options = expression.args.get("options")
 765        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 766        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 767        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 768        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 769        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 770
 771    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 772        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 773            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 774        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 775        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 776
 777    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 778        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 779
 780        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 781            join_mark = ""
 782            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 783
 784        column = ".".join(
 785            self.sql(part)
 786            for part in (
 787                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 788                expression.args.get("db"),
 789                expression.args.get("table"),
 790                expression.args.get("this"),
 791            )
 792            if part
 793        )
 794
 795        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 796
 797    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 798        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 799        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 800        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 801        return f"{position}{this}"
 802
 803    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 804        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 805        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 806        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 807        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 808        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 809        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 810        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 811        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 812
 813        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 814            kind = ""
 815
 816        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 817
 818    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 819        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 820        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 821        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 822
 823    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 824        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 825        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 826            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 827        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 828            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 829        else:
 830            persisted = ""
 831        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 832
 833    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 834        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 835
 836    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 837        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 838            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 839        else:
 840            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 841
 842        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 843
 844    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 845        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 846    ) -> str:
 847        this = ""
 848        if expression.this is not None:
 849            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 850            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 851
 852        start = expression.args.get("start")
 853        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 854        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 855        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 856        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 857        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 858        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 859        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 860        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 861        cycle_sql = ""
 862
 863        if cycle is not None:
 864            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 865            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 866
 867        sequence_opts = ""
 868        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 869            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 870            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 871
 872        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 873        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 874
 875        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 876
 877    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 878        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 879    ) -> str:
 880        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
 881        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 882        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 883
 884    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 885        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 886    ) -> str:
 887        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 888
 889    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 890        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 891
 892    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 893        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 894
 895    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 896        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 897        if desc is not None:
 898            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 899        return "PRIMARY KEY"
 900
 901    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 902        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 903        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 904        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 905        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 906        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
 907        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
 908        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
 909
 910    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 911        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 912
 913    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 914        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 915        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 916        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 917
 918        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 919
 920        properties_sql = ""
 921        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 922            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 923        ):
 924            properties_sql = self.sql(
 925                exp.Properties(
 926                    expressions=[
 927                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 928                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 929                    ]
 930                )
 931            )
 932
 933        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 934        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 935
 936        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 937        if expression_sql:
 938            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 939
 940            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 941                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 942                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 943                        exp.Properties(
 944                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 945                        ),
 946                        wrapped=False,
 947                    )
 948                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 949                else:
 950                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 951
 952        postindex_props_sql = ""
 953        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 954            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 955                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 956                wrapped=False,
 957                prefix=" ",
 958            )
 959
 960        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 961        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 962        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 963
 964        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 965        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 966
 967        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 968        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 969            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 970                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 971                sep=" ",
 972                prefix=" ",
 973                wrapped=False,
 974            )
 975
 976        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 977
 978        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 979        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 980            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 981                exp.Properties(
 982                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 983                ),
 984                sep=" ",
 985                prefix=" ",
 986                wrapped=False,
 987            )
 988
 989        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 990        no_schema_binding = (
 991            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 992        )
 993
 994        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 995        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 996
 997        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 998        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 999
1000    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1001        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1002        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1003        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1004        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1005        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1006        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1007        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1008        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1009        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1010        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1011
1012        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1013        if cache is None:
1014            cache_str = ""
1015        elif cache is True:
1016            cache_str = " CACHE"
1017        else:
1018            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1019
1020        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1021        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1022
1023        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1024
1025    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1026        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1027        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1028        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1029        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1030
1031    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1032        style = expression.args.get("style")
1033        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1034        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1035
1036    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1037        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1038        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1039
1040    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1041        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1042        if with_:
1043            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1044        return sql
1045
1046    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1047        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1048        recursive = (
1049            "RECURSIVE "
1050            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1051            else ""
1052        )
1053
1054        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1055
1056    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1057        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1058
1059        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1060        if materialized is False:
1061            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1062        elif materialized:
1063            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1064
1065        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1066
1067    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1068        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1069        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1070        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1071
1072        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1073            columns = ""
1074            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1075
1076        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1077            alias = "_t"
1078
1079        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1080
1081    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1082        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1083        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1084            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1085        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1086
1087    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1088        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1089        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1090            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1091        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1092
1093    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1094        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1095        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1096            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1097        return this
1098
1099    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1100        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1101        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1102
1103        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1104            escape = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if escape else ""
1105            return f"{self.dialect.UNICODE_START}{this}{self.dialect.UNICODE_END}{escape}"
1106
1107        if escape:
1108            pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1109        else:
1110            pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1111
1112        this = pattern.sub(r"\\u\1", this)
1113        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1114
1115    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1116        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1117        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1118
1119    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1120        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1121        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1122        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1123        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1124
1125    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1126        type_value = expression.this
1127
1128        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1129            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1130        else:
1131            type_sql = (
1132                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1133                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1134                else type_value
1135            )
1136
1137        nested = ""
1138        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1139        values = ""
1140
1141        if interior:
1142            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1143                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1144                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1145                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1146                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1147                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1148            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1149                nested = f" {interior}"
1150            else:
1151                nested = f"({interior})"
1152
1153        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1154        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1155            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1156            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1157        ):
1158            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1159
1160        return type_sql
1161
1162    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1163        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1164        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1165        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1166        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1167
1168    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1169        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1170        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1171        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1172        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1173        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1174        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1175        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1176        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1177        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1178        if self.RETURNING_END:
1179            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1180        else:
1181            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1182        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1183
1184    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1185        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1186        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1187        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1188        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1189        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1190        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1191        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1192        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1193        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1194        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1195        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1196
1197    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1198        return self.set_operations(expression)
1199
1200    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1201        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1202
1203    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1204        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1205        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1206        count = expression.args.get("count")
1207        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1208        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1209            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1210        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1211        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1212
1213    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1214        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1215            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1216            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1217            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1218
1219        agg = expression.this
1220        agg_arg = agg.this
1221        cond = expression.expression.this
1222        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1223        return self.sql(agg)
1224
1225    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1226        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1227            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1228            return ""
1229
1230        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1231
1232    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1233        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1234        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1235        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1236        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1237        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1238        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1239        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1240        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1241        if include:
1242            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1243        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1244        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1245        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1246        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1247
1248        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}"
1249
1250    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1251        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1252        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1253        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1254        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1255        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1256        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1257        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1258
1259        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1260
1261        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1262        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1263
1264    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1265        text = expression.name
1266        lower = text.lower()
1267        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1268        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1269        if (
1270            expression.quoted
1271            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1272            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1273            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1274        ):
1275            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1276        return text
1277
1278    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1279        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1280        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1281        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1282        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1283        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1284
1285    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1286        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1287        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1288
1289    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1290        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1291
1292    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1293        root_properties = []
1294        with_properties = []
1295
1296        for p in expression.expressions:
1297            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1298            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1299                with_properties.append(p)
1300            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1301                root_properties.append(p)
1302
1303        return self.root_properties(
1304            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1305        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1306
1307    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1308        if properties.expressions:
1309            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1310        return ""
1311
1312    def properties(
1313        self,
1314        properties: exp.Properties,
1315        prefix: str = "",
1316        sep: str = ", ",
1317        suffix: str = "",
1318        wrapped: bool = True,
1319    ) -> str:
1320        if properties.expressions:
1321            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1322            if expressions:
1323                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1324                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1325        return ""
1326
1327    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1328        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1329
1330    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1331        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1332        for p in properties.expressions:
1333            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1334            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1335                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1336            else:
1337                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1338
1339        return properties_locs
1340
1341    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1342        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1343            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1344        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1345
1346    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1347        property_cls = expression.__class__
1348        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1349            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1350
1351        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1352        if not property_name:
1353            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1354
1355        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1356
1357    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1358        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1359            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1360            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1361
1362            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1363            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1364                like = f"({like})"
1365
1366            return like
1367
1368        if expression.expressions:
1369            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1370
1371        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1372        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1373
1374    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1375        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1376        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1377        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1378
1379    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1380        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1381        local = expression.args.get("local")
1382        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1383        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1384        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1385        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1386        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1387
1388    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1389        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1390        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1391        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1392
1393    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1394        if expression.args.get("default"):
1395            property = "DEFAULT"
1396        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1397            property = "ON"
1398        else:
1399            property = "OFF"
1400        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1401
1402    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1403        if expression.args.get("no"):
1404            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1405        if expression.args.get("default"):
1406            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1407
1408        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1409        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1410
1411    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1412        default = expression.args.get("default")
1413        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1414        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1415        if default or minimum or maximum:
1416            if default:
1417                prop = "DEFAULT"
1418            elif minimum:
1419                prop = "MINIMUM"
1420            else:
1421                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1422            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1423        units = expression.args.get("units")
1424        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1425        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1426
1427    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1428        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1429        always = expression.args.get("always")
1430        default = expression.args.get("default")
1431        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1432        never = expression.args.get("never")
1433
1434        if autotemp is not None:
1435            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1436        elif always:
1437            prop = "ALWAYS"
1438        elif default:
1439            prop = "DEFAULT"
1440        elif manual:
1441            prop = "MANUAL"
1442        elif never:
1443            prop = "NEVER"
1444        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1445
1446    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1447        no = expression.args.get("no")
1448        no = " NO" if no else ""
1449        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1450        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1451        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1452        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1453        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1454
1455    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1456        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1457            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1458        if expression.this:
1459            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1460            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1461            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1462
1463        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1464        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1465        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1466
1467    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1468        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1469
1470        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1471        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1472            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1473        else:
1474            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1475
1476        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1477
1478    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1479        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1480        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1481        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1482        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1483        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1484        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1485        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1486
1487    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1488        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1489        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1490        statistics_sql = ""
1491        if statistics is not None:
1492            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1493        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1494
1495    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1496        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
1497
1498        if expression.this:
1499            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
1500            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
1501
1502            if expression.expression:
1503                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1504                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
1505
1506            sql = f"{sql})"
1507
1508        return f"{sql})"
1509
1510    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1511        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1512        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1513
1514        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1515            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1516        else:
1517            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1518
1519        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1520        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1521        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1522        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1523        if is_function:
1524            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1525        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1526
1527        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1528        partition_sql = (
1529            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1530        )
1531        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1532        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1533        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1534        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1535        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1536        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1537        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1538
1539        if self.RETURNING_END:
1540            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1541        else:
1542            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1543
1544        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1545        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1546
1547    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1548        return self.set_operations(expression)
1549
1550    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1551        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1552
1553    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1554        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1555
1556    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1557        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1558        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1559        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1560        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1561        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1562
1563    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1564        return expression.name
1565
1566    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1567        return expression.name
1568
1569    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1570        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1571
1572        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1573        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1574
1575        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1576        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1577        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1578
1579        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1580        if expressions:
1581            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1582            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1583
1584        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1585
1586    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1587        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1588
1589    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1590        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1591        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1592        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1593        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1594        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1595        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1596        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1597        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1598        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1599        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1600        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1601        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1602        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1603
1604    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1605        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1606
1607    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1608        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1609        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1610        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1611        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1612
1613    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1614        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1615        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1616        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1617        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1618
1619    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1620        return ".".join(
1621            self.sql(part)
1622            for part in (
1623                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1624                expression.args.get("db"),
1625                expression.args.get("this"),
1626            )
1627            if part is not None
1628        )
1629
1630    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1631        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1632        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1633        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1634        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1635        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1636        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1637        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1638        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1639        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1640        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1641        joins = self.indent(
1642            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1643        )
1644        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1645
1646        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1647        if file_format:
1648            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1649            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1650            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1651
1652        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1653        if ordinality:
1654            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1655            alias = ""
1656
1657        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1658        if when:
1659            table = f"{table} {when}"
1660
1661        return f"{only}{table}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1662
1663    def tablesample_sql(
1664        self,
1665        expression: exp.TableSample,
1666        sep: str = " AS ",
1667        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1668    ) -> str:
1669        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1670            table = expression.this.copy()
1671            table.set("alias", None)
1672            this = self.sql(table)
1673            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1674        else:
1675            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1676            alias = ""
1677
1678        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1679        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1680        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1681        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1682        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1683        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1684        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1685        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1686        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1687
1688        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1689        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1690            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1691
1692        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1693        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1694            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1695
1696        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1697        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1698            expr = f"({expr})"
1699
1700        return (
1701            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1702        )
1703
1704    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1705        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1706
1707        if expression.this:
1708            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1709            if not expressions:
1710                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1711
1712            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1713            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1714            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1715            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1716            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1717
1718        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1719        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1720        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1721        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1722        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1723        if include_nulls is not None:
1724            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1725        else:
1726            nulls = ""
1727        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1728
1729    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1730        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1731        kind = expression.text("kind")
1732        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1733        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1734
1735    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1736        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1737
1738    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1739        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1740        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1741        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1742        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1743        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1744        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1745        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1746        if self.RETURNING_END:
1747            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1748        else:
1749            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1750        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1751        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1752
1753    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1754        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1755
1756        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1757        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1758            args = self.expressions(expression)
1759            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1760            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1761            values = (
1762                f"({values})"
1763                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1764                else values
1765            )
1766            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1767
1768        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1769        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1770        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1771
1772        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1773
1774        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1775            row = tup.expressions
1776
1777            if i == 0 and column_names:
1778                row = [
1779                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1780                ]
1781
1782            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1783
1784        if self.pretty:
1785            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1786            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1787            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1788            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1789            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1790
1791        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1792        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1793        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1794
1795    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1796        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1797
1798    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1799        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1800        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1801        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1802
1803    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1804        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1805
1806    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1807        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1808
1809        if expression.args.get("all"):
1810            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1811
1812        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1813        grouping_sets = (
1814            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1815        )
1816
1817        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1818        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1819            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1820        else:
1821            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1822            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1823
1824        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1825        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1826            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1827        else:
1828            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1829            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1830
1831        groupings = csv(
1832            grouping_sets,
1833            cube_sql,
1834            rollup_sql,
1835            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1836            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1837        )
1838
1839        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1840            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1841
1842        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1843
1844    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1845        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1846        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1847
1848    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1849        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1850        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1851        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1852        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1853        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1854        return start + connect
1855
1856    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1857        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1858
1859    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1860        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1861            side = None
1862        else:
1863            side = expression.side
1864
1865        op_sql = " ".join(
1866            op
1867            for op in (
1868                expression.method,
1869                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1870                side,
1871                expression.kind,
1872                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1873            )
1874            if op
1875        )
1876        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
1877        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
1878        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1879        using = expression.args.get("using")
1880
1881        if not on_sql and using:
1882            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1883
1884        this = expression.this
1885        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1886
1887        if on_sql:
1888            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1889            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1890            if using:
1891                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1892            else:
1893                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1894        elif not op_sql:
1895            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
1896                return f" {this_sql}"
1897
1898            return f", {this_sql}"
1899
1900        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1901        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
1902
1903    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1904        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1905        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1906        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1907
1908    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1909        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
1910
1911        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
1912        if cross_apply is True:
1913            op = "INNER JOIN "
1914        elif cross_apply is False:
1915            op = "LEFT JOIN "
1916        else:
1917            op = ""
1918
1919        return f"{op}LATERAL"
1920
1921    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1922        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1923
1924        if expression.args.get("view"):
1925            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1926            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1927            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1928            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1929            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1930            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1931
1932        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1933        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1934        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
1935
1936    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1937        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1938
1939        args = [
1940            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
1941            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1942            if e
1943        ]
1944
1945        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
1946        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
1947        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1948        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1949
1950        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
1951
1952    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1953        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1954        value = expression.expression
1955        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
1956        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1957        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1958        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
1959
1960    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1961        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1962        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1963        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1964        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1965        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1966        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1967        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1968        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1969
1970    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1971        expressions = (
1972            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1973        )
1974        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1975        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1976
1977    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1978        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1979
1980    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1981        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1982            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1983            return ""
1984
1985        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1986        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1987        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1988        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1989
1990        if wait is not None:
1991            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1992                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1993            else:
1994                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1995
1996        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1997
1998    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1999        text = expression.this or ""
2000        if expression.is_string:
2001            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2002        return text
2003
2004    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2005        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2006            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2007            text = "".join(
2008                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2009            )
2010
2011        if self.pretty:
2012            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
2013
2014        return text.replace(self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
2015
2016    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2017        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2018        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2019        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2020        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2021        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2022        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2023        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2024        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2025        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2026        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2027        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2028
2029    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2030        return "NULL"
2031
2032    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2033        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2034
2035    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2036        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2037        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2038        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2039        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2040        interpolated_values = [
2041            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2042            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2043        ]
2044        interpolate = (
2045            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2046        )
2047        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
2048
2049    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2050        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2051        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2052        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2053        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2054        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2055        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2056        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
2057
2058    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2059        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2060
2061    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2062        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2063
2064    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2065        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2066
2067    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2068        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2069        asc = not desc
2070
2071        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2072        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2073        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2074        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2075        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2076
2077        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2078
2079        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2080        nulls_sort_change = ""
2081        if nulls_first and (
2082            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2083        ):
2084            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2085        elif (
2086            nulls_last
2087            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2088            and not nulls_are_last
2089        ):
2090            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2091
2092        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2093        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2094            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2095            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2096                self.unsupported(
2097                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2098                )
2099                nulls_sort_change = ""
2100            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2101                if expression.this.is_int:
2102                    self.unsupported(
2103                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2104                    )
2105                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2106                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2107                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2108                nulls_sort_change = ""
2109
2110        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2111        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2112
2113        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2114
2115    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2116        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2117        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2118        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2119        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2120        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2121        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2122        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2123        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2124        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2125        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2126        definition_sqls = [
2127            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2128            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2129        ]
2130        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2131        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2132        body = "".join(
2133            (
2134                partition,
2135                order,
2136                measures,
2137                rows,
2138                after,
2139                pattern,
2140                define,
2141            )
2142        )
2143        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2144        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2145        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2146
2147    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2148        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2149
2150        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2151            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2152        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2153            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2154
2155        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2156        if options:
2157            options = f" OPTION{self.wrap(options)}"
2158
2159        return csv(
2160            *sqls,
2161            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2162            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2163            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2164            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2165            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2166            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2167            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2168            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2169            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2170            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2171            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2172            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2173            options,
2174            sep="",
2175        )
2176
2177    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2178        return ""
2179
2180    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2181        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2182    ) -> t.List[str]:
2183        return [
2184            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2185            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2186        ]
2187
2188    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2189        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2190        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2191        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2192
2193    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2194        into = expression.args.get("into")
2195        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2196            into.pop()
2197
2198        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2199        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2200        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2201        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2202
2203        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2204        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2205            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2206            limit.pop()
2207        else:
2208            top = ""
2209
2210        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2211
2212        if kind:
2213            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2214                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2215            else:
2216                if kind == "STRUCT":
2217                    expressions = self.expressions(
2218                        sqls=[
2219                            self.sql(
2220                                exp.Struct(
2221                                    expressions=[
2222                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2223                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2224                                        else e
2225                                        for e in expression.expressions
2226                                    ]
2227                                )
2228                            )
2229                        ]
2230                    )
2231                kind = ""
2232
2233        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2234        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2235        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2236        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2237        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2238            expression,
2239            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2240            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2241            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2242        )
2243
2244        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2245
2246        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2247            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2248                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2249            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2250                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2251            else:
2252                table_kind = ""
2253            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2254
2255        return sql
2256
2257    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2258        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2259        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2260        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2261
2262    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2263        if expression.expressions:
2264            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2265        return ""
2266
2267    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2268        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2269        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2270        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2271        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2272        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
2273
2274    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2275        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2276        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2277
2278    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2279        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2280        kind = expression.text("kind")
2281        if kind:
2282            kind = f"{kind}."
2283        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2284
2285    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2286        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
2287
2288    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2289        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2290        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2291
2292        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2293        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2294
2295        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2296        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2297
2298    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2299        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2300        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2301
2302    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2303        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2304        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2305
2306        while stack:
2307            node = stack.pop()
2308
2309            if isinstance(node, exp.Union):
2310                stack.append(node.expression)
2311                stack.append(
2312                    self.maybe_comment(
2313                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2314                        expression=node.this,
2315                        comments=node.comments,
2316                    )
2317                )
2318                stack.append(node.this)
2319            else:
2320                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2321
2322        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2323        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2324        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
2325
2326    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2327        return self.set_operations(expression)
2328
2329    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2330        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2331        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2332        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2333        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2334
2335    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2336        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2337
2338        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2339        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2340
2341        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2342            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2343                alias.append("columns", offset)
2344
2345        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2346            columns = alias.columns
2347            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2348        else:
2349            alias = self.sql(alias)
2350
2351        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2352        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2353            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2354        else:
2355            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2356                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2357            elif offset:
2358                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2359            else:
2360                suffix = alias
2361
2362        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2363
2364    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2365        return ""
2366
2367    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2368        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2369        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2370
2371    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2372        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2373        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2374        order = expression.args.get("order")
2375        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2376        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2377        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2378        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2379
2380        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2381
2382        first = expression.args.get("first")
2383        if first is None:
2384            first = ""
2385        else:
2386            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2387
2388        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2389            return f"{this} {alias}"
2390
2391        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2392        return f"{this} ({args})"
2393
2394    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2395        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2396        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2397
2398    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2399        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2400        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2401        end = (
2402            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2403            or "CURRENT ROW"
2404        )
2405        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2406
2407    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2408        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2409        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2410        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2411
2412    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2413        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2414        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2415        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2416        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2417
2418    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2419        expressions = apply_index_offset(
2420            expression.this,
2421            expression.expressions,
2422            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2423        )
2424        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2425        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2426
2427    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2428        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2429
2430    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2431        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2432        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2433            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2434                this = self.wrap(this)
2435            return f"ANY{this}"
2436        return f"ANY {this}"
2437
2438    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2439        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2440
2441    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2442        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2443        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2444
2445        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2446            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2447            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2448
2449        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2450
2451        if default:
2452            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2453
2454        statements.append("END")
2455
2456        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
2457            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2458
2459        return " ".join(statements)
2460
2461    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2462        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2463        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2464        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2465
2466    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2467        order = expression.args.get("order")
2468        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2469        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2470
2471    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2472        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2473        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2474        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2475
2476    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2477        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2478
2479        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2480            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2481        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2482            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2483        else:
2484            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2485
2486    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2487        args = expression.expressions
2488        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2489            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2490
2491        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2492            args = [exp.cast(e, "text") for e in args]
2493
2494        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2495            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2496
2497        return args
2498
2499    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2500        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2501
2502        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2503        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2504            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2505
2506        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2507
2508    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2509        return self.func(
2510            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2511        )
2512
2513    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2514        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2515        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2516
2517    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2518        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2519        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2520        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2521        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2522        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2523        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2524        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2525        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2526
2527    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2528        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2529        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2530        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2531        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2532
2533    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2534        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2535
2536    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2537        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2538        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2539        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2540
2541    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2542        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2543
2544    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2545        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2546        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2547
2548    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2549        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2550            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2551            if not callable(transform):
2552                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2553                return ""
2554
2555            return transform(self, expression)
2556
2557        if isinstance(expression, int):
2558            return str(expression)
2559
2560        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2561            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2562            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2563        else:
2564            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2565            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2566
2567        return escaped
2568
2569    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2570        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2571
2572    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2573        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2574        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2575
2576        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2577        if unique_keys is not None:
2578            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2579        else:
2580            unique_keys = ""
2581
2582        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2583        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2584        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2585        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2586
2587        return self.func(
2588            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2589            *expression.expressions,
2590            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2591        )
2592
2593    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2594        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2595
2596    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2597        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2598        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2599        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2600        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2601        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2602        return self.func(
2603            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2604        )
2605
2606    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2607        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2608        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2609        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2610        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2611        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2612        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2613        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2614        return self.func(
2615            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2616            this,
2617            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2618        )
2619
2620    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2621        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2622        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2623        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2624
2625        if nested_schema:
2626            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2627
2628        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2629        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2630        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2631        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2632
2633    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2634        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2635
2636    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2637        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2638        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2639        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2640        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2641        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2642        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2643        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2644        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2645        return self.func(
2646            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2647        )
2648
2649    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2650        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2651        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2652        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2653        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2654        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2655        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2656
2657    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2658        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2659        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2660        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2661        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2662        with_ = (
2663            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2664            if expressions
2665            else ""
2666        )
2667        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2668
2669    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2670        query = expression.args.get("query")
2671        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2672        field = expression.args.get("field")
2673        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2674
2675        if query:
2676            in_sql = self.wrap(self.sql(query))
2677        elif unnest:
2678            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2679        elif field:
2680            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2681        else:
2682            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2683
2684        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2685
2686    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2687        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2688
2689    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2690        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2691        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2692            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2693        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2694
2695        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2696            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2697            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2698
2699        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2700        if this:
2701            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2702            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2703
2704        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2705
2706    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2707        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2708
2709    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2710        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2711        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2712        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2713        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2714        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2715        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2716
2717    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2718        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
2719
2720    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2721        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2722        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2723
2724    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2725        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2726        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2727        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2728        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2729
2730    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2731        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2732
2733    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2734        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2735        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2736        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2737
2738    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2739        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2740        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2741
2742        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2743            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2744        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2745            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2746
2747        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2748
2749    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2750        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2751
2752    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2753        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2754        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2755        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2756
2757    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2758        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2759        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2760        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2761
2762    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2763        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2764        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2765        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
2766
2767    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2768        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2769
2770    def and_sql(
2771        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2772    ) -> str:
2773        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
2774
2775    def or_sql(
2776        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2777    ) -> str:
2778        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
2779
2780    def xor_sql(
2781        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2782    ) -> str:
2783        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
2784
2785    def connector_sql(
2786        self,
2787        expression: exp.Connector,
2788        op: str,
2789        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2790    ) -> str:
2791        if stack is not None:
2792            if expression.expressions:
2793                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2794            else:
2795                stack.append(expression.right)
2796                if expression.comments:
2797                    for comment in expression.comments:
2798                        op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2799                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2800            return op
2801
2802        stack = [expression]
2803        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2804        ops = set()
2805
2806        while stack:
2807            node = stack.pop()
2808            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2809                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2810            else:
2811                sql = self.sql(node)
2812                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2813                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2814                else:
2815                    sqls.append(sql)
2816
2817        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2818        return sep.join(sqls)
2819
2820    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2821        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2822
2823    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2824        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2825
2826    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2827        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2828
2829    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2830        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2831
2832    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2833        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2834
2835    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2836        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2837
2838    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2839        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2840        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2841        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2842        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2843        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
2844        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
2845        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
2846
2847    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2848        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2849        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2850
2851    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2852        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)
2853
2854    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2855        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2856            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2857        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2858
2859    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2860        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2861
2862    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2863        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2864        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2865        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2866        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2867        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2868
2869    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2870        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2871        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2872        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2873        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2874        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2875        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2876        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2877        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2878        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2879
2880    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2881        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2882        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2883        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2884        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2885
2886        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2887            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2888
2889        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2890
2891    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2892        return "BEGIN"
2893
2894    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2895        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2896        if chain is not None:
2897            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2898
2899        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2900
2901    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2902        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2903        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2904        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2905
2906    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2907        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2908
2909        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2910        if dtype:
2911            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2912            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2913            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2914            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2915            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2916
2917        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2918        if default:
2919            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2920
2921        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2922        if comment:
2923            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
2924
2925        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2926            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2927
2928        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2929
2930    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2931        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2932            # Remove db from tables
2933            expression = expression.transform(
2934                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2935            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
2936        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2937        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2938
2939    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
2940        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2941        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
2942        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
2943        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
2944
2945    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2946        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2947
2948        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2949            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
2950        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2951            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2952        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2953            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2954        else:
2955            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2956
2957        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2958        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2959        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2960        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
2961        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}{options}"
2962
2963    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2964        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
2965            return self.expressions(
2966                expression,
2967                key="actions",
2968                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
2969            )
2970        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
2971
2972    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2973        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2974        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2975        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2976
2977    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2978        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
2979
2980    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2981        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2982
2983        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
2984            case = exp.case()
2985            for arg in expression.expressions:
2986                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
2987            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
2988
2989        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2990
2991        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2992        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2993        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2994
2995    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2996        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
2997
2998    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2999        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3000
3001    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3002        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3003        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3004        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3005        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3006
3007    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3008        return self.sql(
3009            exp.Cast(
3010                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3011                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3012            )
3013        )
3014
3015    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3016        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3017            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
3018        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3019
3020    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3021        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3022
3023        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3024            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3025
3026        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3027            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3028                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3029
3030        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3031            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3032                return self.sql(
3033                    exp.cast(
3034                        l / r,
3035                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3036                    )
3037                )
3038
3039        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3040
3041    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3042        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3043
3044    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3045        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3046
3047    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3048        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3049
3050    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3051        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3052
3053    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3054        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3055
3056    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3057        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3058
3059    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3060        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3061
3062    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3063        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3064
3065    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3066        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3067
3068    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3069        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3070
3071    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3072        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3073
3074    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3075        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3076            return self.sql(
3077                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3078            )
3079        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3080
3081    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3082        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3083
3084    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3085        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3086
3087    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3088        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3089
3090    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3091        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3092
3093    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3094        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3095
3096    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3097        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3098
3099    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3100        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3101
3102    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3103        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3104
3105    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3106        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3107
3108    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3109        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3110
3111    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3112        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3113
3114    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3115        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3116
3117    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3118        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3119
3120    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3121        this = expression.this
3122        expr = expression.expression
3123
3124        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3125            this, expr = expr, this
3126        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3127            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3128                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3129
3130            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3131
3132        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3133
3134    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3135        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3136        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3137        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3138        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3139        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3140
3141    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3142        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3143        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3144
3145    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3146        args = []
3147
3148        for key in expression.arg_types:
3149            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3150
3151            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3152                for value in arg_value:
3153                    args.append(value)
3154            elif arg_value is not None:
3155                args.append(arg_value)
3156
3157        if self.normalize_functions:
3158            name = expression.sql_name()
3159        else:
3160            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3161
3162        return self.func(name, *args)
3163
3164    def func(
3165        self,
3166        name: str,
3167        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3168        prefix: str = "(",
3169        suffix: str = ")",
3170    ) -> str:
3171        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3172
3173    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3174        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
3175        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
3176            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3177        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3178
3179    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
3180        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
3181
3182    def format_time(
3183        self,
3184        expression: exp.Expression,
3185        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3186        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3187    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3188        return format_time(
3189            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3190            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3191            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3192        )
3193
3194    def expressions(
3195        self,
3196        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3197        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3198        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3199        flat: bool = False,
3200        indent: bool = True,
3201        skip_first: bool = False,
3202        sep: str = ", ",
3203        prefix: str = "",
3204    ) -> str:
3205        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3206
3207        if not expressions:
3208            return ""
3209
3210        if flat:
3211            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3212
3213        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3214
3215        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
3216        if self.pretty:
3217            if self.leading_comma:
3218                pad = " " * len(sep)
3219            else:
3220                stripped_sep = sep.strip()
3221
3222        result_sqls = []
3223        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3224            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3225            if not sql:
3226                continue
3227
3228            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3229
3230            if self.pretty:
3231                if self.leading_comma:
3232                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3233                else:
3234                    result_sqls.append(
3235                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3236                    )
3237            else:
3238                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3239
3240        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
3241        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
3242
3243    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3244        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3245        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3246        if flat:
3247            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3248        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3249
3250    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3251        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3252        if not property_name:
3253            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3254        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3255
3256    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3257        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3258
3259    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3260        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3261
3262    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3263        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3264        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3265        expressions = (
3266            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3267        )
3268        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3269
3270    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3271        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3272        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3273        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3274
3275    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3276        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3277
3278    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3279        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3280        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3281        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3282        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3283
3284        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3285        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3286            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
3287            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
3288                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
3289        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3290            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3291                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3292            else:
3293                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3294        else:
3295            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3296        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3297
3298    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3299        table = expression.this
3300        table_alias = ""
3301
3302        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3303        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3304            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3305            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3306
3307        this = self.sql(table)
3308        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3309        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3310        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
3311
3312        return self.prepend_ctes(
3313            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
3314        )
3315
3316    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3317        if expression.args.get("format"):
3318            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3319
3320        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
3321
3322    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3323        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3324            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3325            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "double"))
3326
3327        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3328        if not fmt:
3329            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3330            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "double"))
3331
3332        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3333
3334    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3335        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3336        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3337        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3338        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3339        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3340
3341    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3342        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3343        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3344        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3345        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3346
3347    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3348        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3349
3350    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3351        return ""
3352
3353    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3354        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3355        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3356        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3357        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3358        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3359
3360    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3361        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3362        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3363
3364        if having:
3365            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3366
3367        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3368
3369    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3370        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3371        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3372        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3373        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3374        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3375        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3376        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3377        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3378        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3379        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3380        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3381        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3382        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3383
3384    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3385        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3386        if key_block_size:
3387            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3388
3389        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3390        if using:
3391            return f"USING {using}"
3392
3393        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3394        if parser:
3395            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3396
3397        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3398        if comment:
3399            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3400
3401        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3402        if visible is not None:
3403            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3404
3405        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3406        if engine_attr:
3407            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3408
3409        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3410        if secondary_engine_attr:
3411            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3412
3413        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3414        return ""
3415
3416    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3417        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3418        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3419
3420    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3421        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3422        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3423        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3424        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3425        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3426        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3427        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3428        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
3429        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3430        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3431        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{schema}{options}"
3432
3433    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3434        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3435            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3436
3437        case = exp.Case().when(
3438            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3439            expression.args["true"],
3440            copy=False,
3441        )
3442        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3443        if else_cond:
3444            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3445
3446        return self.sql(case)
3447
3448    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3449        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3450        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3451        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3452        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3453        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3454        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3455
3456    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3457        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3458
3459    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3460        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3461
3462    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3463        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3464        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3465        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3466        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3467        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3468        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3469
3470    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3471        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3472        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3473        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3474
3475    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3476        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3477        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3478        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3479
3480    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3481        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3482
3483    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3484        arg = expression.this
3485        if not arg.type:
3486            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3487
3488            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3489
3490        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3491            return self.sql(arg)
3492
3493        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3494        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3495
3496    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3497        this = expression.this
3498        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3499            return self.sql(this)
3500
3501        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "time"))
3502
3503    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3504        this = expression.this
3505        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3506            return self.sql(this)
3507
3508        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "timestamp"))
3509
3510    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3511        this = expression.this
3512        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3513
3514        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3515            return self.sql(
3516                exp.cast(exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]), "date")
3517            )
3518
3519        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3520            return self.sql(this)
3521
3522        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "date"))
3523
3524    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3525        return self.sql(
3526            exp.func(
3527                "DATEDIFF",
3528                expression.this,
3529                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), "date"),
3530                "day",
3531            )
3532        )
3533
3534    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3535        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3536            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3537
3538        unit = expression.text("unit")
3539        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3540            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3541
3542        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3543
3544    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3545        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3546            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3547            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3548            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3549            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3550
3551        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3552
3553        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3554        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3555            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3556
3557        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3558
3559    def generateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3560        expression.set("is_end_exclusive", None)
3561        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3562
3563    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3564        expression.set(
3565            "expressions",
3566            [
3567                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3568                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3569                else e
3570                for e in expression.expressions
3571            ],
3572        )
3573
3574        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3575
3576    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3577        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3578        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3579
3580        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3581
3582    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3583        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3584        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3585
3586        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3587
3588        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3589        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3590
3591        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3592        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3593
3594        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3595        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3596
3597        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3598        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3599
3600        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3601
3602    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3603    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3604    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3605        to = expression.this
3606        value = expression.expression
3607        style = expression.args.get("style")
3608        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3609        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3610
3611        if not to or not value:
3612            return ""
3613
3614        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3615        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3616            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3617
3618        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3619        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3620
3621        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3622        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3623            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3624
3625            style_value = style.name
3626            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3627            if not converted_style:
3628                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3629
3630            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3631
3632            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3633                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3634            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3635                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3636            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3637                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3638            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3639                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3640
3641        if not transformed:
3642            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3643
3644        return self.sql(transformed)
3645
3646    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
3647        this = expression.this
3648        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
3649            this = self.json_path_part(this)
3650            return f".{this}" if this else ""
3651
3652        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
3653            return f".{this}"
3654
3655        this = self.json_path_part(this)
3656        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
3657
3658    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
3659        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
3660        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
3661
3662    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3663        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3664            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3665
3666            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3667
3668        return expression
3669
3670    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
3671        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
3672            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
3673            mods = sorted(
3674                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
3675                key=lambda x: 0
3676                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
3677                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
3678            )
3679
3680            if mods:
3681                mod = mods[0]
3682                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
3683                this.meta["inline"] = True
3684                mod.this.replace(this)
3685                return self.sql(expression.this)
3686
3687            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
3688
3689            if agg_func:
3690                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
3691
3692        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile('\\\\(\\d+)')
class Generator:
  37class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  38    """
  39    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  40
  41    Args:
  42        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  43            Default: False.
  44        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  45            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  46            True or 'always': Always quote.
  47            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  48        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  49            Default: False.
  50        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  51            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  52            Default: 2.
  53        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  54            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  55            Default: 2.
  56        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  57            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  58            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  59            False: Disables function name normalization.
  60        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  61            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  62        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  63            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  64            Default: 3
  65        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  66            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  67            Default: False
  68        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  69            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  70            line length.
  71            Default: 80
  72        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  73            Default: True
  74    """
  75
  76    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
  77        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
  78        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  79        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  80        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
  81        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  82        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  83        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
  84        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  85        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  86        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  87        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  88        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  89        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
  90        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  91            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  92        ),
  93        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  95        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  96        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
  97        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  98        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
  99        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 100        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 101        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 102        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 103        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 104        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 105        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 106        exp.JSONExtract: lambda self, e: self.func(
 107            "JSON_EXTRACT", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 108        ),
 109        exp.JSONExtractScalar: lambda self, e: self.func(
 110            "JSON_EXTRACT_SCALAR", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 111        ),
 112        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 113        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 114        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 115        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 116        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 117        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 118        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 119        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 120        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 121        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 122        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 123        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 124        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 125        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 126        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 127        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 128        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 129        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 130        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 131        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 132        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 133        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 134        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 135        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 136        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 137        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 138        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 139        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 140        exp.Timestamp: lambda self, e: self.func("TIMESTAMP", e.this, e.expression),
 141        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 142        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 143        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 144        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 145        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 146        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 147        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 148        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 149        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 150        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 151        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 152    }
 153
 154    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 155    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
 156    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 157
 158    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 159    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 160    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 161
 162    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 163    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 164
 165    # Always do union distinct or union all
 166    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 167
 168    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 169    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 170
 171    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 172    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 173
 174    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 175    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 176
 177    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 178    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 179
 180    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 181    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 182
 183    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 184    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 185
 186    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 187    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 188
 189    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 190    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 191
 192    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 193    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 194
 195    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 196    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 197
 198    # Whether join hints should be generated
 199    JOIN_HINTS = True
 200
 201    # Whether table hints should be generated
 202    TABLE_HINTS = True
 203
 204    # Whether query hints should be generated
 205    QUERY_HINTS = True
 206
 207    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 208    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 209
 210    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 211    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 212
 213    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 214    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 215
 216    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 217    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 218
 219    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 220    RETURNING_END = True
 221
 222    # Whether to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 223    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 224
 225    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 226    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 227
 228    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 229    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 230
 231    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 232    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 233
 234    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 235    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 236
 237    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 238    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 239    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 240    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 241
 242    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 243    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 244
 245    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 246    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 247
 248    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 249    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 250
 251    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 252    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 253
 254    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 255    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 256
 257    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 258    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 259
 260    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 261    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 262
 263    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 264    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 265
 266    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 267    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 268
 269    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 270    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 271
 272    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 273    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 274
 275    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 276    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 277
 278    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 279    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 280
 281    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 282    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 283
 284    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 285    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 286
 287    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 288    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 289
 290    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 291    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 292
 293    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 294    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 295
 296    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 297    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 298
 299    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 300    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 301
 302    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 303    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 304
 305    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 306    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 307
 308    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 309    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 310
 311    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 312    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 313
 314    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 315    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 316
 317    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 318    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 319    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 320
 321    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 322    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 323
 324    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 325    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 326
 327    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 328    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 329
 330    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 331    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 332
 333    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 334    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 335
 336    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 337    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 338
 339    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 340        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 341        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 342        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 343        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 344        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 345        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 346        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 347        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 348        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 349    }
 350
 351    STAR_MAPPING = {
 352        "except": "EXCEPT",
 353        "replace": "REPLACE",
 354    }
 355
 356    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 357        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 358        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 359        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 360        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 361        "DAYS": "DAY",
 362        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 363        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 364        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 365        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 366    }
 367
 368    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 369        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 370        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 371        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 372        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 373        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 374            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 375            if e.args.get("windows")
 376            else ""
 377        ),
 378    }
 379
 380    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 381
 382    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 383
 384    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 385    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 386
 387    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 388        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 389        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 390        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 391        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 392        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 393        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 394        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 395        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 396        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 397        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 398        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 399        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 400        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 401        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 402        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 403        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 404        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 405        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 406        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 407        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 408        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 409        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 410        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 411        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 412        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 413        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 414        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 415        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 416        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 417        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 418        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 419        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 420        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 421        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 422        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 423        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 424        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 425        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 426        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 427        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 428        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 429        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 430        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 431        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 432        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 433        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 434        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 435        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 436        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 437        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 438        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 439        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 440        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 441        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 442        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 443        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 444        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 445        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 446        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 447        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 448        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 449        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 450        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 451        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 452        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 453        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 454        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 455        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 456        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 457        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 458        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 459        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 460        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 461        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 462        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 463        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 464    }
 465
 466    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 467    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 468
 469    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 470    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 471        exp.Create,
 472        exp.Delete,
 473        exp.Drop,
 474        exp.From,
 475        exp.Insert,
 476        exp.Join,
 477        exp.Select,
 478        exp.Union,
 479        exp.Update,
 480        exp.Where,
 481        exp.With,
 482    )
 483
 484    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 485    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 486        exp.Binary,
 487        exp.Union,
 488    )
 489
 490    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 491    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 492        exp.Column,
 493        exp.Literal,
 494        exp.Neg,
 495        exp.Paren,
 496    )
 497
 498    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 499        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 500        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 501        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 502        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 503    }
 504
 505    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 506    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 507
 508    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 509
 510    __slots__ = (
 511        "pretty",
 512        "identify",
 513        "normalize",
 514        "pad",
 515        "_indent",
 516        "normalize_functions",
 517        "unsupported_level",
 518        "max_unsupported",
 519        "leading_comma",
 520        "max_text_width",
 521        "comments",
 522        "dialect",
 523        "unsupported_messages",
 524        "_escaped_quote_end",
 525        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 526    )
 527
 528    def __init__(
 529        self,
 530        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 531        identify: str | bool = False,
 532        normalize: bool = False,
 533        pad: int = 2,
 534        indent: int = 2,
 535        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 536        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 537        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 538        leading_comma: bool = False,
 539        max_text_width: int = 80,
 540        comments: bool = True,
 541        dialect: DialectType = None,
 542    ):
 543        import sqlglot
 544        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 545
 546        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 547        self.identify = identify
 548        self.normalize = normalize
 549        self.pad = pad
 550        self._indent = indent
 551        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 552        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 553        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 554        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 555        self.comments = comments
 556        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 557
 558        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 559        self.normalize_functions = (
 560            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 561        )
 562
 563        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 564        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 565            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 566        )
 567        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 568            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 569        )
 570
 571    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 572        """
 573        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 574
 575        Args:
 576            expression: The syntax tree.
 577            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 578                it is safer to copy.
 579
 580        Returns:
 581            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 582        """
 583        if copy:
 584            expression = expression.copy()
 585
 586        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 587
 588        self.unsupported_messages = []
 589        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 590
 591        if self.pretty:
 592            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 593
 594        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 595            return sql
 596
 597        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 598            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 599                logger.warning(msg)
 600        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 601            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 602
 603        return sql
 604
 605    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 606        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 607        if (
 608            not expression.parent
 609            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 610            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 611        ):
 612            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 613
 614            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 615
 616        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 617            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 618
 619            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 620
 621        return expression
 622
 623    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 624        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 625            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 626        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 627
 628    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 629        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 630
 631    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 632        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 633
 634    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 635        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 636        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 637        return comment
 638
 639    def maybe_comment(
 640        self,
 641        sql: str,
 642        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 643        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 644    ) -> str:
 645        comments = (
 646            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 647            if self.comments
 648            else None
 649        )
 650
 651        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 652            return sql
 653
 654        comments_sql = " ".join(
 655            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 656        )
 657
 658        if not comments_sql:
 659            return sql
 660
 661        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 662            return (
 663                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 664                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 665                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 666            )
 667
 668        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 669
 670    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 671        this_sql = self.indent(
 672            (
 673                self.sql(expression)
 674                if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 675                else self.sql(expression, "this")
 676            ),
 677            level=1,
 678            pad=0,
 679        )
 680        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 681
 682    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 683        original = self.identify
 684        self.identify = False
 685        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 686        self.identify = original
 687        return result
 688
 689    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 690        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 691            return name.upper()
 692        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 693            return name.lower()
 694        return name
 695
 696    def indent(
 697        self,
 698        sql: str,
 699        level: int = 0,
 700        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 701        skip_first: bool = False,
 702        skip_last: bool = False,
 703    ) -> str:
 704        if not self.pretty:
 705            return sql
 706
 707        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 708        lines = sql.split("\n")
 709
 710        return "\n".join(
 711            (
 712                line
 713                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 714                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 715            )
 716            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 717        )
 718
 719    def sql(
 720        self,
 721        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 722        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 723        comment: bool = True,
 724    ) -> str:
 725        if not expression:
 726            return ""
 727
 728        if isinstance(expression, str):
 729            return expression
 730
 731        if key:
 732            value = expression.args.get(key)
 733            if value:
 734                return self.sql(value)
 735            return ""
 736
 737        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 738
 739        if callable(transform):
 740            sql = transform(self, expression)
 741        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 742            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 743
 744            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 745                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 746            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 747                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 748            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 749                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 750            else:
 751                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 752        else:
 753            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 754
 755        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 756
 757    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 758        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 759        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 760        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 761
 762    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 763        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 764        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 765        options = expression.args.get("options")
 766        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 767        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 768        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 769        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 770        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 771
 772    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 773        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 774            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 775        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 776        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 777
 778    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 779        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 780
 781        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 782            join_mark = ""
 783            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 784
 785        column = ".".join(
 786            self.sql(part)
 787            for part in (
 788                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 789                expression.args.get("db"),
 790                expression.args.get("table"),
 791                expression.args.get("this"),
 792            )
 793            if part
 794        )
 795
 796        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 797
 798    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 799        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 800        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 801        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 802        return f"{position}{this}"
 803
 804    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 805        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 806        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 807        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 808        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 809        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 810        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 811        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 812        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 813
 814        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 815            kind = ""
 816
 817        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 818
 819    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 820        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 821        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 822        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 823
 824    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 825        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 826        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 827            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 828        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 829            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 830        else:
 831            persisted = ""
 832        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 833
 834    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 835        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 836
 837    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 838        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 839            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 840        else:
 841            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 842
 843        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 844
 845    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 846        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 847    ) -> str:
 848        this = ""
 849        if expression.this is not None:
 850            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 851            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 852
 853        start = expression.args.get("start")
 854        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 855        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 856        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 857        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 858        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 859        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 860        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 861        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 862        cycle_sql = ""
 863
 864        if cycle is not None:
 865            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 866            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 867
 868        sequence_opts = ""
 869        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 870            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 871            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 872
 873        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 874        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 875
 876        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 877
 878    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 879        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 880    ) -> str:
 881        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
 882        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 883        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 884
 885    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 886        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 887    ) -> str:
 888        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 889
 890    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 891        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 892
 893    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 894        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 895
 896    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 897        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 898        if desc is not None:
 899            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 900        return "PRIMARY KEY"
 901
 902    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 903        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 904        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 905        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 906        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 907        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
 908        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
 909        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
 910
 911    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 912        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 913
 914    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 915        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 916        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 917        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 918
 919        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 920
 921        properties_sql = ""
 922        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 923            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 924        ):
 925            properties_sql = self.sql(
 926                exp.Properties(
 927                    expressions=[
 928                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 929                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 930                    ]
 931                )
 932            )
 933
 934        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 935        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 936
 937        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 938        if expression_sql:
 939            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 940
 941            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 942                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 943                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 944                        exp.Properties(
 945                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 946                        ),
 947                        wrapped=False,
 948                    )
 949                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 950                else:
 951                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 952
 953        postindex_props_sql = ""
 954        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 955            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 956                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 957                wrapped=False,
 958                prefix=" ",
 959            )
 960
 961        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 962        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 963        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 964
 965        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 966        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 967
 968        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 969        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 970            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 971                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 972                sep=" ",
 973                prefix=" ",
 974                wrapped=False,
 975            )
 976
 977        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 978
 979        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 980        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 981            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 982                exp.Properties(
 983                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 984                ),
 985                sep=" ",
 986                prefix=" ",
 987                wrapped=False,
 988            )
 989
 990        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 991        no_schema_binding = (
 992            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 993        )
 994
 995        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 996        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 997
 998        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 999        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1000
1001    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1002        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1003        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1004        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1005        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1006        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1007        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1008        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1009        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1010        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1011        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1012
1013        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1014        if cache is None:
1015            cache_str = ""
1016        elif cache is True:
1017            cache_str = " CACHE"
1018        else:
1019            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1020
1021        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1022        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1023
1024        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1025
1026    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1027        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1028        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1029        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1030        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1031
1032    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1033        style = expression.args.get("style")
1034        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1035        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1036
1037    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1038        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1039        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1040
1041    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1042        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1043        if with_:
1044            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1045        return sql
1046
1047    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1048        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1049        recursive = (
1050            "RECURSIVE "
1051            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1052            else ""
1053        )
1054
1055        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1056
1057    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1058        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1059
1060        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1061        if materialized is False:
1062            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1063        elif materialized:
1064            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1065
1066        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1067
1068    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1069        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1070        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1071        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1072
1073        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1074            columns = ""
1075            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1076
1077        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1078            alias = "_t"
1079
1080        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1081
1082    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1083        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1084        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1085            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1086        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1087
1088    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1089        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1090        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1091            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1092        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1093
1094    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1095        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1096        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1097            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1098        return this
1099
1100    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1101        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1102        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1103
1104        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1105            escape = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if escape else ""
1106            return f"{self.dialect.UNICODE_START}{this}{self.dialect.UNICODE_END}{escape}"
1107
1108        if escape:
1109            pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1110        else:
1111            pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1112
1113        this = pattern.sub(r"\\u\1", this)
1114        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1115
1116    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1117        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1118        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1119
1120    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1121        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1122        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1123        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1124        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1125
1126    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1127        type_value = expression.this
1128
1129        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1130            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1131        else:
1132            type_sql = (
1133                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1134                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1135                else type_value
1136            )
1137
1138        nested = ""
1139        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1140        values = ""
1141
1142        if interior:
1143            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1144                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1145                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1146                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1147                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1148                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1149            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1150                nested = f" {interior}"
1151            else:
1152                nested = f"({interior})"
1153
1154        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1155        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1156            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1157            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1158        ):
1159            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1160
1161        return type_sql
1162
1163    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1164        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1165        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1166        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1167        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1168
1169    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1170        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1171        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1172        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1173        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1174        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1175        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1176        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1177        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1178        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1179        if self.RETURNING_END:
1180            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1181        else:
1182            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1183        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1184
1185    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1186        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1187        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1188        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1189        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1190        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1191        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1192        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1193        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1194        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1195        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1196        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1197
1198    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1199        return self.set_operations(expression)
1200
1201    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1202        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1203
1204    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1205        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1206        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1207        count = expression.args.get("count")
1208        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1209        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1210            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1211        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1212        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1213
1214    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1215        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1216            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1217            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1218            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1219
1220        agg = expression.this
1221        agg_arg = agg.this
1222        cond = expression.expression.this
1223        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1224        return self.sql(agg)
1225
1226    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1227        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1228            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1229            return ""
1230
1231        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1232
1233    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1234        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1235        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1236        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1237        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1238        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1239        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1240        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1241        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1242        if include:
1243            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1244        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1245        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1246        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1247        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1248
1249        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}"
1250
1251    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1252        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1253        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1254        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1255        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1256        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1257        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1258        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1259
1260        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1261
1262        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1263        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1264
1265    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1266        text = expression.name
1267        lower = text.lower()
1268        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1269        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1270        if (
1271            expression.quoted
1272            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1273            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1274            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1275        ):
1276            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1277        return text
1278
1279    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1280        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1281        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1282        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1283        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1284        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1285
1286    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1287        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1288        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1289
1290    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1291        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1292
1293    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1294        root_properties = []
1295        with_properties = []
1296
1297        for p in expression.expressions:
1298            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1299            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1300                with_properties.append(p)
1301            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1302                root_properties.append(p)
1303
1304        return self.root_properties(
1305            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1306        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1307
1308    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1309        if properties.expressions:
1310            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1311        return ""
1312
1313    def properties(
1314        self,
1315        properties: exp.Properties,
1316        prefix: str = "",
1317        sep: str = ", ",
1318        suffix: str = "",
1319        wrapped: bool = True,
1320    ) -> str:
1321        if properties.expressions:
1322            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1323            if expressions:
1324                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1325                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1326        return ""
1327
1328    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1329        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1330
1331    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1332        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1333        for p in properties.expressions:
1334            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1335            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1336                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1337            else:
1338                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1339
1340        return properties_locs
1341
1342    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1343        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1344            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1345        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1346
1347    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1348        property_cls = expression.__class__
1349        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1350            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1351
1352        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1353        if not property_name:
1354            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1355
1356        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1357
1358    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1359        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1360            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1361            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1362
1363            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1364            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1365                like = f"({like})"
1366
1367            return like
1368
1369        if expression.expressions:
1370            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1371
1372        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1373        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1374
1375    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1376        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1377        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1378        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1379
1380    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1381        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1382        local = expression.args.get("local")
1383        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1384        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1385        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1386        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1387        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1388
1389    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1390        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1391        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1392        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1393
1394    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1395        if expression.args.get("default"):
1396            property = "DEFAULT"
1397        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1398            property = "ON"
1399        else:
1400            property = "OFF"
1401        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1402
1403    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1404        if expression.args.get("no"):
1405            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1406        if expression.args.get("default"):
1407            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1408
1409        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1410        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1411
1412    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1413        default = expression.args.get("default")
1414        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1415        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1416        if default or minimum or maximum:
1417            if default:
1418                prop = "DEFAULT"
1419            elif minimum:
1420                prop = "MINIMUM"
1421            else:
1422                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1423            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1424        units = expression.args.get("units")
1425        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1426        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1427
1428    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1429        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1430        always = expression.args.get("always")
1431        default = expression.args.get("default")
1432        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1433        never = expression.args.get("never")
1434
1435        if autotemp is not None:
1436            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1437        elif always:
1438            prop = "ALWAYS"
1439        elif default:
1440            prop = "DEFAULT"
1441        elif manual:
1442            prop = "MANUAL"
1443        elif never:
1444            prop = "NEVER"
1445        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1446
1447    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1448        no = expression.args.get("no")
1449        no = " NO" if no else ""
1450        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1451        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1452        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1453        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1454        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1455
1456    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1457        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1458            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1459        if expression.this:
1460            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1461            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1462            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1463
1464        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1465        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1466        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1467
1468    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1469        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1470
1471        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1472        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1473            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1474        else:
1475            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1476
1477        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1478
1479    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1480        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1481        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1482        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1483        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1484        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1485        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1486        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1487
1488    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1489        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1490        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1491        statistics_sql = ""
1492        if statistics is not None:
1493            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1494        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1495
1496    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1497        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
1498
1499        if expression.this:
1500            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
1501            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
1502
1503            if expression.expression:
1504                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1505                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
1506
1507            sql = f"{sql})"
1508
1509        return f"{sql})"
1510
1511    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1512        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1513        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1514
1515        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1516            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1517        else:
1518            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1519
1520        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1521        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1522        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1523        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1524        if is_function:
1525            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1526        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1527
1528        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1529        partition_sql = (
1530            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1531        )
1532        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1533        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1534        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1535        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1536        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1537        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1538        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1539
1540        if self.RETURNING_END:
1541            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1542        else:
1543            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1544
1545        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1546        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1547
1548    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1549        return self.set_operations(expression)
1550
1551    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1552        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1553
1554    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1555        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1556
1557    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1558        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1559        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1560        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1561        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1562        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1563
1564    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1565        return expression.name
1566
1567    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1568        return expression.name
1569
1570    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1571        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1572
1573        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1574        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1575
1576        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1577        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1578        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1579
1580        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1581        if expressions:
1582            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1583            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1584
1585        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1586
1587    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1588        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1589
1590    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1591        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1592        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1593        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1594        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1595        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1596        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1597        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1598        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1599        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1600        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1601        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1602        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1603        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1604
1605    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1606        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1607
1608    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1609        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1610        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1611        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1612        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1613
1614    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1615        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1616        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1617        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1618        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1619
1620    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1621        return ".".join(
1622            self.sql(part)
1623            for part in (
1624                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1625                expression.args.get("db"),
1626                expression.args.get("this"),
1627            )
1628            if part is not None
1629        )
1630
1631    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1632        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1633        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1634        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1635        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1636        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1637        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1638        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1639        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1640        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1641        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1642        joins = self.indent(
1643            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1644        )
1645        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1646
1647        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1648        if file_format:
1649            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1650            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1651            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1652
1653        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1654        if ordinality:
1655            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1656            alias = ""
1657
1658        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1659        if when:
1660            table = f"{table} {when}"
1661
1662        return f"{only}{table}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1663
1664    def tablesample_sql(
1665        self,
1666        expression: exp.TableSample,
1667        sep: str = " AS ",
1668        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1669    ) -> str:
1670        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1671            table = expression.this.copy()
1672            table.set("alias", None)
1673            this = self.sql(table)
1674            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1675        else:
1676            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1677            alias = ""
1678
1679        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1680        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1681        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1682        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1683        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1684        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1685        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1686        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1687        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1688
1689        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1690        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1691            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1692
1693        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1694        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1695            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1696
1697        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1698        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1699            expr = f"({expr})"
1700
1701        return (
1702            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1703        )
1704
1705    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1706        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1707
1708        if expression.this:
1709            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1710            if not expressions:
1711                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1712
1713            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1714            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1715            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1716            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1717            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1718
1719        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1720        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1721        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1722        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1723        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1724        if include_nulls is not None:
1725            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1726        else:
1727            nulls = ""
1728        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1729
1730    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1731        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1732        kind = expression.text("kind")
1733        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1734        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1735
1736    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1737        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1738
1739    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1740        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1741        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1742        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1743        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1744        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1745        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1746        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1747        if self.RETURNING_END:
1748            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1749        else:
1750            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1751        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1752        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1753
1754    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1755        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1756
1757        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1758        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1759            args = self.expressions(expression)
1760            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1761            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1762            values = (
1763                f"({values})"
1764                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1765                else values
1766            )
1767            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1768
1769        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1770        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1771        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1772
1773        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1774
1775        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1776            row = tup.expressions
1777
1778            if i == 0 and column_names:
1779                row = [
1780                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1781                ]
1782
1783            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1784
1785        if self.pretty:
1786            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1787            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1788            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1789            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1790            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1791
1792        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1793        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1794        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1795
1796    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1797        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1798
1799    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1800        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1801        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1802        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1803
1804    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1805        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1806
1807    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1808        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1809
1810        if expression.args.get("all"):
1811            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1812
1813        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1814        grouping_sets = (
1815            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1816        )
1817
1818        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1819        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1820            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1821        else:
1822            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1823            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1824
1825        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1826        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1827            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1828        else:
1829            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1830            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1831
1832        groupings = csv(
1833            grouping_sets,
1834            cube_sql,
1835            rollup_sql,
1836            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1837            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1838        )
1839
1840        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1841            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1842
1843        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1844
1845    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1846        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1847        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1848
1849    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1850        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1851        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1852        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1853        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1854        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1855        return start + connect
1856
1857    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1858        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1859
1860    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1861        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1862            side = None
1863        else:
1864            side = expression.side
1865
1866        op_sql = " ".join(
1867            op
1868            for op in (
1869                expression.method,
1870                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1871                side,
1872                expression.kind,
1873                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1874            )
1875            if op
1876        )
1877        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
1878        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
1879        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1880        using = expression.args.get("using")
1881
1882        if not on_sql and using:
1883            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1884
1885        this = expression.this
1886        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1887
1888        if on_sql:
1889            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1890            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1891            if using:
1892                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1893            else:
1894                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1895        elif not op_sql:
1896            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
1897                return f" {this_sql}"
1898
1899            return f", {this_sql}"
1900
1901        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1902        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
1903
1904    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1905        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1906        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1907        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1908
1909    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1910        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
1911
1912        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
1913        if cross_apply is True:
1914            op = "INNER JOIN "
1915        elif cross_apply is False:
1916            op = "LEFT JOIN "
1917        else:
1918            op = ""
1919
1920        return f"{op}LATERAL"
1921
1922    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1923        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1924
1925        if expression.args.get("view"):
1926            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1927            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1928            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1929            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1930            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1931            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1932
1933        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1934        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1935        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
1936
1937    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1938        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1939
1940        args = [
1941            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
1942            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1943            if e
1944        ]
1945
1946        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
1947        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
1948        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1949        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1950
1951        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
1952
1953    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1954        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1955        value = expression.expression
1956        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
1957        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1958        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1959        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
1960
1961    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1962        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1963        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1964        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1965        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1966        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1967        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1968        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1969        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1970
1971    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1972        expressions = (
1973            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1974        )
1975        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1976        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1977
1978    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1979        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1980
1981    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1982        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1983            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1984            return ""
1985
1986        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1987        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1988        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1989        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1990
1991        if wait is not None:
1992            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1993                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1994            else:
1995                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1996
1997        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1998
1999    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2000        text = expression.this or ""
2001        if expression.is_string:
2002            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2003        return text
2004
2005    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2006        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2007            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2008            text = "".join(
2009                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2010            )
2011
2012        if self.pretty:
2013            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
2014
2015        return text.replace(self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
2016
2017    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2018        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2019        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2020        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2021        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2022        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2023        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2024        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2025        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2026        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2027        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2028        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2029
2030    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2031        return "NULL"
2032
2033    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2034        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2035
2036    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2037        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2038        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2039        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2040        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2041        interpolated_values = [
2042            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2043            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2044        ]
2045        interpolate = (
2046            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2047        )
2048        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
2049
2050    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2051        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2052        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2053        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2054        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2055        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2056        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2057        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
2058
2059    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2060        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2061
2062    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2063        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2064
2065    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2066        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2067
2068    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2069        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2070        asc = not desc
2071
2072        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2073        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2074        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2075        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2076        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2077
2078        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2079
2080        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2081        nulls_sort_change = ""
2082        if nulls_first and (
2083            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2084        ):
2085            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2086        elif (
2087            nulls_last
2088            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2089            and not nulls_are_last
2090        ):
2091            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2092
2093        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2094        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2095            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2096            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2097                self.unsupported(
2098                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2099                )
2100                nulls_sort_change = ""
2101            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2102                if expression.this.is_int:
2103                    self.unsupported(
2104                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2105                    )
2106                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2107                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2108                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2109                nulls_sort_change = ""
2110
2111        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2112        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2113
2114        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2115
2116    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2117        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2118        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2119        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2120        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2121        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2122        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2123        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2124        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2125        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2126        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2127        definition_sqls = [
2128            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2129            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2130        ]
2131        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2132        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2133        body = "".join(
2134            (
2135                partition,
2136                order,
2137                measures,
2138                rows,
2139                after,
2140                pattern,
2141                define,
2142            )
2143        )
2144        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2145        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2146        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2147
2148    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2149        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2150
2151        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2152            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2153        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2154            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2155
2156        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2157        if options:
2158            options = f" OPTION{self.wrap(options)}"
2159
2160        return csv(
2161            *sqls,
2162            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2163            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2164            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2165            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2166            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2167            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2168            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2169            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2170            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2171            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2172            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2173            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2174            options,
2175            sep="",
2176        )
2177
2178    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2179        return ""
2180
2181    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2182        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2183    ) -> t.List[str]:
2184        return [
2185            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2186            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2187        ]
2188
2189    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2190        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2191        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2192        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2193
2194    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2195        into = expression.args.get("into")
2196        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2197            into.pop()
2198
2199        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2200        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2201        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2202        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2203
2204        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2205        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2206            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2207            limit.pop()
2208        else:
2209            top = ""
2210
2211        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2212
2213        if kind:
2214            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2215                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2216            else:
2217                if kind == "STRUCT":
2218                    expressions = self.expressions(
2219                        sqls=[
2220                            self.sql(
2221                                exp.Struct(
2222                                    expressions=[
2223                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2224                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2225                                        else e
2226                                        for e in expression.expressions
2227                                    ]
2228                                )
2229                            )
2230                        ]
2231                    )
2232                kind = ""
2233
2234        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2235        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2236        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2237        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2238        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2239            expression,
2240            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2241            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2242            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2243        )
2244
2245        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2246
2247        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2248            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2249                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2250            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2251                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2252            else:
2253                table_kind = ""
2254            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2255
2256        return sql
2257
2258    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2259        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2260        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2261        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2262
2263    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2264        if expression.expressions:
2265            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2266        return ""
2267
2268    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2269        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2270        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2271        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2272        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2273        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
2274
2275    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2276        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2277        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2278
2279    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2280        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2281        kind = expression.text("kind")
2282        if kind:
2283            kind = f"{kind}."
2284        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2285
2286    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2287        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
2288
2289    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2290        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2291        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2292
2293        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2294        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2295
2296        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2297        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2298
2299    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2300        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2301        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2302
2303    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2304        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2305        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2306
2307        while stack:
2308            node = stack.pop()
2309
2310            if isinstance(node, exp.Union):
2311                stack.append(node.expression)
2312                stack.append(
2313                    self.maybe_comment(
2314                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2315                        expression=node.this,
2316                        comments=node.comments,
2317                    )
2318                )
2319                stack.append(node.this)
2320            else:
2321                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2322
2323        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2324        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2325        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
2326
2327    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2328        return self.set_operations(expression)
2329
2330    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2331        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2332        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2333        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2334        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2335
2336    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2337        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2338
2339        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2340        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2341
2342        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2343            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2344                alias.append("columns", offset)
2345
2346        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2347            columns = alias.columns
2348            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2349        else:
2350            alias = self.sql(alias)
2351
2352        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2353        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2354            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2355        else:
2356            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2357                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2358            elif offset:
2359                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2360            else:
2361                suffix = alias
2362
2363        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2364
2365    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2366        return ""
2367
2368    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2369        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2370        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2371
2372    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2373        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2374        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2375        order = expression.args.get("order")
2376        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2377        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2378        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2379        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2380
2381        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2382
2383        first = expression.args.get("first")
2384        if first is None:
2385            first = ""
2386        else:
2387            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2388
2389        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2390            return f"{this} {alias}"
2391
2392        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2393        return f"{this} ({args})"
2394
2395    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2396        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2397        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2398
2399    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2400        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2401        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2402        end = (
2403            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2404            or "CURRENT ROW"
2405        )
2406        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2407
2408    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2409        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2410        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2411        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2412
2413    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2414        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2415        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2416        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2417        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2418
2419    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2420        expressions = apply_index_offset(
2421            expression.this,
2422            expression.expressions,
2423            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2424        )
2425        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2426        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2427
2428    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2429        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2430
2431    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2432        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2433        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2434            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2435                this = self.wrap(this)
2436            return f"ANY{this}"
2437        return f"ANY {this}"
2438
2439    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2440        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2441
2442    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2443        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2444        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2445
2446        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2447            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2448            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2449
2450        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2451
2452        if default:
2453            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2454
2455        statements.append("END")
2456
2457        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
2458            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2459
2460        return " ".join(statements)
2461
2462    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2463        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2464        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2465        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2466
2467    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2468        order = expression.args.get("order")
2469        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2470        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2471
2472    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2473        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2474        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2475        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2476
2477    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2478        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2479
2480        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2481            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2482        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2483            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2484        else:
2485            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2486
2487    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2488        args = expression.expressions
2489        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2490            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2491
2492        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2493            args = [exp.cast(e, "text") for e in args]
2494
2495        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2496            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2497
2498        return args
2499
2500    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2501        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2502
2503        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2504        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2505            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2506
2507        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2508
2509    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2510        return self.func(
2511            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2512        )
2513
2514    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2515        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2516        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2517
2518    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2519        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2520        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2521        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2522        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2523        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2524        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2525        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2526        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2527
2528    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2529        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2530        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2531        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2532        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2533
2534    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2535        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2536
2537    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2538        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2539        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2540        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2541
2542    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2543        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2544
2545    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2546        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2547        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2548
2549    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2550        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2551            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2552            if not callable(transform):
2553                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2554                return ""
2555
2556            return transform(self, expression)
2557
2558        if isinstance(expression, int):
2559            return str(expression)
2560
2561        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2562            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2563            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2564        else:
2565            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2566            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2567
2568        return escaped
2569
2570    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2571        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2572
2573    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2574        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2575        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2576
2577        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2578        if unique_keys is not None:
2579            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2580        else:
2581            unique_keys = ""
2582
2583        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2584        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2585        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2586        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2587
2588        return self.func(
2589            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2590            *expression.expressions,
2591            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2592        )
2593
2594    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2595        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2596
2597    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2598        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2599        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2600        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2601        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2602        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2603        return self.func(
2604            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2605        )
2606
2607    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2608        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2609        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2610        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2611        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2612        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2613        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2614        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2615        return self.func(
2616            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2617            this,
2618            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2619        )
2620
2621    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2622        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2623        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2624        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2625
2626        if nested_schema:
2627            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2628
2629        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2630        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2631        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2632        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2633
2634    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2635        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2636
2637    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2638        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2639        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2640        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2641        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2642        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2643        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2644        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2645        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2646        return self.func(
2647            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2648        )
2649
2650    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2651        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2652        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2653        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2654        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2655        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2656        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2657
2658    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2659        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2660        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2661        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2662        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2663        with_ = (
2664            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2665            if expressions
2666            else ""
2667        )
2668        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2669
2670    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2671        query = expression.args.get("query")
2672        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2673        field = expression.args.get("field")
2674        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2675
2676        if query:
2677            in_sql = self.wrap(self.sql(query))
2678        elif unnest:
2679            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2680        elif field:
2681            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2682        else:
2683            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2684
2685        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2686
2687    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2688        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2689
2690    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2691        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2692        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2693            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2694        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2695
2696        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2697            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2698            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2699
2700        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2701        if this:
2702            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2703            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2704
2705        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2706
2707    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2708        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2709
2710    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2711        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2712        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2713        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2714        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2715        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2716        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2717
2718    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2719        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
2720
2721    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2722        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2723        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2724
2725    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2726        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2727        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2728        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2729        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2730
2731    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2732        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2733
2734    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2735        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2736        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2737        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2738
2739    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2740        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2741        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2742
2743        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2744            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2745        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2746            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2747
2748        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2749
2750    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2751        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2752
2753    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2754        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2755        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2756        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2757
2758    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2759        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2760        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2761        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2762
2763    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2764        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2765        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2766        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
2767
2768    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2769        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2770
2771    def and_sql(
2772        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2773    ) -> str:
2774        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
2775
2776    def or_sql(
2777        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2778    ) -> str:
2779        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
2780
2781    def xor_sql(
2782        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2783    ) -> str:
2784        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
2785
2786    def connector_sql(
2787        self,
2788        expression: exp.Connector,
2789        op: str,
2790        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2791    ) -> str:
2792        if stack is not None:
2793            if expression.expressions:
2794                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2795            else:
2796                stack.append(expression.right)
2797                if expression.comments:
2798                    for comment in expression.comments:
2799                        op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2800                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2801            return op
2802
2803        stack = [expression]
2804        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2805        ops = set()
2806
2807        while stack:
2808            node = stack.pop()
2809            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2810                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2811            else:
2812                sql = self.sql(node)
2813                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2814                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2815                else:
2816                    sqls.append(sql)
2817
2818        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2819        return sep.join(sqls)
2820
2821    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2822        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2823
2824    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2825        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2826
2827    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2828        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2829
2830    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2831        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2832
2833    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2834        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2835
2836    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2837        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2838
2839    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2840        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2841        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2842        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2843        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2844        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
2845        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
2846        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
2847
2848    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2849        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2850        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2851
2852    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2853        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)
2854
2855    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2856        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2857            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2858        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2859
2860    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2861        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2862
2863    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2864        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2865        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2866        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2867        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2868        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2869
2870    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2871        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2872        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2873        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2874        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2875        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2876        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2877        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2878        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2879        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2880
2881    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2882        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2883        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2884        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2885        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2886
2887        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2888            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2889
2890        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2891
2892    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2893        return "BEGIN"
2894
2895    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2896        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2897        if chain is not None:
2898            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2899
2900        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2901
2902    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2903        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2904        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2905        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2906
2907    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2908        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2909
2910        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2911        if dtype:
2912            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2913            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2914            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2915            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2916            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2917
2918        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2919        if default:
2920            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2921
2922        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2923        if comment:
2924            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
2925
2926        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2927            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2928
2929        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2930
2931    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2932        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2933            # Remove db from tables
2934            expression = expression.transform(
2935                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2936            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
2937        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2938        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2939
2940    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
2941        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2942        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
2943        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
2944        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
2945
2946    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2947        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2948
2949        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2950            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
2951        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2952            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2953        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2954            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2955        else:
2956            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2957
2958        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2959        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2960        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2961        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
2962        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}{options}"
2963
2964    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2965        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
2966            return self.expressions(
2967                expression,
2968                key="actions",
2969                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
2970            )
2971        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
2972
2973    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2974        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2975        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2976        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2977
2978    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2979        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
2980
2981    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2982        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2983
2984        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
2985            case = exp.case()
2986            for arg in expression.expressions:
2987                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
2988            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
2989
2990        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2991
2992        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2993        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2994        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2995
2996    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2997        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
2998
2999    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3000        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3001
3002    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3003        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3004        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3005        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3006        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3007
3008    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3009        return self.sql(
3010            exp.Cast(
3011                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3012                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3013            )
3014        )
3015
3016    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3017        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3018            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
3019        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3020
3021    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3022        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3023
3024        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3025            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3026
3027        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3028            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3029                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3030
3031        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3032            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3033                return self.sql(
3034                    exp.cast(
3035                        l / r,
3036                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3037                    )
3038                )
3039
3040        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3041
3042    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3043        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3044
3045    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3046        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3047
3048    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3049        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3050
3051    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3052        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3053
3054    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3055        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3056
3057    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3058        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3059
3060    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3061        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3062
3063    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3064        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3065
3066    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3067        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3068
3069    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3070        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3071
3072    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3073        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3074
3075    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3076        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3077            return self.sql(
3078                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3079            )
3080        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3081
3082    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3083        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3084
3085    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3086        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3087
3088    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3089        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3090
3091    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3092        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3093
3094    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3095        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3096
3097    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3098        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3099
3100    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3101        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3102
3103    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3104        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3105
3106    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3107        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3108
3109    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3110        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3111
3112    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3113        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3114
3115    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3116        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3117
3118    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3119        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3120
3121    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3122        this = expression.this
3123        expr = expression.expression
3124
3125        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3126            this, expr = expr, this
3127        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3128            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3129                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3130
3131            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3132
3133        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3134
3135    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3136        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3137        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3138        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3139        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3140        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3141
3142    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3143        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3144        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3145
3146    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3147        args = []
3148
3149        for key in expression.arg_types:
3150            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3151
3152            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3153                for value in arg_value:
3154                    args.append(value)
3155            elif arg_value is not None:
3156                args.append(arg_value)
3157
3158        if self.normalize_functions:
3159            name = expression.sql_name()
3160        else:
3161            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3162
3163        return self.func(name, *args)
3164
3165    def func(
3166        self,
3167        name: str,
3168        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3169        prefix: str = "(",
3170        suffix: str = ")",
3171    ) -> str:
3172        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3173
3174    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3175        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
3176        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
3177            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3178        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3179
3180    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
3181        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
3182
3183    def format_time(
3184        self,
3185        expression: exp.Expression,
3186        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3187        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3188    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3189        return format_time(
3190            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3191            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3192            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3193        )
3194
3195    def expressions(
3196        self,
3197        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3198        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3199        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3200        flat: bool = False,
3201        indent: bool = True,
3202        skip_first: bool = False,
3203        sep: str = ", ",
3204        prefix: str = "",
3205    ) -> str:
3206        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3207
3208        if not expressions:
3209            return ""
3210
3211        if flat:
3212            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3213
3214        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3215
3216        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
3217        if self.pretty:
3218            if self.leading_comma:
3219                pad = " " * len(sep)
3220            else:
3221                stripped_sep = sep.strip()
3222
3223        result_sqls = []
3224        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3225            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3226            if not sql:
3227                continue
3228
3229            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3230
3231            if self.pretty:
3232                if self.leading_comma:
3233                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3234                else:
3235                    result_sqls.append(
3236                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3237                    )
3238            else:
3239                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3240
3241        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
3242        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
3243
3244    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3245        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3246        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3247        if flat:
3248            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3249        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3250
3251    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3252        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3253        if not property_name:
3254            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3255        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3256
3257    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3258        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3259
3260    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3261        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3262
3263    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3264        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3265        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3266        expressions = (
3267            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3268        )
3269        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3270
3271    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3272        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3273        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3274        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3275
3276    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3277        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3278
3279    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3280        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3281        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3282        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3283        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3284
3285        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3286        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3287            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
3288            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
3289                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
3290        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3291            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3292                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3293            else:
3294                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3295        else:
3296            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3297        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3298
3299    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3300        table = expression.this
3301        table_alias = ""
3302
3303        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3304        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3305            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3306            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3307
3308        this = self.sql(table)
3309        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3310        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3311        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
3312
3313        return self.prepend_ctes(
3314            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
3315        )
3316
3317    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3318        if expression.args.get("format"):
3319            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3320
3321        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
3322
3323    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3324        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3325            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3326            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "double"))
3327
3328        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3329        if not fmt:
3330            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3331            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "double"))
3332
3333        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3334
3335    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3336        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3337        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3338        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3339        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3340        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3341
3342    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3343        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3344        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3345        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3346        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3347
3348    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3349        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3350
3351    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3352        return ""
3353
3354    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3355        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3356        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3357        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3358        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3359        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3360
3361    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3362        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3363        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3364
3365        if having:
3366            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3367
3368        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3369
3370    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3371        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3372        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3373        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3374        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3375        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3376        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3377        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3378        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3379        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3380        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3381        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3382        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3383        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3384
3385    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3386        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3387        if key_block_size:
3388            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3389
3390        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3391        if using:
3392            return f"USING {using}"
3393
3394        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3395        if parser:
3396            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3397
3398        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3399        if comment:
3400            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3401
3402        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3403        if visible is not None:
3404            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3405
3406        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3407        if engine_attr:
3408            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3409
3410        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3411        if secondary_engine_attr:
3412            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3413
3414        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3415        return ""
3416
3417    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3418        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3419        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3420
3421    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3422        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3423        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3424        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3425        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3426        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3427        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3428        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3429        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
3430        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3431        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3432        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{schema}{options}"
3433
3434    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3435        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3436            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3437
3438        case = exp.Case().when(
3439            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3440            expression.args["true"],
3441            copy=False,
3442        )
3443        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3444        if else_cond:
3445            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3446
3447        return self.sql(case)
3448
3449    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3450        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3451        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3452        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3453        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3454        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3455        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3456
3457    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3458        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3459
3460    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3461        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3462
3463    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3464        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3465        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3466        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3467        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3468        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3469        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3470
3471    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3472        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3473        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3474        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3475
3476    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3477        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3478        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3479        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3480
3481    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3482        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3483
3484    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3485        arg = expression.this
3486        if not arg.type:
3487            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3488
3489            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3490
3491        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3492            return self.sql(arg)
3493
3494        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3495        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3496
3497    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3498        this = expression.this
3499        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3500            return self.sql(this)
3501
3502        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "time"))
3503
3504    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3505        this = expression.this
3506        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3507            return self.sql(this)
3508
3509        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "timestamp"))
3510
3511    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3512        this = expression.this
3513        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3514
3515        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3516            return self.sql(
3517                exp.cast(exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]), "date")
3518            )
3519
3520        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3521            return self.sql(this)
3522
3523        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "date"))
3524
3525    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3526        return self.sql(
3527            exp.func(
3528                "DATEDIFF",
3529                expression.this,
3530                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), "date"),
3531                "day",
3532            )
3533        )
3534
3535    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3536        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3537            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3538
3539        unit = expression.text("unit")
3540        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3541            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3542
3543        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3544
3545    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3546        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3547            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3548            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3549            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3550            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3551
3552        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3553
3554        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3555        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3556            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3557
3558        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3559
3560    def generateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3561        expression.set("is_end_exclusive", None)
3562        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3563
3564    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3565        expression.set(
3566            "expressions",
3567            [
3568                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3569                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3570                else e
3571                for e in expression.expressions
3572            ],
3573        )
3574
3575        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3576
3577    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3578        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3579        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3580
3581        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3582
3583    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3584        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3585        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3586
3587        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3588
3589        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3590        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3591
3592        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3593        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3594
3595        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3596        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3597
3598        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3599        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3600
3601        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3602
3603    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3604    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3605    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3606        to = expression.this
3607        value = expression.expression
3608        style = expression.args.get("style")
3609        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3610        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3611
3612        if not to or not value:
3613            return ""
3614
3615        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3616        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3617            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3618
3619        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3620        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3621
3622        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3623        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3624            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3625
3626            style_value = style.name
3627            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3628            if not converted_style:
3629                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3630
3631            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3632
3633            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3634                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3635            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3636                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3637            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3638                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3639            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3640                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3641
3642        if not transformed:
3643            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3644
3645        return self.sql(transformed)
3646
3647    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
3648        this = expression.this
3649        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
3650            this = self.json_path_part(this)
3651            return f".{this}" if this else ""
3652
3653        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
3654            return f".{this}"
3655
3656        this = self.json_path_part(this)
3657        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
3658
3659    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
3660        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
3661        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
3662
3663    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3664        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3665            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3666
3667            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3668
3669        return expression
3670
3671    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
3672        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
3673            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
3674            mods = sorted(
3675                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
3676                key=lambda x: 0
3677                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
3678                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
3679            )
3680
3681            if mods:
3682                mod = mods[0]
3683                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
3684                this.meta["inline"] = True
3685                mod.this.replace(this)
3686                return self.sql(expression.this)
3687
3688            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
3689
3690            if agg_func:
3691                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
3692
3693        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

Arguments:
  • pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
  • identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  • normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
  • pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level. Default: 2.
  • indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of subqueries and filters under a WHERE clause. Default: 2.
  • normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
  • unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True, dialect: Union[str, sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect, Type[sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect], NoneType] = None)
528    def __init__(
529        self,
530        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
531        identify: str | bool = False,
532        normalize: bool = False,
533        pad: int = 2,
534        indent: int = 2,
535        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
536        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
537        max_unsupported: int = 3,
538        leading_comma: bool = False,
539        max_text_width: int = 80,
540        comments: bool = True,
541        dialect: DialectType = None,
542    ):
543        import sqlglot
544        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
545
546        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
547        self.identify = identify
548        self.normalize = normalize
549        self.pad = pad
550        self._indent = indent
551        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
552        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
553        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
554        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
555        self.comments = comments
556        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
557
558        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
559        self.normalize_functions = (
560            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
561        )
562
563        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
564        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
565            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
566        )
567        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
568            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
569        )
TRANSFORMS: Dict[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], Callable[..., str]] = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathFilter'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathKey'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRecursive'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRoot'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathScript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSelector'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSlice'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSubscript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathUnion'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathWildcard'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExcludeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalSpan'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONExtract'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONExtractScalar'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NonClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Timestamp'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithOperator'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: Optional[bool] = True
IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXPLICIT_UNION = False
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINT_SEP = ', '
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
RETURNING_END = True
COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = 'TABLESAMPLE'
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = 'SEED'
COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
ENSURE_BOOLS = False
CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ':'
INSERT_OVERWRITE = ' OVERWRITE TABLE'
SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.TINYTEXT: 'TINYTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.TINYBLOB: 'TINYBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET'}
STAR_MAPPING = {'except': 'EXCEPT', 'replace': 'REPLACE'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'MICROSECONDS': 'MICROSECOND', 'SECONDS': 'SECOND', 'MINUTES': 'MINUTE', 'HOURS': 'HOUR', 'DAYS': 'DAY', 'WEEKS': 'WEEK', 'MONTHS': 'MONTH', 'QUARTERS': 'QUARTER', 'YEARS': 'YEAR'}
AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {'cluster': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'distribute': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'qualify': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'sort': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'windows': <function Generator.<lambda>>}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ':'
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Binary'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Union'>)
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {<Type.CHAR: 'CHAR'>, <Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>, <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>, <Type.VARCHAR: 'VARCHAR'>}
EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: Set[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = set()
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
dialect
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
571    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
572        """
573        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
574
575        Args:
576            expression: The syntax tree.
577            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
578                it is safer to copy.
579
580        Returns:
581            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
582        """
583        if copy:
584            expression = expression.copy()
585
586        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
587
588        self.unsupported_messages = []
589        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
590
591        if self.pretty:
592            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
593
594        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
595            return sql
596
597        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
598            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
599                logger.warning(msg)
600        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
601            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
602
603        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

Arguments:
  • expression: The syntax tree.
  • copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so it is safer to copy.
Returns:

The SQL string corresponding to expression.

def preprocess( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> sqlglot.expressions.Expression:
605    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
606        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
607        if (
608            not expression.parent
609            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
610            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
611        ):
612            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
613
614            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
615
616        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
617            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
618
619            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
620
621        return expression

Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
623    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
624        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
625            raise UnsupportedError(message)
626        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
628    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
629        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
631    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
632        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
634    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
635        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
636        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
637        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None) -> str:
639    def maybe_comment(
640        self,
641        sql: str,
642        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
643        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
644    ) -> str:
645        comments = (
646            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
647            if self.comments
648            else None
649        )
650
651        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
652            return sql
653
654        comments_sql = " ".join(
655            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
656        )
657
658        if not comments_sql:
659            return sql
660
661        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
662            return (
663                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
664                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
665                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
666            )
667
668        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
670    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
671        this_sql = self.indent(
672            (
673                self.sql(expression)
674                if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
675                else self.sql(expression, "this")
676            ),
677            level=1,
678            pad=0,
679        )
680        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
682    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
683        original = self.identify
684        self.identify = False
685        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
686        self.identify = original
687        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
689    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
690        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
691            return name.upper()
692        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
693            return name.lower()
694        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
696    def indent(
697        self,
698        sql: str,
699        level: int = 0,
700        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
701        skip_first: bool = False,
702        skip_last: bool = False,
703    ) -> str:
704        if not self.pretty:
705            return sql
706
707        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
708        lines = sql.split("\n")
709
710        return "\n".join(
711            (
712                line
713                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
714                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
715            )
716            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
717        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
719    def sql(
720        self,
721        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
722        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
723        comment: bool = True,
724    ) -> str:
725        if not expression:
726            return ""
727
728        if isinstance(expression, str):
729            return expression
730
731        if key:
732            value = expression.args.get(key)
733            if value:
734                return self.sql(value)
735            return ""
736
737        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
738
739        if callable(transform):
740            sql = transform(self, expression)
741        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
742            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
743
744            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
745                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
746            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
747                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
748            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
749                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
750            else:
751                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
752        else:
753            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
754
755        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
757    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
758        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
759        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
760        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
762    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
763        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
764        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
765        options = expression.args.get("options")
766        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
767        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
768        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
769        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
770        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
772    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
773        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
774            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
775        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
776        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
778    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
779        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
780
781        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
782            join_mark = ""
783            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
784
785        column = ".".join(
786            self.sql(part)
787            for part in (
788                expression.args.get("catalog"),
789                expression.args.get("db"),
790                expression.args.get("table"),
791                expression.args.get("this"),
792            )
793            if part
794        )
795
796        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
798    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
799        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
800        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
801        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
802        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
804    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
805        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
806        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
807        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
808        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
809        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
810        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
811        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
812        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
813
814        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
815            kind = ""
816
817        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
819    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
820        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
821        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
822        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
824    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
825        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
826        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
827            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
828        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
829            persisted = " PERSISTED"
830        else:
831            persisted = ""
832        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
834    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
835        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
837    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
838        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
839            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
840        else:
841            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
842
843        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
845    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
846        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
847    ) -> str:
848        this = ""
849        if expression.this is not None:
850            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
851            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
852
853        start = expression.args.get("start")
854        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
855        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
856        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
857        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
858        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
859        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
860        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
861        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
862        cycle_sql = ""
863
864        if cycle is not None:
865            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
866            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
867
868        sequence_opts = ""
869        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
870            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
871            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
872
873        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
874        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
875
876        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint) -> str:
878    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
879        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
880    ) -> str:
881        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
882        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
883        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint) -> str:
885    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
886        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
887    ) -> str:
888        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
890    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
891        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
893    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
894        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
896    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
897        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
898        if desc is not None:
899            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
900        return "PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
902    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
903        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
904        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
905        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
906        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
907        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
908        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
909        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: DefaultDict) -> str:
911    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
912        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
914    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
915        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
916        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
917        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
918
919        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
920
921        properties_sql = ""
922        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
923            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
924        ):
925            properties_sql = self.sql(
926                exp.Properties(
927                    expressions=[
928                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
929                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
930                    ]
931                )
932            )
933
934        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
935        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
936
937        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
938        if expression_sql:
939            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
940
941            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
942                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
943                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
944                        exp.Properties(
945                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
946                        ),
947                        wrapped=False,
948                    )
949                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
950                else:
951                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
952
953        postindex_props_sql = ""
954        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
955            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
956                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
957                wrapped=False,
958                prefix=" ",
959            )
960
961        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
962        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
963        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
964
965        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
966        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
967
968        postcreate_props_sql = ""
969        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
970            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
971                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
972                sep=" ",
973                prefix=" ",
974                wrapped=False,
975            )
976
977        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
978
979        postexpression_props_sql = ""
980        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
981            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
982                exp.Properties(
983                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
984                ),
985                sep=" ",
986                prefix=" ",
987                wrapped=False,
988            )
989
990        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
991        no_schema_binding = (
992            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
993        )
994
995        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
996        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
997
998        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
999        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1001    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1002        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1003        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1004        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1005        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1006        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1007        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1008        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1009        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1010        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1011        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1012
1013        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1014        if cache is None:
1015            cache_str = ""
1016        elif cache is True:
1017            cache_str = " CACHE"
1018        else:
1019            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1020
1021        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1022        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1023
1024        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
1026    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1027        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1028        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1029        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1030        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
1032    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1033        style = expression.args.get("style")
1034        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1035        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def heredoc_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Heredoc) -> str:
1037    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1038        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1039        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1041    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1042        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1043        if with_:
1044            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1045        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
1047    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1048        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1049        recursive = (
1050            "RECURSIVE "
1051            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1052            else ""
1053        )
1054
1055        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
1057    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1058        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1059
1060        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1061        if materialized is False:
1062            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1063        elif materialized:
1064            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1065
1066        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
1068    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1069        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1070        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1071        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1072
1073        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1074            columns = ""
1075            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1076
1077        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1078            alias = "_t"
1079
1080        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
1082    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1083        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1084        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1085            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1086        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
1088    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1089        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1090        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1091            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1092        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
1094    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1095        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1096        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1097            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1098        return this
def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnicodeString) -> str:
1100    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1101        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1102        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1103
1104        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1105            escape = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if escape else ""
1106            return f"{self.dialect.UNICODE_START}{this}{self.dialect.UNICODE_END}{escape}"
1107
1108        if escape:
1109            pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1110        else:
1111            pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1112
1113        this = pattern.sub(r"\\u\1", this)
1114        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str:
1116    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1117        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1118        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1120    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1121        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1122        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1123        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1124        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
1126    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1127        type_value = expression.this
1128
1129        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1130            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1131        else:
1132            type_sql = (
1133                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1134                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1135                else type_value
1136            )
1137
1138        nested = ""
1139        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1140        values = ""
1141
1142        if interior:
1143            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1144                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1145                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1146                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1147                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1148                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1149            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1150                nested = f" {interior}"
1151            else:
1152                nested = f"({interior})"
1153
1154        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1155        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1156            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1157            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1158        ):
1159            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1160
1161        return type_sql
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
1163    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1164        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1165        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1166        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1167        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
1169    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1170        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1171        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1172        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1173        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1174        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1175        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1176        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1177        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1178        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1179        if self.RETURNING_END:
1180            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1181        else:
1182            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1183        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
1185    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1186        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1187        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1188        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1189        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1190        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1191        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1192        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1193        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1194        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1195        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1196        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
def except_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1198    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1199        return self.set_operations(expression)
def except_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1201    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1202        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
1204    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1205        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1206        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1207        count = expression.args.get("count")
1208        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1209        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1210            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1211        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1212        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
1214    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1215        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1216            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1217            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1218            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1219
1220        agg = expression.this
1221        agg_arg = agg.this
1222        cond = expression.expression.this
1223        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1224        return self.sql(agg)
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
1226    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1227        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1228            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1229            return ""
1230
1231        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexParameters) -> str:
1233    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1234        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1235        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1236        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1237        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1238        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1239        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1240        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1241        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1242        if include:
1243            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1244        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1245        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1246        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1247        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1248
1249        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}"
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
1251    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1252        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1253        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1254        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1255        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1256        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1257        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1258        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1259
1260        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1261
1262        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1263        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
1265    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1266        text = expression.name
1267        lower = text.lower()
1268        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1269        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1270        if (
1271            expression.quoted
1272            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1273            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1274            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1275        ):
1276            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1277        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1279    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1280        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1281        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1282        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1283        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1284        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str:
1286    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1287        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1288        return f"{prefix}{string}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
1290    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1291        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1293    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1294        root_properties = []
1295        with_properties = []
1296
1297        for p in expression.expressions:
1298            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1299            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1300                with_properties.append(p)
1301            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1302                root_properties.append(p)
1303
1304        return self.root_properties(
1305            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1306        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1308    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1309        if properties.expressions:
1310            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1311        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
1313    def properties(
1314        self,
1315        properties: exp.Properties,
1316        prefix: str = "",
1317        sep: str = ", ",
1318        suffix: str = "",
1319        wrapped: bool = True,
1320    ) -> str:
1321        if properties.expressions:
1322            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1323            if expressions:
1324                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1325                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1326        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1328    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1329        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
def locate_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> DefaultDict:
1331    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1332        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1333        for p in properties.expressions:
1334            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1335            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1336                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1337            else:
1338                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1339
1340        return properties_locs
def property_name( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1342    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1343        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1344            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1345        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
1347    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1348        property_cls = expression.__class__
1349        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1350            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1351
1352        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1353        if not property_name:
1354            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1355
1356        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
1358    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1359        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1360            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1361            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1362
1363            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1364            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1365                like = f"({like})"
1366
1367            return like
1368
1369        if expression.expressions:
1370            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1371
1372        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1373        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1375    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1376        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1377        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1378        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
1380    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1381        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1382        local = expression.args.get("local")
1383        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1384        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1385        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1386        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1387        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1389    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1390        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1391        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1392        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1394    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1395        if expression.args.get("default"):
1396            property = "DEFAULT"
1397        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1398            property = "ON"
1399        else:
1400            property = "OFF"
1401        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1403    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1404        if expression.args.get("no"):
1405            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1406        if expression.args.get("default"):
1407            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1408
1409        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1410        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1412    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1413        default = expression.args.get("default")
1414        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1415        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1416        if default or minimum or maximum:
1417            if default:
1418                prop = "DEFAULT"
1419            elif minimum:
1420                prop = "MINIMUM"
1421            else:
1422                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1423            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1424        units = expression.args.get("units")
1425        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1426        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1428    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1429        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1430        always = expression.args.get("always")
1431        default = expression.args.get("default")
1432        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1433        never = expression.args.get("never")
1434
1435        if autotemp is not None:
1436            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1437        elif always:
1438            prop = "ALWAYS"
1439        elif default:
1440            prop = "DEFAULT"
1441        elif manual:
1442            prop = "MANUAL"
1443        elif never:
1444            prop = "NEVER"
1445        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1447    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1448        no = expression.args.get("no")
1449        no = " NO" if no else ""
1450        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1451        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1452        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1453        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1454        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1456    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1457        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1458            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1459        if expression.this:
1460            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1461            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1462            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1463
1464        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1465        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1466        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1468    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1469        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1470
1471        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1472        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1473            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1474        else:
1475            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1476
1477        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1479    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1480        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1481        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1482        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1483        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1484        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1485        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1486        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1488    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1489        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1490        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1491        statistics_sql = ""
1492        if statistics is not None:
1493            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1494        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def withsystemversioningproperty_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1496    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1497        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
1498
1499        if expression.this:
1500            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
1501            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
1502
1503            if expression.expression:
1504                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1505                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
1506
1507            sql = f"{sql})"
1508
1509        return f"{sql})"
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1511    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1512        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1513        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1514
1515        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1516            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1517        else:
1518            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1519
1520        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1521        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1522        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1523        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1524        if is_function:
1525            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1526        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1527
1528        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1529        partition_sql = (
1530            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1531        )
1532        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1533        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1534        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1535        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1536        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1537        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1538        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1539
1540        if self.RETURNING_END:
1541            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1542        else:
1543            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1544
1545        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1546        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def intersect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1548    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1549        return self.set_operations(expression)
def intersect_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1551    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1552        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1554    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1555        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def kill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kill) -> str:
1557    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1558        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1559        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1560        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1561        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1562        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1564    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1565        return expression.name
def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1567    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1568        return expression.name
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1570    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1571        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1572
1573        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1574        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1575
1576        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1577        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1578        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1579
1580        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1581        if expressions:
1582            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1583            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1584
1585        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1587    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1588        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1590    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1591        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1592        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1593        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1594        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1595        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1596        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1597        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1598        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1599        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1600        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1601        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1602        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1603        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint) -> str:
1605    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1606        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1608    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1609        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1610        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1611        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1612        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HistoricalData) -> str:
1614    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1615        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1616        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1617        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1618        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
def table_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table) -> str:
1620    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1621        return ".".join(
1622            self.sql(part)
1623            for part in (
1624                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1625                expression.args.get("db"),
1626                expression.args.get("this"),
1627            )
1628            if part is not None
1629        )
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1631    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1632        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1633        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1634        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1635        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1636        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1637        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1638        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1639        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1640        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1641        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1642        joins = self.indent(
1643            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1644        )
1645        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1646
1647        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1648        if file_format:
1649            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1650            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1651            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1652
1653        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1654        if ordinality:
1655            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1656            alias = ""
1657
1658        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1659        if when:
1660            table = f"{table} {when}"
1661
1662        return f"{only}{table}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, sep: str = ' AS ', tablesample_keyword: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
1664    def tablesample_sql(
1665        self,
1666        expression: exp.TableSample,
1667        sep: str = " AS ",
1668        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1669    ) -> str:
1670        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1671            table = expression.this.copy()
1672            table.set("alias", None)
1673            this = self.sql(table)
1674            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1675        else:
1676            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1677            alias = ""
1678
1679        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1680        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1681        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1682        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1683        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1684        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1685        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1686        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1687        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1688
1689        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1690        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1691            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1692
1693        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1694        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1695            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1696
1697        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1698        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1699            expr = f"({expr})"
1700
1701        return (
1702            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1703        )
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1705    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1706        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1707
1708        if expression.this:
1709            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1710            if not expressions:
1711                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1712
1713            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1714            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1715            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1716            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1717            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1718
1719        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1720        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1721        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1722        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1723        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1724        if include_nulls is not None:
1725            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1726        else:
1727            nulls = ""
1728        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
def version_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Version) -> str:
1730    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1731        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1732        kind = expression.text("kind")
1733        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1734        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
1736    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1737        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
1739    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1740        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1741        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1742        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1743        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1744        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1745        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1746        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1747        if self.RETURNING_END:
1748            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1749        else:
1750            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1751        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1752        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1754    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1755        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1756
1757        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1758        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1759            args = self.expressions(expression)
1760            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1761            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1762            values = (
1763                f"({values})"
1764                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1765                else values
1766            )
1767            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1768
1769        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1770        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1771        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1772
1773        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1774
1775        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1776            row = tup.expressions
1777
1778            if i == 0 and column_names:
1779                row = [
1780                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1781                ]
1782
1783            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1784
1785        if self.pretty:
1786            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1787            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1788            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1789            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1790            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1791
1792        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1793        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1794        return f"({unions}){alias}"
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
1796    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1797        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
1799    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1800        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1801        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1802        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
1804    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1805        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
1807    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1808        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1809
1810        if expression.args.get("all"):
1811            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1812
1813        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1814        grouping_sets = (
1815            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1816        )
1817
1818        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1819        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1820            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1821        else:
1822            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1823            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1824
1825        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1826        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1827            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1828        else:
1829            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1830            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1831
1832        groupings = csv(
1833            grouping_sets,
1834            cube_sql,
1835            rollup_sql,
1836            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1837            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1838        )
1839
1840        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1841            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1842
1843        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
1845    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1846        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1847        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def connect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connect) -> str:
1849    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1850        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1851        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1852        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1853        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1854        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1855        return start + connect
def prior_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Prior) -> str:
1857    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1858        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
1860    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1861        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1862            side = None
1863        else:
1864            side = expression.side
1865
1866        op_sql = " ".join(
1867            op
1868            for op in (
1869                expression.method,
1870                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1871                side,
1872                expression.kind,
1873                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1874            )
1875            if op
1876        )
1877        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
1878        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
1879        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1880        using = expression.args.get("using")
1881
1882        if not on_sql and using:
1883            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1884
1885        this = expression.this
1886        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1887
1888        if on_sql:
1889            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1890            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1891            if using:
1892                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1893            else:
1894                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1895        elif not op_sql:
1896            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
1897                return f" {this_sql}"
1898
1899            return f", {this_sql}"
1900
1901        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1902        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
1904    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1905        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1906        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1907        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
1909    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1910        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
1911
1912        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
1913        if cross_apply is True:
1914            op = "INNER JOIN "
1915        elif cross_apply is False:
1916            op = "LEFT JOIN "
1917        else:
1918            op = ""
1919
1920        return f"{op}LATERAL"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
1922    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1923        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1924
1925        if expression.args.get("view"):
1926            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1927            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1928            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1929            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1930            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1931            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1932
1933        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1934        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1935        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1937    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1938        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1939
1940        args = [
1941            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
1942            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1943            if e
1944        ]
1945
1946        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
1947        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
1948        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1949        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1950
1951        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
1953    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1954        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1955        value = expression.expression
1956        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
1957        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1958        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1959        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
1961    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1962        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1963        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1964        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1965        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1966        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1967        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1968        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1969        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
1971    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1972        expressions = (
1973            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1974        )
1975        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1976        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
1978    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1979        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
1981    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1982        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1983            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1984            return ""
1985
1986        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1987        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1988        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1989        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1990
1991        if wait is not None:
1992            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1993                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1994            else:
1995                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1996
1997        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
1999    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2000        text = expression.this or ""
2001        if expression.is_string:
2002            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2003        return text
def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2005    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2006        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2007            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2008            text = "".join(
2009                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2010            )
2011
2012        if self.pretty:
2013            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
2014
2015        return text.replace(self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
2017    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2018        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2019        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2020        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2021        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2022        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2023        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2024        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2025        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2026        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2027        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2028        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2030    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2031        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
2033    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2034        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2036    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2037        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2038        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2039        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2040        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2041        interpolated_values = [
2042            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2043            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2044        ]
2045        interpolate = (
2046            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2047        )
2048        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
def withfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithFill) -> str:
2050    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2051        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2052        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2053        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2054        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2055        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2056        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2057        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
2059    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2060        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
2062    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2063        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
2065    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2066        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
2068    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2069        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2070        asc = not desc
2071
2072        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2073        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2074        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2075        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2076        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2077
2078        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2079
2080        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2081        nulls_sort_change = ""
2082        if nulls_first and (
2083            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2084        ):
2085            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2086        elif (
2087            nulls_last
2088            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2089            and not nulls_are_last
2090        ):
2091            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2092
2093        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2094        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2095            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2096            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2097                self.unsupported(
2098                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2099                )
2100                nulls_sort_change = ""
2101            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2102                if expression.this.is_int:
2103                    self.unsupported(
2104                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2105                    )
2106                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2107                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2108                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2109                nulls_sort_change = ""
2110
2111        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2112        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2113
2114        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2116    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2117        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2118        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2119        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2120        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2121        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2122        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2123        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2124        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2125        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2126        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2127        definition_sqls = [
2128            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2129            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2130        ]
2131        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2132        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2133        body = "".join(
2134            (
2135                partition,
2136                order,
2137                measures,
2138                rows,
2139                after,
2140                pattern,
2141                define,
2142            )
2143        )
2144        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2145        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2146        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2148    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2149        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2150
2151        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2152            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2153        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2154            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2155
2156        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2157        if options:
2158            options = f" OPTION{self.wrap(options)}"
2159
2160        return csv(
2161            *sqls,
2162            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2163            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2164            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2165            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2166            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2167            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2168            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2169            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2170            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2171            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2172            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2173            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2174            options,
2175            sep="",
2176        )
def queryoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryOption) -> str:
2178    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2179        return ""
def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]:
2181    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2182        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2183    ) -> t.List[str]:
2184        return [
2185            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2186            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2187        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
2189    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2190        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2191        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2192        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
2194    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2195        into = expression.args.get("into")
2196        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2197            into.pop()
2198
2199        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2200        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2201        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2202        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2203
2204        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2205        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2206            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2207            limit.pop()
2208        else:
2209            top = ""
2210
2211        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2212
2213        if kind:
2214            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2215                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2216            else:
2217                if kind == "STRUCT":
2218                    expressions = self.expressions(
2219                        sqls=[
2220                            self.sql(
2221                                exp.Struct(
2222                                    expressions=[
2223                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2224                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2225                                        else e
2226                                        for e in expression.expressions
2227                                    ]
2228                                )
2229                            )
2230                        ]
2231                    )
2232                kind = ""
2233
2234        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2235        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2236        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2237        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2238        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2239            expression,
2240            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2241            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2242            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2243        )
2244
2245        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2246
2247        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2248            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2249                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2250            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2251                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2252            else:
2253                table_kind = ""
2254            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2255
2256        return sql
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2258    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2259        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2260        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2261        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2263    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2264        if expression.expressions:
2265            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2266        return ""
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
2268    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2269        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2270        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2271        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2272        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2273        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
2275    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2276        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2277        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
2279    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2280        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2281        kind = expression.text("kind")
2282        if kind:
2283            kind = f"{kind}."
2284        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
2286    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2287        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
2289    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2290        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2291        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2292
2293        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2294        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2295
2296        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2297        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
2299    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2300        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2301        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def set_operations(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
2303    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2304        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2305        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2306
2307        while stack:
2308            node = stack.pop()
2309
2310            if isinstance(node, exp.Union):
2311                stack.append(node.expression)
2312                stack.append(
2313                    self.maybe_comment(
2314                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2315                        expression=node.this,
2316                        comments=node.comments,
2317                    )
2318                )
2319                stack.append(node.this)
2320            else:
2321                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2322
2323        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2324        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2325        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
def union_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
2327    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2328        return self.set_operations(expression)
def union_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
2330    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2331        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2332        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2333        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2334        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2336    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2337        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2338
2339        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2340        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2341
2342        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2343            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2344                alias.append("columns", offset)
2345
2346        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2347            columns = alias.columns
2348            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2349        else:
2350            alias = self.sql(alias)
2351
2352        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2353        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2354            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2355        else:
2356            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2357                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2358            elif offset:
2359                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2360            else:
2361                suffix = alias
2362
2363        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
def prewhere_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PreWhere) -> str:
2365    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2366        return ""
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
2368    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2369        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2370        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
2372    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2373        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2374        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2375        order = expression.args.get("order")
2376        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2377        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2378        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2379        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2380
2381        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2382
2383        first = expression.args.get("first")
2384        if first is None:
2385            first = ""
2386        else:
2387            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2388
2389        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2390            return f"{this} {alias}"
2391
2392        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2393        return f"{this} ({args})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2395    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2396        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2397        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
2399    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2400        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2401        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2402        end = (
2403            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2404            or "CURRENT ROW"
2405        )
2406        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
2408    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2409        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2410        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2411        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
2413    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2414        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2415        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2416        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2417        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
2419    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2420        expressions = apply_index_offset(
2421            expression.this,
2422            expression.expressions,
2423            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2424        )
2425        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2426        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
2428    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2429        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
2431    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2432        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2433        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2434            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2435                this = self.wrap(this)
2436            return f"ANY{this}"
2437        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
2439    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2440        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
2442    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2443        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2444        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2445
2446        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2447            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2448            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2449
2450        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2451
2452        if default:
2453            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2454
2455        statements.append("END")
2456
2457        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
2458            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2459
2460        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
2462    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2463        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2464        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2465        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
2467    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2468        order = expression.args.get("order")
2469        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2470        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
2472    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2473        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2474        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2475        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
2477    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2478        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2479
2480        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2481            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2482        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2483            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2484        else:
2485            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
def convert_concat_args( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat | sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]:
2487    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2488        args = expression.expressions
2489        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2490            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2491
2492        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2493            args = [exp.cast(e, "text") for e in args]
2494
2495        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2496            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2497
2498        return args
def concat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat) -> str:
2500    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2501        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2502
2503        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2504        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2505            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2506
2507        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
def concatws_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> str:
2509    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2510        return self.func(
2511            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2512        )
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
2514    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2515        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2516        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2518    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2519        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2520        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2521        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2522        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2523        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2524        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2525        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2526        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2528    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2529        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2530        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2531        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2532        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
2534    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2535        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2537    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2538        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2539        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2540        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2542    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2543        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONPath) -> str:
2545    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2546        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2547        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2549    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2550        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2551            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2552            if not callable(transform):
2553                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2554                return ""
2555
2556            return transform(self, expression)
2557
2558        if isinstance(expression, int):
2559            return str(expression)
2560
2561        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2562            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2563            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2564        else:
2565            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2566            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2567
2568        return escaped
def formatjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FormatJson) -> str:
2570    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2571        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
def jsonobject_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject | sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2573    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2574        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2575        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2576
2577        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2578        if unique_keys is not None:
2579            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2580        else:
2581            unique_keys = ""
2582
2583        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2584        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2585        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2586        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2587
2588        return self.func(
2589            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2590            *expression.expressions,
2591            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2592        )
def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2594    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2595        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArray) -> str:
2597    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2598        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2599        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2600        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2601        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2602        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2603        return self.func(
2604            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2605        )
def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2607    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2608        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2609        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2610        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2611        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2612        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2613        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2614        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2615        return self.func(
2616            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2617            this,
2618            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2619        )
def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2621    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2622        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2623        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2624        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2625
2626        if nested_schema:
2627            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2628
2629        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2630        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2631        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2632        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONSchema) -> str:
2634    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2635        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
def jsontable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONTable) -> str:
2637    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2638        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2639        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2640        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2641        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2642        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2643        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2644        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2645        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2646        return self.func(
2647            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2648        )
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2650    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2651        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2652        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2653        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2654        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2655        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2656        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
2658    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2659        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2660        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2661        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2662        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2663        with_ = (
2664            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2665            if expressions
2666            else ""
2667        )
2668        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
2670    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2671        query = expression.args.get("query")
2672        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2673        field = expression.args.get("field")
2674        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2675
2676        if query:
2677            in_sql = self.wrap(self.sql(query))
2678        elif unnest:
2679            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2680        elif field:
2681            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2682        else:
2683            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2684
2685        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2687    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2688        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
2690    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2691        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2692        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2693            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2694        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2695
2696        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2697            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2698            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2699
2700        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2701        if this:
2702            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2703            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2704
2705        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
2707    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2708        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
2710    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2711        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2712        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2713        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2714        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2715        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2716        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
2718    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2719        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
2721    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2722        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2723        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
2725    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2726        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2727        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2728        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2729        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
2731    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2732        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
2734    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2735        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2736        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2737        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PivotAlias) -> str:
2739    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2740        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2741        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2742
2743        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2744            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2745        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2746            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2747
2748        return self.alias_sql(expression)
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
2750    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2751        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def atindex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2753    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2754        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2755        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2756        return f"{this} AT {index}"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2758    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2759        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2760        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2761        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2763    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2764        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2765        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2766        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
2768    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2769        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2771    def and_sql(
2772        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2773    ) -> str:
2774        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
def or_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2776    def or_sql(
2777        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2778    ) -> str:
2779        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
def xor_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Xor, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2781    def xor_sql(
2782        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2783    ) -> str:
2784        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
def connector_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2786    def connector_sql(
2787        self,
2788        expression: exp.Connector,
2789        op: str,
2790        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2791    ) -> str:
2792        if stack is not None:
2793            if expression.expressions:
2794                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2795            else:
2796                stack.append(expression.right)
2797                if expression.comments:
2798                    for comment in expression.comments:
2799                        op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2800                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2801            return op
2802
2803        stack = [expression]
2804        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2805        ops = set()
2806
2807        while stack:
2808            node = stack.pop()
2809            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2810                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2811            else:
2812                sql = self.sql(node)
2813                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2814                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2815                else:
2816                    sqls.append(sql)
2817
2818        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2819        return sep.join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2821    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2822        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2824    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2825        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2827    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2828        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2830    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2831        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2833    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2834        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2836    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2837        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2839    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2840        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2841        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2842        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2843        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2844        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
2845        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
2846        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
2848    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2849        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2850        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2852    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2853        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
2855    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2856        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2857            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2858        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
2860    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2861        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
2863    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2864        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2865        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2866        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2867        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2868        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2870    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2871        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2872        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2873        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2874        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2875        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2876        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2877        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2878        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2879        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2881    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2882        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2883        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2884        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2885        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2886
2887        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2888            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2889
2890        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
2892    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2893        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
2895    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2896        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2897        if chain is not None:
2898            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2899
2900        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
2902    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2903        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2904        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2905        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
2907    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2908        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2909
2910        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2911        if dtype:
2912            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2913            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2914            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2915            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2916            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2917
2918        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2919        if default:
2920            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2921
2922        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2923        if comment:
2924            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
2925
2926        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2927            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2928
2929        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str:
2931    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2932        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2933            # Remove db from tables
2934            expression = expression.transform(
2935                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2936            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
2937        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2938        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameColumn) -> str:
2940    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
2941        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2942        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
2943        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
2944        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
def altertable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
2946    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2947        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2948
2949        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2950            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
2951        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2952            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2953        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2954            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2955        else:
2956            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2957
2958        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2959        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2960        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2961        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
2962        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}{options}"
def add_column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
2964    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2965        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
2966            return self.expressions(
2967                expression,
2968                key="actions",
2969                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
2970            )
2971        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
2973    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2974        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2975        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2976        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
2978    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2979        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
2981    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2982        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2983
2984        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
2985            case = exp.case()
2986            for arg in expression.expressions:
2987                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
2988            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
2989
2990        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2991
2992        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2993        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2994        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2996    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2997        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
2999    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3000        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
def havingmax_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HavingMax) -> str:
3002    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3003        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3004        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3005        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3006        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
3008    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3009        return self.sql(
3010            exp.Cast(
3011                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3012                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3013            )
3014        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
3016    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3017        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3018            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
3019        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
3021    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3022        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3023
3024        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3025            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3026
3027        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3028            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3029                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3030
3031        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3032            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3033                return self.sql(
3034                    exp.cast(
3035                        l / r,
3036                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3037                    )
3038                )
3039
3040        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
3042    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3043        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
3045    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3046        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
3048    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3049        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
3051    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3052        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3054    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3055        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
3057    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3058        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
3060    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3061        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
3063    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3064        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
3066    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3067        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
3069    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3070        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
3072    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3073        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
3075    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3076        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3077            return self.sql(
3078                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3079            )
3080        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
3082    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3083        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
3085    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3086        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
3088    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3089        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
3091    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3092        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
3094    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3095        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
3097    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3098        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
3100    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3101        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
3103    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3104        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3106    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3107        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3109    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3110        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
3112    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3113        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
3115    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3116        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
3118    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3119        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
def log_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Log) -> str:
3121    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3122        this = expression.this
3123        expr = expression.expression
3124
3125        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3126            this, expr = expr, this
3127        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3128            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3129                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3130
3131            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3132
3133        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
3135    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3136        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3137        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3138        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3139        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3140        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3142    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3143        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3144        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
3146    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3147        args = []
3148
3149        for key in expression.arg_types:
3150            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3151
3152            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3153                for value in arg_value:
3154                    args.append(value)
3155            elif arg_value is not None:
3156                args.append(arg_value)
3157
3158        if self.normalize_functions:
3159            name = expression.sql_name()
3160        else:
3161            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3162
3163        return self.func(name, *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')') -> str:
3165    def func(
3166        self,
3167        name: str,
3168        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3169        prefix: str = "(",
3170        suffix: str = ")",
3171    ) -> str:
3172        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
3174    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3175        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
3176        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
3177            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3178        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
def text_width(self, args: Iterable) -> int:
3180    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
3181        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
def format_time( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, inverse_time_mapping: Optional[Dict[str, str]] = None, inverse_time_trie: Optional[Dict] = None) -> Optional[str]:
3183    def format_time(
3184        self,
3185        expression: exp.Expression,
3186        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3187        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3188    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3189        return format_time(
3190            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3191            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3192            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3193        )
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[Collection[Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression]]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, skip_first: bool = False, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '') -> str:
3195    def expressions(
3196        self,
3197        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3198        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3199        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3200        flat: bool = False,
3201        indent: bool = True,
3202        skip_first: bool = False,
3203        sep: str = ", ",
3204        prefix: str = "",
3205    ) -> str:
3206        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3207
3208        if not expressions:
3209            return ""
3210
3211        if flat:
3212            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3213
3214        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3215
3216        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
3217        if self.pretty:
3218            if self.leading_comma:
3219                pad = " " * len(sep)
3220            else:
3221                stripped_sep = sep.strip()
3222
3223        result_sqls = []
3224        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3225            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3226            if not sql:
3227                continue
3228
3229            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3230
3231            if self.pretty:
3232                if self.leading_comma:
3233                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3234                else:
3235                    result_sqls.append(
3236                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3237                    )
3238            else:
3239                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3240
3241        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
3242        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3244    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3245        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3246        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3247        if flat:
3248            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3249        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
3251    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3252        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3253        if not property_name:
3254            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3255        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
3257    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3258        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
3260    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3261        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3263    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3264        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3265        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3266        expressions = (
3267            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3268        )
3269        return f"{this}{expressions}"
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
3271    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3272        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3273        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3274        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
3276    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3277        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
3279    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3280        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3281        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3282        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3283        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3284
3285        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3286        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3287            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
3288            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
3289                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
3290        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3291            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3292                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3293            else:
3294                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3295        else:
3296            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3297        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
3299    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3300        table = expression.this
3301        table_alias = ""
3302
3303        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3304        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3305            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3306            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3307
3308        this = self.sql(table)
3309        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3310        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3311        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
3312
3313        return self.prepend_ctes(
3314            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
3315        )
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
3317    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3318        if expression.args.get("format"):
3319            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3320
3321        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
def tonumber_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToNumber) -> str:
3323    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3324        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3325            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3326            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "double"))
3327
3328        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3329        if not fmt:
3330            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3331            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "double"))
3332
3333        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str:
3335    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3336        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3337        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3338        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3339        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3340        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str:
3342    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3343        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3344        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3345        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3346        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3348    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3349        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str:
3351    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3352        return ""
def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3354    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3355        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3356        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3357        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3358        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3359        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue) -> str:
3361    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3362        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3363        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3364
3365        if having:
3366            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3367
3368        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
def querytransform_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryTransform) -> str:
3370    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3371        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3372        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3373        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3374        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3375        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3376        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3377        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3378        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3379        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3380        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3381        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3382        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3383        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3385    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3386        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3387        if key_block_size:
3388            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3389
3390        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3391        if using:
3392            return f"USING {using}"
3393
3394        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3395        if parser:
3396            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3397
3398        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3399        if comment:
3400            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3401
3402        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3403        if visible is not None:
3404            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3405
3406        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3407        if engine_attr:
3408            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3409
3410        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3411        if secondary_engine_attr:
3412            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3413
3414        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3415        return ""
def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3417    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3418        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3419        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3421    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3422        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3423        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3424        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3425        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3426        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3427        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3428        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3429        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
3430        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3431        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3432        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{schema}{options}"
def nvl2_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Nvl2) -> str:
3434    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3435        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3436            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3437
3438        case = exp.Case().when(
3439            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3440            expression.args["true"],
3441            copy=False,
3442        )
3443        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3444        if else_cond:
3445            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3446
3447        return self.sql(case)
def comprehension_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comprehension) -> str:
3449    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3450        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3451        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3452        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3453        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3454        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3455        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3457    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3458        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def opclass_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Opclass) -> str:
3460    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3461        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def predict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Predict) -> str:
3463    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3464        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3465        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3466        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3467        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3468        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3469        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
def forin_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForIn) -> str:
3471    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3472        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3473        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3474        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
def refresh_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Refresh) -> str:
3476    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3477        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3478        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3479        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
def operator_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Operator) -> str:
3481    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3482        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
def toarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToArray) -> str:
3484    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3485        arg = expression.this
3486        if not arg.type:
3487            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3488
3489            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3490
3491        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3492            return self.sql(arg)
3493
3494        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3495        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3497    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3498        this = expression.this
3499        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3500            return self.sql(this)
3501
3502        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "time"))
def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3504    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3505        this = expression.this
3506        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3507            return self.sql(this)
3508
3509        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "timestamp"))
def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3511    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3512        this = expression.this
3513        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3514
3515        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3516            return self.sql(
3517                exp.cast(exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]), "date")
3518            )
3519
3520        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3521            return self.sql(this)
3522
3523        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "date"))
def unixdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnixDate) -> str:
3525    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3526        return self.sql(
3527            exp.func(
3528                "DATEDIFF",
3529                expression.this,
3530                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), "date"),
3531                "day",
3532            )
3533        )
def lastday_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LastDay) -> str:
3535    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3536        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3537            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3538
3539        unit = expression.text("unit")
3540        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3541            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3542
3543        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
def arrayany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayAny) -> str:
3545    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3546        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3547            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3548            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3549            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3550            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3551
3552        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3553
3554        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3555        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3556            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3557
3558        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def generateseries_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3560    def generateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3561        expression.set("is_end_exclusive", None)
3562        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def struct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Struct) -> str:
3564    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3565        expression.set(
3566            "expressions",
3567            [
3568                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3569                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3570                else e
3571                for e in expression.expressions
3572            ],
3573        )
3574
3575        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionRange) -> str:
3577    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3578        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3579        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3580
3581        return f"{low} TO {high}"
def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TruncateTable) -> str:
3583    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3584        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3585        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3586
3587        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3588
3589        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3590        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3591
3592        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3593        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3594
3595        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3596        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3597
3598        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3599        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3600
3601        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
def convert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Convert) -> str:
3605    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3606        to = expression.this
3607        value = expression.expression
3608        style = expression.args.get("style")
3609        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3610        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3611
3612        if not to or not value:
3613            return ""
3614
3615        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3616        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3617            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3618
3619        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3620        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3621
3622        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3623        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3624            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3625
3626            style_value = style.name
3627            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3628            if not converted_style:
3629                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3630
3631            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3632
3633            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3634                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3635            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3636                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3637            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3638                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3639            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3640                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3641
3642        if not transformed:
3643            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3644
3645        return self.sql(transformed)