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sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import re
   5import typing as t
   6from collections import defaultdict
   7from functools import reduce, wraps
   8
   9from sqlglot import exp
  10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, name_sequence, seq_get
  12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
  13from sqlglot.time import format_time
  14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  15
  16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  17    from sqlglot._typing import E
  18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  19
  20    G = t.TypeVar("G", bound="Generator")
  21    GeneratorMethod = t.Callable[[G, E], str]
  22
  23logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  24
  25ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
  26UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE = "Argument '{}' is not supported for expression '{}' when targeting {}."
  27
  28
  29def unsupported_args(
  30    *args: t.Union[str, t.Tuple[str, str]],
  31) -> t.Callable[[GeneratorMethod], GeneratorMethod]:
  32    """
  33    Decorator that can be used to mark certain args of an `Expression` subclass as unsupported.
  34    It expects a sequence of argument names or pairs of the form (argument_name, diagnostic_msg).
  35    """
  36    diagnostic_by_arg: t.Dict[str, t.Optional[str]] = {}
  37    for arg in args:
  38        if isinstance(arg, str):
  39            diagnostic_by_arg[arg] = None
  40        else:
  41            diagnostic_by_arg[arg[0]] = arg[1]
  42
  43    def decorator(func: GeneratorMethod) -> GeneratorMethod:
  44        @wraps(func)
  45        def _func(generator: G, expression: E) -> str:
  46            expression_name = expression.__class__.__name__
  47            dialect_name = generator.dialect.__class__.__name__
  48
  49            for arg_name, diagnostic in diagnostic_by_arg.items():
  50                if expression.args.get(arg_name):
  51                    diagnostic = diagnostic or UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE.format(
  52                        arg_name, expression_name, dialect_name
  53                    )
  54                    generator.unsupported(diagnostic)
  55
  56            return func(generator, expression)
  57
  58        return _func
  59
  60    return decorator
  61
  62
  63class _Generator(type):
  64    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
  65        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
  66
  67        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
  68        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
  69            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
  70
  71        return klass
  72
  73
  74class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  75    """
  76    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  77
  78    Args:
  79        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  80            Default: False.
  81        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  82            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  83            True or 'always': Always quote.
  84            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  85        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  86            Default: False.
  87        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  88            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  89            Default: 2.
  90        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  91            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  92            Default: 2.
  93        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  94            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  95            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  96            False: Disables function name normalization.
  97        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  98            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  99        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
 100            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
 101            Default: 3
 102        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
 103            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
 104            Default: False
 105        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
 106            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
 107            line length.
 108            Default: 80
 109        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
 110            Default: True
 111    """
 112
 113    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
 114        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
 115        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
 116        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
 117        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 118        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 119        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
 120        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
 121        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 122        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
 123        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 124        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 125        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 126        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 127        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 128        exp.ConnectByRoot: lambda self, e: f"CONNECT_BY_ROOT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 129        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
 130        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 131        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 132        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
 133        exp.EmptyProperty: lambda *_: "EMPTY",
 134        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 135        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 136        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
 137        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
 138        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 139        exp.Except: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 140        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
 141        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 142        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 143        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 144        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 145        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 146        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 147        exp.Intersect: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 148        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 149        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 150        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 151        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 152        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 153        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 154        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 155        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 156        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 157        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 158        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 159        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 160        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 161        exp.Operator: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, ""),  # The operator is produced in `binary`
 162        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 163        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 164        exp.PivotAny: lambda self, e: f"ANY{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 165        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 166        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 167        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 168        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 169        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
 170            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
 171        ),
 172        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 173        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
 174        exp.SecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SECURITY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 175        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 176        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 177        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 178        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 179        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 180        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 181        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 182        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 183        exp.Stream: lambda self, e: f"STREAM {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 184        exp.StreamingTableProperty: lambda *_: "STREAMING",
 185        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
 186        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 187        exp.TagColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 188        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 189        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 190        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 191        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 192        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 193        exp.Union: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 194        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 195        exp.UnpackColumns: lambda self, e: f"*{self.sql(e.this)}",
 196        exp.Uuid: lambda *_: "UUID()",
 197        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 198        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 199        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 200        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 201        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 202        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH SCHEMA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 203        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 204    }
 205
 206    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 207    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
 208    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 209
 210    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 211    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 212    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 213
 214    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 215    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 216
 217    # Whether the EXCEPT and INTERSECT operations can return duplicates
 218    EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE = True
 219
 220    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 221    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 222
 223    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 224    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 225
 226    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 227    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 228
 229    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 230    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 231
 232    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 233    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 234
 235    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 236    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 237
 238    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 239    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 240
 241    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 242    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 243
 244    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 245    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 246
 247    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 248    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 249
 250    # Whether join hints should be generated
 251    JOIN_HINTS = True
 252
 253    # Whether table hints should be generated
 254    TABLE_HINTS = True
 255
 256    # Whether query hints should be generated
 257    QUERY_HINTS = True
 258
 259    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 260    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 261
 262    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 263    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 264
 265    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 266    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 267
 268    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 269    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 270
 271    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 272    RETURNING_END = True
 273
 274    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 275    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 276
 277    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 278    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 279
 280    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 281    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 282
 283    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 284    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 285
 286    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 287    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 288    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 289    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 290
 291    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 292    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 293
 294    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 295    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 296
 297    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 298    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 299
 300    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 301    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 302
 303    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 304    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 305
 306    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 307    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 308
 309    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 310    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 311
 312    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 313    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 314
 315    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 316    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 317
 318    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 319    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 320
 321    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 322    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 323
 324    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 325    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 326
 327    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 328    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 329
 330    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 331    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 332
 333    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 334    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 335
 336    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 337    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 338
 339    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 340    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 341
 342    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 343    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 344
 345    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 346    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 347
 348    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 349    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 350
 351    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 352    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 353
 354    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 355    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 356
 357    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 358    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 359
 360    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 361    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 362
 363    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 364    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 365
 366    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 367    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 368    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 369
 370    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 371    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 372
 373    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 374    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 375
 376    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 377    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 378
 379    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 380    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 381
 382    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 383    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 384
 385    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 386    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 387
 388    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
 389    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 390    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
 391    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
 392
 393    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 394    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 395
 396    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 397    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 398
 399    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 400    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 401
 402    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 403    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 404
 405    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
 406    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
 407
 408    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 409    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 410
 411    # The HEX function name
 412    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 413
 414    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
 415    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
 416
 417    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
 418    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
 419
 420    # Whether the text pattern/fill (3rd) parameter of RPAD()/LPAD() is optional (defaults to space)
 421    PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
 422
 423    # Whether a projection can explode into multiple rows, e.g. by unnesting an array.
 424    SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
 425
 426    # Whether ARRAY_CONCAT can be generated with varlen args or if it should be reduced to 2-arg version
 427    ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
 428
 429    # Whether CONVERT_TIMEZONE() is supported; if not, it will be generated as exp.AtTimeZone
 430    SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
 431
 432    # The name to generate for the JSONPath expression. If `None`, only `this` will be generated
 433    PARSE_JSON_NAME: t.Optional[str] = "PARSE_JSON"
 434
 435    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 436        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 437        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 438        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 439        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 440        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 441        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 442        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 443        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 444        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 445        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 446    }
 447
 448    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 449        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 450        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 451        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 452        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 453        "DAYS": "DAY",
 454        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 455        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 456        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 457        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 458    }
 459
 460    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 461        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 462        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 463        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 464        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 465            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 466            if e.args.get("windows")
 467            else ""
 468        ),
 469        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 470    }
 471
 472    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 473
 474    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 475
 476    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 477    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 478
 479    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 480        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 481        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 482        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 483        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 484        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 485        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 486        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 487        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 488        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 489        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 490        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 491        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 492        exp.DistributedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 493        exp.DuplicateKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 494        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 495        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 496        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 497        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 498        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 499        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 500        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 501        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 502        exp.EmptyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 503        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 504        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 505        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 506        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 507        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 508        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 509        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 510        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 511        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 512        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 513        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 514        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 515        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 516        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 517        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 518        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 519        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 520        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 521        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 522        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 523        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 524        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 525        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 526        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 527        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 528        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 529        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 530        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 531        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 532        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 533        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 534        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 535        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 536        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 537        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 538        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 539        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 540        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 541        exp.SecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 542        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 543        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 544        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 545        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 546        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 547        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 548        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 549        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 550        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 551        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 552        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 553        exp.StreamingTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 554        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 555        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 556        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 557        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 558        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 559        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 560        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 561        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 562        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 563        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 564        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 565        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 566        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 567    }
 568
 569    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 570    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 571
 572    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 573    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 574        exp.Command,
 575        exp.Create,
 576        exp.Delete,
 577        exp.Drop,
 578        exp.From,
 579        exp.Insert,
 580        exp.Join,
 581        exp.MultitableInserts,
 582        exp.Select,
 583        exp.SetOperation,
 584        exp.Update,
 585        exp.Where,
 586        exp.With,
 587    )
 588
 589    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 590    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 591        exp.Binary,
 592        exp.SetOperation,
 593    )
 594
 595    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 596    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 597        exp.Column,
 598        exp.Literal,
 599        exp.Neg,
 600        exp.Paren,
 601    )
 602
 603    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 604        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 605        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 606        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 607        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 608    }
 609
 610    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 611    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 612
 613    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 614
 615    __slots__ = (
 616        "pretty",
 617        "identify",
 618        "normalize",
 619        "pad",
 620        "_indent",
 621        "normalize_functions",
 622        "unsupported_level",
 623        "max_unsupported",
 624        "leading_comma",
 625        "max_text_width",
 626        "comments",
 627        "dialect",
 628        "unsupported_messages",
 629        "_escaped_quote_end",
 630        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 631        "_next_name",
 632        "_identifier_start",
 633        "_identifier_end",
 634    )
 635
 636    def __init__(
 637        self,
 638        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 639        identify: str | bool = False,
 640        normalize: bool = False,
 641        pad: int = 2,
 642        indent: int = 2,
 643        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 644        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 645        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 646        leading_comma: bool = False,
 647        max_text_width: int = 80,
 648        comments: bool = True,
 649        dialect: DialectType = None,
 650    ):
 651        import sqlglot
 652        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 653
 654        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 655        self.identify = identify
 656        self.normalize = normalize
 657        self.pad = pad
 658        self._indent = indent
 659        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 660        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 661        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 662        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 663        self.comments = comments
 664        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 665
 666        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 667        self.normalize_functions = (
 668            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 669        )
 670
 671        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 672        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 673            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 674        )
 675        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 676            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 677        )
 678
 679        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 680
 681        self._identifier_start = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START
 682        self._identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 683
 684    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 685        """
 686        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 687
 688        Args:
 689            expression: The syntax tree.
 690            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 691                it is safer to copy.
 692
 693        Returns:
 694            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 695        """
 696        if copy:
 697            expression = expression.copy()
 698
 699        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 700
 701        self.unsupported_messages = []
 702        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 703
 704        if self.pretty:
 705            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 706
 707        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 708            return sql
 709
 710        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 711            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 712                logger.warning(msg)
 713        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 714            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 715
 716        return sql
 717
 718    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 719        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 720        if (
 721            not expression.parent
 722            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 723            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 724        ):
 725            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 726
 727            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 728
 729        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 730            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 731
 732            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 733
 734        return expression
 735
 736    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 737        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 738            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 739        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 740
 741    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 742        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 743
 744    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 745        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 746
 747    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 748        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 749        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 750        return comment
 751
 752    def maybe_comment(
 753        self,
 754        sql: str,
 755        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 756        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 757        separated: bool = False,
 758    ) -> str:
 759        comments = (
 760            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 761            if self.comments
 762            else None
 763        )
 764
 765        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 766            return sql
 767
 768        comments_sql = " ".join(
 769            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 770        )
 771
 772        if not comments_sql:
 773            return sql
 774
 775        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 776
 777        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 778            return (
 779                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 780                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 781                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 782            )
 783
 784        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 785
 786    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 787        this_sql = (
 788            self.sql(expression)
 789            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 790            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 791        )
 792        if not this_sql:
 793            return "()"
 794
 795        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 796        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 797
 798    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 799        original = self.identify
 800        self.identify = False
 801        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 802        self.identify = original
 803        return result
 804
 805    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 806        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 807            return name.upper()
 808        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 809            return name.lower()
 810        return name
 811
 812    def indent(
 813        self,
 814        sql: str,
 815        level: int = 0,
 816        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 817        skip_first: bool = False,
 818        skip_last: bool = False,
 819    ) -> str:
 820        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 821            return sql
 822
 823        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 824        lines = sql.split("\n")
 825
 826        return "\n".join(
 827            (
 828                line
 829                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 830                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 831            )
 832            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 833        )
 834
 835    def sql(
 836        self,
 837        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 838        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 839        comment: bool = True,
 840    ) -> str:
 841        if not expression:
 842            return ""
 843
 844        if isinstance(expression, str):
 845            return expression
 846
 847        if key:
 848            value = expression.args.get(key)
 849            if value:
 850                return self.sql(value)
 851            return ""
 852
 853        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 854
 855        if callable(transform):
 856            sql = transform(self, expression)
 857        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 858            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 859
 860            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 861                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 862            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 863                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 864            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 865                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 866            else:
 867                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 868        else:
 869            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 870
 871        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 872
 873    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 874        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 875        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 876        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 877
 878    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 879        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 880        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 881        options = expression.args.get("options")
 882        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 883        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 884        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 885        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 886        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 887
 888    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 889        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 890            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 891        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 892        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 893
 894    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 895        return ".".join(
 896            self.sql(part)
 897            for part in (
 898                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 899                expression.args.get("db"),
 900                expression.args.get("table"),
 901                expression.args.get("this"),
 902            )
 903            if part
 904        )
 905
 906    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 907        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 908
 909        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
 910            join_mark = ""
 911            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 912
 913        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 914
 915    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 916        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 917        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 918        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 919        return f"{position}{this}"
 920
 921    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 922        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 923        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 924        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 925        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 926        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 927        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 928        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 929        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 930
 931        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 932            kind = ""
 933
 934        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 935
 936    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 937        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 938        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 939        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 940
 941    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 942        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 943        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 944            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 945        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 946            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 947        else:
 948            persisted = ""
 949        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 950
 951    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 952        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 953
 954    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 955        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 956            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 957        else:
 958            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 959
 960        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 961
 962    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 963        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 964    ) -> str:
 965        this = ""
 966        if expression.this is not None:
 967            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 968            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 969
 970        start = expression.args.get("start")
 971        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 972        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 973        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 974        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 975        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 976        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 977        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 978        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 979        cycle_sql = ""
 980
 981        if cycle is not None:
 982            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 983            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 984
 985        sequence_opts = ""
 986        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 987            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 988            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 989
 990        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 991        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 992
 993        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 994
 995    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 996        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 997    ) -> str:
 998        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
 999        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
1000        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
1001
1002    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
1003        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
1004    ) -> str:
1005        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
1006
1007    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
1008        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
1009
1010    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
1011        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1012
1013    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
1014        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1015        if desc is not None:
1016            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
1017        return "PRIMARY KEY"
1018
1019    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
1020        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1021        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1022        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
1023        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
1024        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
1025        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1026        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
1027        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
1028
1029    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
1030        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1031
1032    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
1033        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1034        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1035        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
1036        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
1037
1038        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
1039
1040        properties_sql = ""
1041        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
1042            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
1043        ):
1044            properties_sql = self.sql(
1045                exp.Properties(
1046                    expressions=[
1047                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
1048                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
1049                    ]
1050                )
1051            )
1052
1053            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
1054                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
1055            elif not self.pretty:
1056                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
1057                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
1058
1059        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
1060        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
1061
1062        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1063        if expression_sql:
1064            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
1065
1066            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
1067                postalias_props_sql = ""
1068                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1069                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1070                        exp.Properties(
1071                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1072                        ),
1073                        wrapped=False,
1074                    )
1075                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1076                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1077
1078        postindex_props_sql = ""
1079        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1080            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1081                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1082                wrapped=False,
1083                prefix=" ",
1084            )
1085
1086        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1087        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1088        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1089
1090        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1091        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
1092        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1093
1094        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
1095        if clustered is None:
1096            clustered_sql = ""
1097        elif clustered:
1098            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1099        else:
1100            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1101
1102        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1103        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1104            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1105                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1106                sep=" ",
1107                prefix=" ",
1108                wrapped=False,
1109            )
1110
1111        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1112
1113        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1114        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1115            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1116                exp.Properties(
1117                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1118                ),
1119                sep=" ",
1120                prefix=" ",
1121                wrapped=False,
1122            )
1123
1124        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1125        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1126        no_schema_binding = (
1127            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1128        )
1129
1130        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1131        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1132
1133        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1134        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1135
1136    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1137        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1138        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1139        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1140        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1141        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1142        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1143        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1144        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1145        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1146        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1147
1148        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1149        if cache is None:
1150            cache_str = ""
1151        elif cache is True:
1152            cache_str = " CACHE"
1153        else:
1154            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1155
1156        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1157        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1158
1159        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1160
1161    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1162        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1163        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1164        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1165        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1166
1167    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1168        style = expression.args.get("style")
1169        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1170        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1171        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1172        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{partition}"
1173
1174    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1175        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1176        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1177
1178    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1179        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1180        if with_:
1181            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1182        return sql
1183
1184    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1185        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1186        recursive = (
1187            "RECURSIVE "
1188            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1189            else ""
1190        )
1191
1192        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1193
1194    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1195        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1196
1197        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1198        if materialized is False:
1199            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1200        elif materialized:
1201            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1202
1203        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1204
1205    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1206        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1207        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1208        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1209
1210        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1211            columns = ""
1212            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1213
1214        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1215            alias = self._next_name()
1216
1217        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1218
1219    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1220        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1221        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1222            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1223        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1224
1225    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1226        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1227        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1228            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1229        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1230
1231    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1232        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1233        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1234            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1235        return this
1236
1237    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1238        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1239        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1240
1241        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1242            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1243            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1244        else:
1245            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1246            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1247
1248        if escape:
1249            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1250            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1251        else:
1252            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1253            escape_sql = ""
1254
1255        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1256            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1257
1258        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
1259
1260    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1261        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1262        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1263
1264    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1265        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1266        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1267        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1268        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1269
1270    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1271        nested = ""
1272        values = ""
1273        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1274
1275        type_value = expression.this
1276        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1277            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1278        else:
1279            type_sql = (
1280                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1281                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1282                else type_value
1283            )
1284
1285        if interior:
1286            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1287                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1288                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1289                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1290                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1291                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1292            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1293                nested = f" {interior}"
1294            else:
1295                nested = f"({interior})"
1296
1297        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1298        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1299            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1300            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1301        ):
1302            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1303
1304        return type_sql
1305
1306    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1307        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1308        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1309        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1310        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1311
1312    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1313        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1314        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1315        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1316        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1317        cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1318        cluster = f" {cluster}" if cluster else ""
1319        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1320        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1321        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1322        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1323        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1324        if self.RETURNING_END:
1325            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1326        else:
1327            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{limit}"
1328        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1329
1330    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1331        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1332        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1333        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1334        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1335        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1336        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1337        concurrently_sql = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1338        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1339        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1340        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1341        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1342        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1343        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1344        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1345        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{concurrently_sql}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1346
1347    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1348        op_type = type(expression)
1349        op_name = op_type.key.upper()
1350
1351        distinct = expression.args.get("distinct")
1352        if (
1353            distinct is False
1354            and op_type in (exp.Except, exp.Intersect)
1355            and not self.EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE
1356        ):
1357            self.unsupported(f"{op_name} ALL is not supported")
1358
1359        default_distinct = self.dialect.SET_OP_DISTINCT_BY_DEFAULT[op_type]
1360
1361        if distinct is None:
1362            distinct = default_distinct
1363            if distinct is None:
1364                self.unsupported(f"{op_name} requires DISTINCT or ALL to be specified")
1365
1366        if distinct is default_distinct:
1367            kind = ""
1368        else:
1369            kind = " DISTINCT" if distinct else " ALL"
1370
1371        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1372        return f"{op_name}{kind}{by_name}"
1373
1374    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1375        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
1376            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1377            order = expression.args.get("order")
1378
1379            if limit or order:
1380                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
1381
1382                if limit:
1383                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
1384                if order:
1385                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
1386                return self.sql(select)
1387
1388        sqls: t.List[str] = []
1389        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
1390
1391        while stack:
1392            node = stack.pop()
1393
1394            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
1395                stack.append(node.expression)
1396                stack.append(
1397                    self.maybe_comment(
1398                        self.set_operation(node), comments=node.comments, separated=True
1399                    )
1400                )
1401                stack.append(node.this)
1402            else:
1403                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
1404
1405        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
1406        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
1407        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
1408
1409    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1410        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1411        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1412        count = self.sql(expression, "count")
1413        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1414        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1415            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1416        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1417        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1418
1419    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1420        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1421            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1422            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1423            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1424
1425        agg = expression.this
1426        agg_arg = agg.this
1427        cond = expression.expression.this
1428        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1429        return self.sql(agg)
1430
1431    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1432        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1433            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1434            return ""
1435
1436        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1437
1438    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1439        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1440        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1441        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1442        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1443        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1444        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1445        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1446        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1447        if include:
1448            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1449        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1450        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1451        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1452        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1453        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1454        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1455
1456        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
1457
1458    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1459        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1460        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1461        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1462        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1463        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1464        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1465        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1466
1467        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1468
1469        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1470        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1471
1472    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1473        text = expression.name
1474        lower = text.lower()
1475        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1476        text = text.replace(self._identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1477        if (
1478            expression.quoted
1479            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1480            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1481            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1482        ):
1483            text = f"{self._identifier_start}{text}{self._identifier_end}"
1484        return text
1485
1486    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1487        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1488        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1489            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1490
1491        return text
1492
1493    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1494        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1495        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1496            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1497        return text
1498
1499    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1500        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1501        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1502        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1503        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1504        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1505
1506    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1507        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1508        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1509
1510    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1511        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1512
1513    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1514        root_properties = []
1515        with_properties = []
1516
1517        for p in expression.expressions:
1518            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1519            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1520                with_properties.append(p)
1521            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1522                root_properties.append(p)
1523
1524        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1525        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1526
1527        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1528            with_props = " " + with_props
1529
1530        return root_props + with_props
1531
1532    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1533        if properties.expressions:
1534            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1535        return ""
1536
1537    def properties(
1538        self,
1539        properties: exp.Properties,
1540        prefix: str = "",
1541        sep: str = ", ",
1542        suffix: str = "",
1543        wrapped: bool = True,
1544    ) -> str:
1545        if properties.expressions:
1546            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1547            if expressions:
1548                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1549                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1550        return ""
1551
1552    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1553        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
1554
1555    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1556        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1557        for p in properties.expressions:
1558            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1559            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1560                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1561            else:
1562                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1563
1564        return properties_locs
1565
1566    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1567        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1568            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1569        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1570
1571    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1572        property_cls = expression.__class__
1573        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1574            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1575
1576        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1577        if not property_name:
1578            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1579
1580        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1581
1582    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1583        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1584            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1585            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1586
1587            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1588            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1589                like = f"({like})"
1590
1591            return like
1592
1593        if expression.expressions:
1594            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1595
1596        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1597        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1598
1599    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1600        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1601        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1602        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1603
1604    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1605        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1606        local = expression.args.get("local")
1607        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1608        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1609        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1610        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1611        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1612
1613    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1614        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1615        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1616        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1617
1618    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1619        if expression.args.get("default"):
1620            property = "DEFAULT"
1621        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1622            property = "ON"
1623        else:
1624            property = "OFF"
1625        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1626
1627    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1628        if expression.args.get("no"):
1629            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1630        if expression.args.get("default"):
1631            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1632
1633        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1634        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1635
1636    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1637        default = expression.args.get("default")
1638        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1639        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1640        if default or minimum or maximum:
1641            if default:
1642                prop = "DEFAULT"
1643            elif minimum:
1644                prop = "MINIMUM"
1645            else:
1646                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1647            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1648        units = expression.args.get("units")
1649        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1650        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1651
1652    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1653        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1654        always = expression.args.get("always")
1655        default = expression.args.get("default")
1656        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1657        never = expression.args.get("never")
1658
1659        if autotemp is not None:
1660            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1661        elif always:
1662            prop = "ALWAYS"
1663        elif default:
1664            prop = "DEFAULT"
1665        elif manual:
1666            prop = "MANUAL"
1667        elif never:
1668            prop = "NEVER"
1669        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1670
1671    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1672        no = expression.args.get("no")
1673        no = " NO" if no else ""
1674        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1675        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1676        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1677        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1678        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1679
1680    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1681        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1682            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1683        if expression.this:
1684            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1685            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1686            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1687
1688        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1689        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1690        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1691
1692    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1693        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1694
1695        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1696        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1697            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1698        else:
1699            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1700
1701        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1702
1703    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1704        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1705        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1706        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1707        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1708        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1709        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1710        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1711
1712    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1713        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1714        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1715        statistics_sql = ""
1716        if statistics is not None:
1717            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1718        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1719
1720    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1721        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1722        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1723        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1724        data_consistency = (
1725            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1726        )
1727        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1728        retention_period = (
1729            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1730        )
1731
1732        if this:
1733            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1734        else:
1735            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1736
1737        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1738
1739        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
1740
1741    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1742        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1743        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1744
1745        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1746            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1747        else:
1748            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1749
1750        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1751        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1752        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1753        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1754        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1755        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1756        if is_function:
1757            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1758        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1759
1760        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1761        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1762        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1763        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1764        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1765        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1766        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1767        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1768
1769        if self.RETURNING_END:
1770            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1771        else:
1772            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1773
1774        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1775        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1776        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
1777        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
1778
1779        source = self.sql(expression, "source")
1780        source = f"TABLE {source}" if source else ""
1781
1782        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}{source}"
1783        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1784
1785    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1786        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1787
1788    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1789        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1790        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1791        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1792        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1793        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1794
1795    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1796        return expression.name
1797
1798    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1799        return expression.name
1800
1801    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1802        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1803
1804        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1805        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1806
1807        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1808        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1809        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1810
1811        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1812        if expressions:
1813            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1814            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1815
1816        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1817
1818    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1819        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1820
1821    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1822        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1823        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1824        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1825        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1826        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1827        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1828        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1829        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1830        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1831        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1832        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1833        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1834        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1835
1836    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1837        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1838
1839    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1840        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1841        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1842        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1843        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1844
1845    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1846        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1847        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1848        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1849        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1850
1851    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1852        return ".".join(
1853            self.sql(part)
1854            for part in (
1855                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1856                expression.args.get("db"),
1857                expression.args.get("this"),
1858            )
1859            if part is not None
1860        )
1861
1862    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1863        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1864        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1865        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1866        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1867        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1868        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1869        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1870        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1871
1872        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
1873        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE:
1874            sample_pre_alias = sample
1875            sample_post_alias = ""
1876        else:
1877            sample_pre_alias = ""
1878            sample_post_alias = sample
1879
1880        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1881        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1882        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
1883        joins = self.indent(
1884            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1885        )
1886        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1887
1888        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1889        if file_format:
1890            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1891            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1892            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1893
1894        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1895        if ordinality:
1896            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1897            alias = ""
1898
1899        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1900        if when:
1901            table = f"{table} {when}"
1902
1903        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
1904        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
1905
1906        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
1907        if rows_from:
1908            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
1909
1910        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{sample_pre_alias}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{sample_post_alias}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1911
1912    def tablesample_sql(
1913        self,
1914        expression: exp.TableSample,
1915        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1916    ) -> str:
1917        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1918        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1919        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1920        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1921        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1922        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1923        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1924        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1925        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1926
1927        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1928        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1929            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1930
1931        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1932        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1933            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1934
1935        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1936        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1937            expr = f"({expr})"
1938
1939        return f" {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}"
1940
1941    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1942        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1943
1944        if expression.this:
1945            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1946            if not expressions:
1947                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1948
1949            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1950            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1951            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1952            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1953            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1954
1955        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1956        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1957        direction = self.seg("UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT")
1958
1959        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1960
1961        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1962        if include_nulls is not None:
1963            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1964        else:
1965            nulls = ""
1966
1967        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
1968        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
1969        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"
1970
1971    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1972        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1973        kind = expression.text("kind")
1974        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1975        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1976
1977    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1978        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
1979
1980    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1981        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1982        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1983        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1984        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1985        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1986        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1987        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1988        if self.RETURNING_END:
1989            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1990        else:
1991            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1992        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1993        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1994
1995    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1996        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1997
1998        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1999        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
2000            args = self.expressions(expression)
2001            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2002            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
2003            values = (
2004                f"({values})"
2005                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
2006                else values
2007            )
2008            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
2009
2010        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
2011        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
2012        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
2013
2014        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
2015
2016        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
2017            row = tup.expressions
2018
2019            if i == 0 and column_names:
2020                row = [
2021                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
2022                ]
2023
2024            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
2025
2026        if self.pretty:
2027            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
2028            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
2029            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
2030            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
2031            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
2032
2033        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
2034        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
2035        return f"({unions}){alias}"
2036
2037    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
2038        return self.sql(expression, "this")
2039
2040    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
2041        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
2042        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
2043        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2044
2045    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
2046        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2047
2048    def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: exp.GroupingSets) -> str:
2049        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2050        return f"GROUPING SETS {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}"
2051
2052    def rollup_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollup) -> str:
2053        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2054        return f"ROLLUP {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH ROLLUP"
2055
2056    def cube_sql(self, expression: exp.Cube) -> str:
2057        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2058        return f"CUBE {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH CUBE"
2059
2060    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
2061        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
2062        if group_by_all is True:
2063            modifier = " ALL"
2064        elif group_by_all is False:
2065            modifier = " DISTINCT"
2066        else:
2067            modifier = ""
2068
2069        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
2070
2071        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets")
2072        cube = self.expressions(expression, key="cube")
2073        rollup = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup")
2074
2075        groupings = csv(
2076            self.seg(grouping_sets) if grouping_sets else "",
2077            self.seg(cube) if cube else "",
2078            self.seg(rollup) if rollup else "",
2079            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
2080            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
2081        )
2082
2083        if (
2084            expression.expressions
2085            and groupings
2086            and groupings.strip() not in ("WITH CUBE", "WITH ROLLUP")
2087        ):
2088            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
2089
2090        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
2091
2092    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
2093        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2094        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2095
2096    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
2097        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
2098        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
2099        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
2100        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
2101        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
2102        return start + connect
2103
2104    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
2105        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2106
2107    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
2108        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
2109            side = None
2110        else:
2111            side = expression.side
2112
2113        op_sql = " ".join(
2114            op
2115            for op in (
2116                expression.method,
2117                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
2118                side,
2119                expression.kind,
2120                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
2121            )
2122            if op
2123        )
2124        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
2125        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
2126        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
2127        using = expression.args.get("using")
2128
2129        if not on_sql and using:
2130            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
2131
2132        this = expression.this
2133        this_sql = self.sql(this)
2134
2135        if on_sql:
2136            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
2137            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2138            if using:
2139                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2140            else:
2141                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2142        elif not op_sql:
2143            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2144                return f" {this_sql}"
2145
2146            return f", {this_sql}"
2147
2148        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2149            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2150
2151        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
2152
2153    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2154        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2155        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2156        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2157
2158    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2159        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2160
2161        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2162        if cross_apply is True:
2163            op = "INNER JOIN "
2164        elif cross_apply is False:
2165            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2166        else:
2167            op = ""
2168
2169        return f"{op}LATERAL"
2170
2171    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2172        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2173
2174        if expression.args.get("view"):
2175            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2176            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2177            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2178            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2179            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2180            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2181
2182        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2183        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2184        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
2185
2186    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2187        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2188
2189        args = [
2190            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2191            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2192            if e
2193        ]
2194
2195        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2196        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2197        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2198        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2199
2200        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
2201
2202    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2203        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2204        value = expression.expression
2205        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2206        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2207        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2208        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2209
2210    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2211        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2212        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2213        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2214        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2215        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2216        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2217        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2218        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2219
2220    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2221        expressions = (
2222            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2223        )
2224        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2225        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2226
2227    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2228        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2229
2230    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2231        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2232            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2233            return ""
2234
2235        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2236        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2237        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2238        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2239
2240        if wait is not None:
2241            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2242                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2243            else:
2244                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2245
2246        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2247
2248    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2249        text = expression.this or ""
2250        if expression.is_string:
2251            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2252        return text
2253
2254    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2255        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2256            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2257            text = "".join(
2258                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2259            )
2260
2261        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2262            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2263        )
2264
2265    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2266        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2267        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2268        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2269        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2270        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2271        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2272        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2273        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2274        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2275        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2276        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2277
2278    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2279        return "NULL"
2280
2281    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2282        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2283
2284    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2285        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2286        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2287        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2288        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2289
2290    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2291        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2292        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2293        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2294        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2295        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2296        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2297        interpolated_values = [
2298            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2299            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2300        ]
2301        interpolate = (
2302            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2303        )
2304        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}{interpolate}"
2305
2306    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2307        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2308
2309    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2310        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2311
2312    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2313        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2314
2315    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2316        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2317        asc = not desc
2318
2319        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2320        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2321        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2322        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2323        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2324
2325        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2326
2327        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2328        nulls_sort_change = ""
2329        if nulls_first and (
2330            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2331        ):
2332            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2333        elif (
2334            nulls_last
2335            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2336            and not nulls_are_last
2337        ):
2338            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2339
2340        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2341        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2342            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2343            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2344                self.unsupported(
2345                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2346                )
2347                nulls_sort_change = ""
2348            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2349                if expression.this.is_int:
2350                    self.unsupported(
2351                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2352                    )
2353                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2354                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2355                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2356                nulls_sort_change = ""
2357
2358        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2359        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2360
2361        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2362
2363    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2364        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2365        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2366
2367        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2368
2369        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2370
2371    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2372        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2373        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2374        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2375        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2376        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2377        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2378        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2379        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2380        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2381        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2382        definition_sqls = [
2383            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2384            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2385        ]
2386        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2387        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2388        body = "".join(
2389            (
2390                partition,
2391                order,
2392                measures,
2393                rows,
2394                after,
2395                pattern,
2396                define,
2397            )
2398        )
2399        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2400        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2401        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2402
2403    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2404        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2405
2406        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2407            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2408        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2409            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2410
2411        return csv(
2412            *sqls,
2413            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2414            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2415            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2416            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2417            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2418            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2419            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2420            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2421            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2422            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2423            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2424            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2425            self.options_modifier(expression),
2426            sep="",
2427        )
2428
2429    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2430        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2431        return f" {options}" if options else ""
2432
2433    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2434        return ""
2435
2436    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2437        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2438    ) -> t.List[str]:
2439        return [
2440            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2441            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2442        ]
2443
2444    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2445        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2446        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2447        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2448
2449    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2450        into = expression.args.get("into")
2451        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2452            into.pop()
2453
2454        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2455        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2456        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2457        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2458
2459        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2460        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2461            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2462            limit.pop()
2463        else:
2464            top = ""
2465
2466        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2467
2468        if kind:
2469            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2470                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2471            else:
2472                if kind == "STRUCT":
2473                    expressions = self.expressions(
2474                        sqls=[
2475                            self.sql(
2476                                exp.Struct(
2477                                    expressions=[
2478                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2479                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2480                                        else e
2481                                        for e in expression.expressions
2482                                    ]
2483                                )
2484                            )
2485                        ]
2486                    )
2487                kind = ""
2488
2489        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2490        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2491        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2492        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2493        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2494            expression,
2495            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2496            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2497            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2498        )
2499
2500        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2501
2502        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2503            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2504                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2505            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2506                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2507            else:
2508                table_kind = ""
2509            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2510
2511        return sql
2512
2513    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2514        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2515        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2516        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2517
2518    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2519        if expression.expressions:
2520            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2521        return ""
2522
2523    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2524        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2525        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2526        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2527        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2528        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2529        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2530        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2531
2532    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2533        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2534        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2535
2536    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2537        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2538        kind = expression.text("kind")
2539        if kind:
2540            kind = f"{kind}."
2541        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2542
2543    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2544        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2545
2546    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2547        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2548        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2549        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
2550        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and sample:
2551            alias = f"{sample}{alias}"
2552
2553            # Set to None so it's not generated again by self.query_modifiers()
2554            expression.set("sample", None)
2555
2556        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2557        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2558        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2559
2560    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2561        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2562        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2563
2564    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2565        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2566
2567        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2568        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2569
2570        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2571            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2572                alias.append("columns", offset)
2573
2574        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2575            columns = alias.columns
2576            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2577        else:
2578            alias = self.sql(alias)
2579
2580        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2581        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2582            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2583        else:
2584            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2585                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2586            elif offset:
2587                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2588            else:
2589                suffix = alias
2590
2591        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2592
2593    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2594        return ""
2595
2596    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2597        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2598        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2599
2600    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2601        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2602        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2603        order = expression.args.get("order")
2604        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2605        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2606        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2607        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2608
2609        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2610
2611        first = expression.args.get("first")
2612        if first is None:
2613            first = ""
2614        else:
2615            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2616
2617        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2618            return f"{this} {alias}"
2619
2620        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2621        return f"{this} ({args})"
2622
2623    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2624        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2625        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2626
2627    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2628        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2629        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2630        end = (
2631            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2632            or "CURRENT ROW"
2633        )
2634        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2635
2636    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2637        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2638        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2639        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2640
2641    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2642        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2643        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2644        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2645        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2646
2647    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2648        return apply_index_offset(
2649            expression.this,
2650            expression.expressions,
2651            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2652        )
2653
2654    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2655        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2656        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2657        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2658
2659    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2660        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2661
2662    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2663        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2664        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2665            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2666                this = self.wrap(this)
2667            return f"ANY{this}"
2668        return f"ANY {this}"
2669
2670    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2671        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2672
2673    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2674        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2675        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2676
2677        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2678            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2679            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2680
2681        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2682
2683        if default:
2684            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2685
2686        statements.append("END")
2687
2688        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2689            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2690
2691        return " ".join(statements)
2692
2693    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2694        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2695        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2696        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2697
2698    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2699        order = expression.args.get("order")
2700        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2701        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2702
2703    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2704        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2705        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2706        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2707
2708    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2709        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2710
2711        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2712            func_name = "LTRIM"
2713        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2714            func_name = "RTRIM"
2715        else:
2716            func_name = "TRIM"
2717
2718        return self.func(func_name, expression.this, expression.expression)
2719
2720    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2721        args = expression.expressions
2722        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2723            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2724
2725        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2726            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2727
2728        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2729            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2730
2731        return args
2732
2733    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2734        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2735
2736        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2737        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2738            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2739
2740        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2741
2742    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2743        return self.func(
2744            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2745        )
2746
2747    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2748        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2749        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2750
2751    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2752        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2753        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2754        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2755        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2756        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2757        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2758        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2759        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2760
2761    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2762        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2763        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2764        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2765        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2766
2767    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2768        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2769
2770    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2771        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2772        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2773        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2774
2775    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2776        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2777
2778    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2779        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2780
2781        if expression.args.get("escape"):
2782            path = self.escape_str(path)
2783
2784        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2785            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2786
2787        return path
2788
2789    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2790        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2791            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2792            if not callable(transform):
2793                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2794                return ""
2795
2796            return transform(self, expression)
2797
2798        if isinstance(expression, int):
2799            return str(expression)
2800
2801        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2802            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2803            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2804        else:
2805            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2806            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2807
2808        return escaped
2809
2810    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2811        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2812
2813    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2814        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2815        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2816
2817        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2818        if unique_keys is not None:
2819            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2820        else:
2821            unique_keys = ""
2822
2823        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2824        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2825        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2826        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2827
2828        return self.func(
2829            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2830            *expression.expressions,
2831            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2832        )
2833
2834    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2835        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2836
2837    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2838        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2839        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2840        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2841        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2842        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2843        return self.func(
2844            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2845        )
2846
2847    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2848        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2849        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2850        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2851        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2852        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2853        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2854        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2855        return self.func(
2856            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2857            this,
2858            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2859        )
2860
2861    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2862        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2863        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2864        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2865
2866        if nested_schema:
2867            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2868
2869        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2870        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2871        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2872        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2873
2874    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2875        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2876
2877    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2878        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2879        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2880        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2881        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2882        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2883        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2884        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2885        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2886        return self.func(
2887            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2888        )
2889
2890    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2891        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2892        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2893        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2894        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2895        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2896        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2897
2898    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2899        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2900        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2901        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2902        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2903        with_ = (
2904            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2905            if expressions
2906            else ""
2907        )
2908        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2909
2910    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2911        query = expression.args.get("query")
2912        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2913        field = expression.args.get("field")
2914        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2915
2916        if query:
2917            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2918        elif unnest:
2919            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2920        elif field:
2921            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2922        else:
2923            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2924
2925        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2926
2927    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2928        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2929
2930    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2931        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2932        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2933            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2934        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2935
2936        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2937            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2938            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2939
2940        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2941        if this:
2942            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2943            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2944
2945        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2946
2947    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2948        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2949
2950    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2951        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2952        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2953        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2954        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2955        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2956        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2957
2958    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2959        # We don't normalize qualified functions such as a.b.foo(), because they can be case-sensitive
2960        parent = expression.parent
2961        is_qualified = isinstance(parent, exp.Dot) and expression is parent.expression
2962        return self.func(
2963            self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions, normalize=not is_qualified
2964        )
2965
2966    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2967        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2968        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2969
2970    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2971        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2972        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2973        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2974        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2975
2976    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2977        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2978
2979    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2980        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2981        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2982        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2983
2984    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2985        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2986
2987        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2988        literal_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Literal)
2989
2990        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2991            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2992        elif not identifier_alias and literal_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2993            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2994
2995        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2996
2997    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2998        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2999
3000    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3001        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3002        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3003        return f"{this} AT {index}"
3004
3005    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3006        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3007        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3008        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
3009
3010    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
3011        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3012        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3013        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
3014
3015    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
3016        return self.binary(expression, "+")
3017
3018    def and_sql(
3019        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3020    ) -> str:
3021        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
3022
3023    def or_sql(
3024        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3025    ) -> str:
3026        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
3027
3028    def xor_sql(
3029        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3030    ) -> str:
3031        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
3032
3033    def connector_sql(
3034        self,
3035        expression: exp.Connector,
3036        op: str,
3037        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3038    ) -> str:
3039        if stack is not None:
3040            if expression.expressions:
3041                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
3042            else:
3043                stack.append(expression.right)
3044                if expression.comments and self.comments:
3045                    for comment in expression.comments:
3046                        if comment:
3047                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
3048                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
3049            return op
3050
3051        stack = [expression]
3052        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3053        ops = set()
3054
3055        while stack:
3056            node = stack.pop()
3057            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
3058                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
3059            else:
3060                sql = self.sql(node)
3061                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
3062                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
3063                else:
3064                    sqls.append(sql)
3065
3066        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
3067        return sep.join(sqls)
3068
3069    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
3070        return self.binary(expression, "&")
3071
3072    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
3073        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
3074
3075    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
3076        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3077
3078    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
3079        return self.binary(expression, "|")
3080
3081    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3082        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
3083
3084    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3085        return self.binary(expression, "^")
3086
3087    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3088        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
3089        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
3090        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
3091        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
3092        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
3093        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
3094        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
3095
3096    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
3097        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
3098        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
3099
3100    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
3101        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
3102            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3103        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
3104
3105    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
3106        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
3107
3108    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
3109        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3110        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3111        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3112        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3113        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3114        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
3115
3116    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3117        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3118        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3119        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3120        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3121        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3122        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3123        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3124        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3125        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
3126
3127    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3128        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3129        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3130        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3131        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3132
3133        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3134            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3135
3136        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
3137
3138    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3139        return "BEGIN"
3140
3141    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3142        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3143        if chain is not None:
3144            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3145
3146        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
3147
3148    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3149        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3150        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3151        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
3152
3153    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3154        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3155
3156        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3157        if dtype:
3158            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3159            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3160            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3161            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3162            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3163
3164        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3165        if default:
3166            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3167
3168        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3169        if comment:
3170            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3171
3172        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3173        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3174
3175        if not drop and not allow_null:
3176            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3177
3178        if allow_null is not None:
3179            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3180            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3181
3182        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3183
3184    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3185        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3186        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3187            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3188        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3189
3190    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3191        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3192        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3193        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3194        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3195        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3196
3197    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3198        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3199            # Remove db from tables
3200            expression = expression.transform(
3201                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3202            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3203        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3204        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3205
3206    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3207        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3208        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3209        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3210        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3211
3212    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3213        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3214        return f"SET {exprs}"
3215
3216    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3217        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3218
3219        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3220            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3221        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3222            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3223        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3224            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3225        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Query):
3226            actions = "AS " + self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
3227        else:
3228            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3229
3230        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3231        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3232        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3233        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3234        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3235        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3236        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3237        not_valid = " NOT VALID" if expression.args.get("not_valid") else ""
3238
3239        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{not_valid}{options}"
3240
3241    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3242        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3243            return self.expressions(
3244                expression,
3245                key="actions",
3246                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3247                skip_first=True,
3248            )
3249        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3250
3251    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3252        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3253        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3254        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3255
3256    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3257        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3258
3259    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3260        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3261
3262        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3263            case = exp.case()
3264            for arg in expression.expressions:
3265                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3266            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3267
3268        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3269
3270        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3271        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3272        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3273
3274    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3275        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3276
3277    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3278        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3279
3280    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3281        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3282        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3283        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3284        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3285
3286    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3287        return self.sql(
3288            exp.Cast(
3289                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3290                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3291            )
3292        )
3293
3294    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3295        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3296            return self.func(
3297                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3298            )
3299        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3300
3301    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3302        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3303
3304        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3305            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3306
3307        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3308            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3309                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3310
3311        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3312            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3313                return self.sql(
3314                    exp.cast(
3315                        l / r,
3316                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3317                    )
3318                )
3319
3320        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3321
3322    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3323        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3324
3325    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3326        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3327
3328    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3329        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3330
3331    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3332        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3333
3334    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3335        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3336
3337    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3338        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3339
3340    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3341        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3342
3343    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3344        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3345
3346    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3347        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3348
3349    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3350        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3351
3352    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3353        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3354
3355    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3356        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3357            return self.sql(
3358                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3359            )
3360        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3361
3362    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3363        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3364
3365    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3366        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3367
3368    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3369        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3370
3371    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3372        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3373
3374    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3375        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3376
3377    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3378        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3379
3380    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3381        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3382
3383    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3384        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3385
3386    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3387        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3388
3389    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3390        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3391
3392    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3393        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3394
3395    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3396        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3397
3398    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3399        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3400
3401    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3402        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3403            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3404            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3405
3406        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3407
3408    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3409        this = expression.this
3410        expr = expression.expression
3411
3412        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3413            this, expr = expr, this
3414        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3415            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3416                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3417
3418            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3419
3420        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3421
3422    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3423        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3424        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3425        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3426        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3427        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3428
3429    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3430        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3431        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
3432        binary_type = type(expression)
3433
3434        while stack:
3435            node = stack.pop()
3436
3437            if type(node) is binary_type:
3438                op_func = node.args.get("operator")
3439                if op_func:
3440                    op = f"OPERATOR({self.sql(op_func)})"
3441
3442                stack.append(node.right)
3443                stack.append(f" {self.maybe_comment(op, comments=node.comments)} ")
3444                stack.append(node.left)
3445            else:
3446                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
3447
3448        return "".join(sqls)
3449
3450    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3451        args = []
3452
3453        for key in expression.arg_types:
3454            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3455
3456            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3457                for value in arg_value:
3458                    args.append(value)
3459            elif arg_value is not None:
3460                args.append(arg_value)
3461
3462        if self.normalize_functions:
3463            name = expression.sql_name()
3464        else:
3465            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3466
3467        return self.func(name, *args)
3468
3469    def func(
3470        self,
3471        name: str,
3472        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3473        prefix: str = "(",
3474        suffix: str = ")",
3475        normalize: bool = True,
3476    ) -> str:
3477        name = self.normalize_func(name) if normalize else name
3478        return f"{name}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3479
3480    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3481        arg_sqls = tuple(
3482            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
3483        )
3484        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3485            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3486        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3487
3488    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3489        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3490
3491    def format_time(
3492        self,
3493        expression: exp.Expression,
3494        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3495        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3496    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3497        return format_time(
3498            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3499            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3500            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3501        )
3502
3503    def expressions(
3504        self,
3505        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3506        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3507        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3508        flat: bool = False,
3509        indent: bool = True,
3510        skip_first: bool = False,
3511        skip_last: bool = False,
3512        sep: str = ", ",
3513        prefix: str = "",
3514        dynamic: bool = False,
3515        new_line: bool = False,
3516    ) -> str:
3517        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3518
3519        if not expressions:
3520            return ""
3521
3522        if flat:
3523            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3524
3525        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3526        result_sqls = []
3527
3528        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3529            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3530            if not sql:
3531                continue
3532
3533            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3534
3535            if self.pretty:
3536                if self.leading_comma:
3537                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3538                else:
3539                    result_sqls.append(
3540                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3541                    )
3542            else:
3543                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3544
3545        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3546            if new_line:
3547                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3548                result_sqls.append("")
3549            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
3550        else:
3551            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3552
3553        return (
3554            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3555            if indent
3556            else result_sql
3557        )
3558
3559    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3560        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3561        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3562        if flat:
3563            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3564        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3565
3566    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3567        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3568        if not property_name:
3569            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3570        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3571
3572    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3573        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3574
3575    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3576        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3577
3578    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3579        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3580        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3581        expressions = (
3582            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3583        )
3584        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3585
3586    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3587        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3588        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3589        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3590
3591    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3592        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3593
3594    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3595        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3596        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3597        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3598        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3599
3600        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3601        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3602            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3603            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3604            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3605            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3606        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3607            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3608                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3609            else:
3610                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3611        else:
3612            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3613        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3614
3615    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3616        table = expression.this
3617        table_alias = ""
3618
3619        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3620        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3621            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3622            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3623
3624        this = self.sql(table)
3625        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3626        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3627        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3628        sep = self.sep()
3629        returning = self.expressions(expression, key="returning", indent=False)
3630        returning = f"RETURNING {returning}" if returning else ""
3631
3632        return self.prepend_ctes(
3633            expression,
3634            f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}{sep}{returning}",
3635        )
3636
3637    @unsupported_args("format")
3638    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3639        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3640
3641    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3642        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3643            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3644            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3645
3646        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3647        if not fmt:
3648            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3649            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3650
3651        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3652
3653    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3654        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3655        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3656        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3657        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3658        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3659
3660    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3661        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3662        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3663        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3664        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3665
3666    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3667        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3668
3669    def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DuplicateKeyProperty) -> str:
3670        return f"DUPLICATE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3671
3672    # https://docs.starrocks.io/docs/sql-reference/sql-statements/data-definition/CREATE_TABLE/#distribution_desc
3673    def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DistributedByProperty) -> str:
3674        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3675        expressions = f" {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else ""
3676        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3677        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3678        buckets = f" BUCKETS {buckets}" if buckets else ""
3679        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
3680        return f"DISTRIBUTED BY {kind}{expressions}{buckets}{order}"
3681
3682    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3683        return ""
3684
3685    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3686        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3687        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3688        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3689        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3690        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3691
3692    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3693        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3694        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3695
3696        if having:
3697            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3698
3699        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3700
3701    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3702        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3703        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3704        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3705        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3706        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3707        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3708        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3709        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3710        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3711        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3712        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3713        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3714        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3715
3716    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3717        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3718        if key_block_size:
3719            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3720
3721        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3722        if using:
3723            return f"USING {using}"
3724
3725        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3726        if parser:
3727            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3728
3729        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3730        if comment:
3731            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3732
3733        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3734        if visible is not None:
3735            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3736
3737        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3738        if engine_attr:
3739            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3740
3741        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3742        if secondary_engine_attr:
3743            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3744
3745        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3746        return ""
3747
3748    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3749        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3750        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3751
3752    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3753        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3754        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3755        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3756        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3757        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3758        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3759        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3760        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3761        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3762        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3763        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3764
3765    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3766        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3767            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3768
3769        case = exp.Case().when(
3770            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3771            expression.args["true"],
3772            copy=False,
3773        )
3774        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3775        if else_cond:
3776            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3777
3778        return self.sql(case)
3779
3780    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3781        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3782        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3783        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3784        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3785        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3786        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3787
3788    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3789        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3790
3791    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3792        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3793
3794    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3795        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3796        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3797        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3798        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3799        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3800        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3801
3802    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3803        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3804        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3805        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3806
3807    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3808        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3809        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3810        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3811
3812    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3813        arg = expression.this
3814        if not arg.type:
3815            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3816
3817            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3818
3819        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3820            return self.sql(arg)
3821
3822        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3823        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3824
3825    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3826        this = expression.this
3827        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3828            return self.sql(this)
3829
3830        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3831
3832    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3833        this = expression.this
3834        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3835            return self.sql(this)
3836
3837        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
3838
3839    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3840        this = expression.this
3841        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3842
3843        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3844            return self.sql(
3845                exp.cast(
3846                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3847                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3848                )
3849            )
3850
3851        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3852            return self.sql(this)
3853
3854        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3855
3856    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3857        return self.sql(
3858            exp.func(
3859                "DATEDIFF",
3860                expression.this,
3861                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3862                "day",
3863            )
3864        )
3865
3866    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3867        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3868            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3869
3870        unit = expression.text("unit")
3871        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3872            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3873
3874        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3875
3876    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3877        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3878
3879        return self.func(
3880            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3881        )
3882
3883    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3884        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3885            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3886            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3887            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3888            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3889
3890        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3891
3892        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3893        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3894            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3895
3896        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3897
3898    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3899        expression.set(
3900            "expressions",
3901            [
3902                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3903                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3904                else e
3905                for e in expression.expressions
3906            ],
3907        )
3908
3909        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3910
3911    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3912        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3913        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3914
3915        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3916
3917    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3918        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3919        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3920
3921        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3922
3923        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3924        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3925
3926        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3927        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3928
3929        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3930        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3931
3932        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3933        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3934
3935        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3936
3937    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3938    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3939    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3940        to = expression.this
3941        value = expression.expression
3942        style = expression.args.get("style")
3943        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3944        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3945
3946        if not to or not value:
3947            return ""
3948
3949        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3950        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3951            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3952
3953        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3954        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3955
3956        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3957        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3958            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3959
3960            style_value = style.name
3961            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3962            if not converted_style:
3963                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3964
3965            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3966
3967            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3968                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3969            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3970                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3971            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3972                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3973            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3974                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3975
3976        if not transformed:
3977            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3978
3979        return self.sql(transformed)
3980
3981    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
3982        this = expression.this
3983        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
3984            this = self.json_path_part(this)
3985            return f".{this}" if this else ""
3986
3987        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
3988            return f".{this}"
3989
3990        this = self.json_path_part(this)
3991        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
3992
3993    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
3994        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
3995        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
3996
3997    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3998        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3999            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
4000
4001            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
4002
4003        return expression
4004
4005    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
4006        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
4007            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
4008            mods = sorted(
4009                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
4010                key=lambda x: 0
4011                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
4012                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
4013            )
4014
4015            if mods:
4016                mod = mods[0]
4017                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
4018                this.meta["inline"] = True
4019                mod.this.replace(this)
4020                return self.sql(expression.this)
4021
4022            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
4023
4024            if agg_func:
4025                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
4026
4027        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
4028
4029    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
4030        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
4031        if self.pretty:
4032            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
4033        return string
4034
4035    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
4036        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
4037
4038        if expression.expressions:
4039            upper = option.upper()
4040
4041            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
4042            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
4043
4044            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
4045            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
4046            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
4047            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
4048
4049        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4050
4051        if not value:
4052            return option
4053
4054        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
4055
4056        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
4057
4058    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
4059        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
4060        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
4061            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
4062            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4063            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
4064        else:
4065            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
4066            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
4067            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
4068
4069        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
4070        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
4071
4072        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
4073        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
4074
4075        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
4076        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
4077
4078        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
4079        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
4080
4081        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
4082
4083    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
4084        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4085        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
4086
4087        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4088        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
4089        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
4090        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
4091
4092        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
4093        params = self.expressions(
4094            expression,
4095            key="params",
4096            sep=sep,
4097            new_line=True,
4098            skip_last=True,
4099            skip_first=True,
4100            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
4101        )
4102
4103        if params:
4104            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
4105                params = f" WITH ({params})"
4106            elif not self.pretty:
4107                params = f" {params}"
4108
4109        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
4110
4111    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
4112        return ""
4113
4114    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4115        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
4116        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
4117        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
4118        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
4119        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
4120
4121        if filter_col or retention_period:
4122            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
4123
4124        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
4125
4126    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
4127        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
4128    ) -> str:
4129        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4130        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4131        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4132        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
4133
4134    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
4135        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4136        this = f"TABLE {this}"
4137        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
4138
4139    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4140        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
4141
4142    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4143        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4144        expr = expression.expression
4145
4146        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4147            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4148            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4149        else:
4150            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4151
4152        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
4153
4154    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4155        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4156            return self.sql(expression.this)
4157
4158        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
4159
4160    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4161        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4162        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4163
4164        if lower and upper:
4165            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4166        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
4167
4168    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4169        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4170        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4171        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4172        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4173        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4174        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4175
4176        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
4177
4178    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4179        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4180
4181        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4182        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4183            fill_pattern = "' '"
4184
4185        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
4186
4187    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
4188        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
4189        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
4190
4191    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4192        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
4193
4194        parent = expression.parent
4195        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
4196            parent = parent.parent
4197
4198        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
4199            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
4200
4201        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
4202            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
4203
4204        return self.sql(generate_series)
4205
4206    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
4207        exprs = expression.expressions
4208        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
4209            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
4210        else:
4211            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
4212
4213        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs)
4214
4215    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4216        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
4217            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4218
4219        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
4220        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
4221        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
4222
4223        if source_tz and timestamp:
4224            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
4225                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
4226            )
4227
4228        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
4229
4230        return self.sql(expr)
4231
4232    def json_sql(self, expression: exp.JSON) -> str:
4233        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4234        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4235
4236        _with = expression.args.get("with")
4237
4238        if _with is None:
4239            with_sql = ""
4240        elif not _with:
4241            with_sql = " WITHOUT"
4242        else:
4243            with_sql = " WITH"
4244
4245        unique_sql = " UNIQUE KEYS" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
4246
4247        return f"JSON{this}{with_sql}{unique_sql}"
4248
4249    def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONValue) -> str:
4250        def _generate_on_options(arg: t.Any) -> str:
4251            return arg if isinstance(arg, str) else f"DEFAULT {self.sql(arg)}"
4252
4253        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4254        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
4255        returning = f" RETURNING {returning}" if returning else ""
4256
4257        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4258        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4259
4260        return self.func("JSON_VALUE", expression.this, f"{path}{returning}{on_condition}")
4261
4262    def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: exp.ConditionalInsert) -> str:
4263        else_ = "ELSE " if expression.args.get("else_") else ""
4264        condition = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4265        condition = f"WHEN {condition} THEN " if condition else else_
4266        insert = self.sql(expression, "this")[len("INSERT") :].strip()
4267        return f"{condition}{insert}"
4268
4269    def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: exp.MultitableInserts) -> str:
4270        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4271        expressions = self.seg(self.expressions(expression, sep=" "))
4272        res = f"INSERT {kind}{expressions}{self.seg(self.sql(expression, 'source'))}"
4273        return res
4274
4275    def oncondition_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCondition) -> str:
4276        # Static options like "NULL ON ERROR" are stored as strings, in contrast to "DEFAULT <expr> ON ERROR"
4277        empty = expression.args.get("empty")
4278        empty = (
4279            f"DEFAULT {empty} ON EMPTY"
4280            if isinstance(empty, exp.Expression)
4281            else self.sql(expression, "empty")
4282        )
4283
4284        error = expression.args.get("error")
4285        error = (
4286            f"DEFAULT {error} ON ERROR"
4287            if isinstance(error, exp.Expression)
4288            else self.sql(expression, "error")
4289        )
4290
4291        if error and empty:
4292            error = (
4293                f"{empty} {error}"
4294                if self.dialect.ON_CONDITION_EMPTY_BEFORE_ERROR
4295                else f"{error} {empty}"
4296            )
4297            empty = ""
4298
4299        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
4300
4301        return f"{empty}{error}{null}"
4302
4303    def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExists) -> str:
4304        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4305        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4306
4307        passing = self.expressions(expression, "passing")
4308        passing = f" PASSING {passing}" if passing else ""
4309
4310        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4311        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4312
4313        path = f"{path}{passing}{on_condition}"
4314
4315        return self.func("JSON_EXISTS", this, path)
4316
4317    def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAgg) -> str:
4318        array_agg = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4319
4320        if self.dialect.ARRAY_AGG_INCLUDES_NULLS and expression.args.get("nulls_excluded"):
4321            parent = expression.parent
4322            if isinstance(parent, exp.Filter):
4323                parent_cond = parent.expression.this
4324                parent_cond.replace(parent_cond.and_(expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_()))
4325            else:
4326                array_agg = f"{array_agg} FILTER(WHERE {self.sql(expression, 'this')} IS NOT NULL)"
4327
4328        return array_agg
logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile('\\\\(\\d+)')
UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE = "Argument '{}' is not supported for expression '{}' when targeting {}."
def unsupported_args( *args: Union[str, Tuple[str, str]]) -> Callable[[Callable[[~G, ~E], str]], Callable[[~G, ~E], str]]:
30def unsupported_args(
31    *args: t.Union[str, t.Tuple[str, str]],
32) -> t.Callable[[GeneratorMethod], GeneratorMethod]:
33    """
34    Decorator that can be used to mark certain args of an `Expression` subclass as unsupported.
35    It expects a sequence of argument names or pairs of the form (argument_name, diagnostic_msg).
36    """
37    diagnostic_by_arg: t.Dict[str, t.Optional[str]] = {}
38    for arg in args:
39        if isinstance(arg, str):
40            diagnostic_by_arg[arg] = None
41        else:
42            diagnostic_by_arg[arg[0]] = arg[1]
43
44    def decorator(func: GeneratorMethod) -> GeneratorMethod:
45        @wraps(func)
46        def _func(generator: G, expression: E) -> str:
47            expression_name = expression.__class__.__name__
48            dialect_name = generator.dialect.__class__.__name__
49
50            for arg_name, diagnostic in diagnostic_by_arg.items():
51                if expression.args.get(arg_name):
52                    diagnostic = diagnostic or UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE.format(
53                        arg_name, expression_name, dialect_name
54                    )
55                    generator.unsupported(diagnostic)
56
57            return func(generator, expression)
58
59        return _func
60
61    return decorator

Decorator that can be used to mark certain args of an Expression subclass as unsupported. It expects a sequence of argument names or pairs of the form (argument_name, diagnostic_msg).

class Generator:
  75class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  76    """
  77    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  78
  79    Args:
  80        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  81            Default: False.
  82        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  83            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  84            True or 'always': Always quote.
  85            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  86        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  87            Default: False.
  88        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  89            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  90            Default: 2.
  91        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  92            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  93            Default: 2.
  94        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  95            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  96            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  97            False: Disables function name normalization.
  98        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  99            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
 100        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
 101            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
 102            Default: 3
 103        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
 104            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
 105            Default: False
 106        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
 107            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
 108            line length.
 109            Default: 80
 110        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
 111            Default: True
 112    """
 113
 114    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
 115        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
 116        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
 117        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
 118        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 119        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 120        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
 121        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
 122        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 123        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
 124        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 125        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 126        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 127        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 128        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 129        exp.ConnectByRoot: lambda self, e: f"CONNECT_BY_ROOT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 130        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
 131        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 132        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 133        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
 134        exp.EmptyProperty: lambda *_: "EMPTY",
 135        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 136        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 137        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
 138        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
 139        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 140        exp.Except: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 141        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
 142        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 143        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 144        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 145        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 146        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 147        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 148        exp.Intersect: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 149        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 150        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 151        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 152        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 153        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 154        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 155        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 156        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 157        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 158        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 159        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 160        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 161        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 162        exp.Operator: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, ""),  # The operator is produced in `binary`
 163        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 164        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 165        exp.PivotAny: lambda self, e: f"ANY{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 166        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 167        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 168        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 169        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 170        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
 171            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
 172        ),
 173        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 174        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
 175        exp.SecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SECURITY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 176        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 177        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 178        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 179        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 180        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 181        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 182        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 183        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 184        exp.Stream: lambda self, e: f"STREAM {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 185        exp.StreamingTableProperty: lambda *_: "STREAMING",
 186        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
 187        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 188        exp.TagColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 189        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 190        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 191        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 192        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 193        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 194        exp.Union: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 195        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 196        exp.UnpackColumns: lambda self, e: f"*{self.sql(e.this)}",
 197        exp.Uuid: lambda *_: "UUID()",
 198        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 199        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 200        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 201        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 202        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 203        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH SCHEMA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 204        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 205    }
 206
 207    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 208    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
 209    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 210
 211    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 212    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 213    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 214
 215    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 216    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 217
 218    # Whether the EXCEPT and INTERSECT operations can return duplicates
 219    EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE = True
 220
 221    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 222    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 223
 224    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 225    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 226
 227    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 228    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 229
 230    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 231    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 232
 233    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 234    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 235
 236    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 237    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 238
 239    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 240    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 241
 242    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 243    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 244
 245    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 246    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 247
 248    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 249    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 250
 251    # Whether join hints should be generated
 252    JOIN_HINTS = True
 253
 254    # Whether table hints should be generated
 255    TABLE_HINTS = True
 256
 257    # Whether query hints should be generated
 258    QUERY_HINTS = True
 259
 260    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 261    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 262
 263    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 264    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 265
 266    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 267    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 268
 269    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 270    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 271
 272    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 273    RETURNING_END = True
 274
 275    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 276    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 277
 278    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 279    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 280
 281    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 282    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 283
 284    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 285    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 286
 287    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 288    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 289    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 290    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 291
 292    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 293    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 294
 295    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 296    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 297
 298    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 299    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 300
 301    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 302    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 303
 304    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 305    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 306
 307    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 308    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 309
 310    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 311    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 312
 313    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 314    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 315
 316    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 317    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 318
 319    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 320    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 321
 322    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 323    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 324
 325    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 326    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 327
 328    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 329    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 330
 331    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 332    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 333
 334    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 335    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 336
 337    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 338    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 339
 340    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 341    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 342
 343    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 344    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 345
 346    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 347    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 348
 349    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 350    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 351
 352    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 353    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 354
 355    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 356    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 357
 358    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 359    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 360
 361    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 362    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 363
 364    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 365    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 366
 367    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 368    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 369    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 370
 371    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 372    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 373
 374    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 375    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 376
 377    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 378    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 379
 380    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 381    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 382
 383    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 384    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 385
 386    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 387    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 388
 389    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
 390    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 391    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
 392    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
 393
 394    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 395    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 396
 397    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 398    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 399
 400    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 401    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 402
 403    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 404    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 405
 406    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
 407    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
 408
 409    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 410    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 411
 412    # The HEX function name
 413    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 414
 415    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
 416    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
 417
 418    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
 419    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
 420
 421    # Whether the text pattern/fill (3rd) parameter of RPAD()/LPAD() is optional (defaults to space)
 422    PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
 423
 424    # Whether a projection can explode into multiple rows, e.g. by unnesting an array.
 425    SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
 426
 427    # Whether ARRAY_CONCAT can be generated with varlen args or if it should be reduced to 2-arg version
 428    ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
 429
 430    # Whether CONVERT_TIMEZONE() is supported; if not, it will be generated as exp.AtTimeZone
 431    SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
 432
 433    # The name to generate for the JSONPath expression. If `None`, only `this` will be generated
 434    PARSE_JSON_NAME: t.Optional[str] = "PARSE_JSON"
 435
 436    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 437        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 438        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 439        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 440        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 441        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 442        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 443        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 444        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 445        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 446        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 447    }
 448
 449    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 450        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 451        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 452        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 453        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 454        "DAYS": "DAY",
 455        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 456        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 457        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 458        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 459    }
 460
 461    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 462        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 463        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 464        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 465        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 466            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 467            if e.args.get("windows")
 468            else ""
 469        ),
 470        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 471    }
 472
 473    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 474
 475    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 476
 477    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 478    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 479
 480    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 481        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 482        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 483        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 484        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 485        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 486        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 487        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 488        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 489        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 490        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 491        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 492        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 493        exp.DistributedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 494        exp.DuplicateKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 495        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 496        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 497        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 498        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 499        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 500        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 501        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 502        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 503        exp.EmptyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 504        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 505        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 506        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 507        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 508        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 509        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 510        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 511        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 512        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 513        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 514        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 515        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 516        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 517        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 518        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 519        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 520        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 521        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 522        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 523        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 524        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 525        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 526        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 527        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 528        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 529        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 530        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 531        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 532        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 533        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 534        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 535        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 536        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 537        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 538        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 539        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 540        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 541        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 542        exp.SecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 543        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 544        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 545        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 546        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 547        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 548        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 549        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 550        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 551        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 552        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 553        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 554        exp.StreamingTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 555        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 556        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 557        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 558        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 559        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 560        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 561        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 562        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 563        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 564        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 565        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 566        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 567        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 568    }
 569
 570    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 571    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 572
 573    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 574    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 575        exp.Command,
 576        exp.Create,
 577        exp.Delete,
 578        exp.Drop,
 579        exp.From,
 580        exp.Insert,
 581        exp.Join,
 582        exp.MultitableInserts,
 583        exp.Select,
 584        exp.SetOperation,
 585        exp.Update,
 586        exp.Where,
 587        exp.With,
 588    )
 589
 590    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 591    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 592        exp.Binary,
 593        exp.SetOperation,
 594    )
 595
 596    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 597    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 598        exp.Column,
 599        exp.Literal,
 600        exp.Neg,
 601        exp.Paren,
 602    )
 603
 604    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 605        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 606        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 607        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 608        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 609    }
 610
 611    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 612    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 613
 614    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 615
 616    __slots__ = (
 617        "pretty",
 618        "identify",
 619        "normalize",
 620        "pad",
 621        "_indent",
 622        "normalize_functions",
 623        "unsupported_level",
 624        "max_unsupported",
 625        "leading_comma",
 626        "max_text_width",
 627        "comments",
 628        "dialect",
 629        "unsupported_messages",
 630        "_escaped_quote_end",
 631        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 632        "_next_name",
 633        "_identifier_start",
 634        "_identifier_end",
 635    )
 636
 637    def __init__(
 638        self,
 639        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 640        identify: str | bool = False,
 641        normalize: bool = False,
 642        pad: int = 2,
 643        indent: int = 2,
 644        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 645        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 646        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 647        leading_comma: bool = False,
 648        max_text_width: int = 80,
 649        comments: bool = True,
 650        dialect: DialectType = None,
 651    ):
 652        import sqlglot
 653        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 654
 655        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 656        self.identify = identify
 657        self.normalize = normalize
 658        self.pad = pad
 659        self._indent = indent
 660        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 661        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 662        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 663        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 664        self.comments = comments
 665        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 666
 667        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 668        self.normalize_functions = (
 669            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 670        )
 671
 672        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 673        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 674            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 675        )
 676        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 677            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 678        )
 679
 680        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 681
 682        self._identifier_start = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START
 683        self._identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 684
 685    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 686        """
 687        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 688
 689        Args:
 690            expression: The syntax tree.
 691            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 692                it is safer to copy.
 693
 694        Returns:
 695            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 696        """
 697        if copy:
 698            expression = expression.copy()
 699
 700        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 701
 702        self.unsupported_messages = []
 703        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 704
 705        if self.pretty:
 706            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 707
 708        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 709            return sql
 710
 711        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 712            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 713                logger.warning(msg)
 714        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 715            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 716
 717        return sql
 718
 719    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 720        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 721        if (
 722            not expression.parent
 723            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 724            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 725        ):
 726            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 727
 728            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 729
 730        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 731            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 732
 733            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 734
 735        return expression
 736
 737    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 738        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 739            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 740        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 741
 742    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 743        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 744
 745    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 746        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 747
 748    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 749        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 750        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 751        return comment
 752
 753    def maybe_comment(
 754        self,
 755        sql: str,
 756        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 757        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 758        separated: bool = False,
 759    ) -> str:
 760        comments = (
 761            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 762            if self.comments
 763            else None
 764        )
 765
 766        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 767            return sql
 768
 769        comments_sql = " ".join(
 770            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 771        )
 772
 773        if not comments_sql:
 774            return sql
 775
 776        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 777
 778        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 779            return (
 780                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 781                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 782                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 783            )
 784
 785        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 786
 787    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 788        this_sql = (
 789            self.sql(expression)
 790            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 791            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 792        )
 793        if not this_sql:
 794            return "()"
 795
 796        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 797        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 798
 799    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 800        original = self.identify
 801        self.identify = False
 802        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 803        self.identify = original
 804        return result
 805
 806    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 807        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 808            return name.upper()
 809        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 810            return name.lower()
 811        return name
 812
 813    def indent(
 814        self,
 815        sql: str,
 816        level: int = 0,
 817        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 818        skip_first: bool = False,
 819        skip_last: bool = False,
 820    ) -> str:
 821        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 822            return sql
 823
 824        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 825        lines = sql.split("\n")
 826
 827        return "\n".join(
 828            (
 829                line
 830                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 831                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 832            )
 833            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 834        )
 835
 836    def sql(
 837        self,
 838        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 839        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 840        comment: bool = True,
 841    ) -> str:
 842        if not expression:
 843            return ""
 844
 845        if isinstance(expression, str):
 846            return expression
 847
 848        if key:
 849            value = expression.args.get(key)
 850            if value:
 851                return self.sql(value)
 852            return ""
 853
 854        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 855
 856        if callable(transform):
 857            sql = transform(self, expression)
 858        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 859            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 860
 861            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 862                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 863            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 864                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 865            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 866                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 867            else:
 868                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 869        else:
 870            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 871
 872        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 873
 874    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 875        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 876        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 877        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 878
 879    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 880        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 881        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 882        options = expression.args.get("options")
 883        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 884        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 885        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 886        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 887        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 888
 889    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 890        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 891            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 892        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 893        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 894
 895    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 896        return ".".join(
 897            self.sql(part)
 898            for part in (
 899                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 900                expression.args.get("db"),
 901                expression.args.get("table"),
 902                expression.args.get("this"),
 903            )
 904            if part
 905        )
 906
 907    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 908        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 909
 910        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
 911            join_mark = ""
 912            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 913
 914        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 915
 916    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 917        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 918        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 919        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 920        return f"{position}{this}"
 921
 922    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 923        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 924        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 925        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 926        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 927        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 928        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 929        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 930        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 931
 932        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 933            kind = ""
 934
 935        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 936
 937    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 938        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 939        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 940        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 941
 942    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 943        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 944        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 945            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 946        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 947            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 948        else:
 949            persisted = ""
 950        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 951
 952    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 953        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 954
 955    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 956        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 957            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 958        else:
 959            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 960
 961        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 962
 963    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 964        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 965    ) -> str:
 966        this = ""
 967        if expression.this is not None:
 968            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 969            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 970
 971        start = expression.args.get("start")
 972        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 973        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 974        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 975        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 976        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 977        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 978        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 979        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 980        cycle_sql = ""
 981
 982        if cycle is not None:
 983            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 984            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 985
 986        sequence_opts = ""
 987        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 988            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 989            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 990
 991        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 992        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 993
 994        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 995
 996    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 997        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 998    ) -> str:
 999        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
1000        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
1001        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
1002
1003    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
1004        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
1005    ) -> str:
1006        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
1007
1008    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
1009        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
1010
1011    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
1012        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1013
1014    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
1015        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1016        if desc is not None:
1017            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
1018        return "PRIMARY KEY"
1019
1020    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
1021        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1022        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1023        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
1024        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
1025        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
1026        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1027        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
1028        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
1029
1030    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
1031        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1032
1033    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
1034        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1035        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1036        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
1037        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
1038
1039        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
1040
1041        properties_sql = ""
1042        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
1043            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
1044        ):
1045            properties_sql = self.sql(
1046                exp.Properties(
1047                    expressions=[
1048                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
1049                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
1050                    ]
1051                )
1052            )
1053
1054            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
1055                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
1056            elif not self.pretty:
1057                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
1058                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
1059
1060        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
1061        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
1062
1063        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1064        if expression_sql:
1065            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
1066
1067            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
1068                postalias_props_sql = ""
1069                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1070                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1071                        exp.Properties(
1072                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1073                        ),
1074                        wrapped=False,
1075                    )
1076                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1077                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1078
1079        postindex_props_sql = ""
1080        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1081            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1082                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1083                wrapped=False,
1084                prefix=" ",
1085            )
1086
1087        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1088        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1089        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1090
1091        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1092        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
1093        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1094
1095        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
1096        if clustered is None:
1097            clustered_sql = ""
1098        elif clustered:
1099            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1100        else:
1101            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1102
1103        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1104        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1105            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1106                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1107                sep=" ",
1108                prefix=" ",
1109                wrapped=False,
1110            )
1111
1112        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1113
1114        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1115        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1116            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1117                exp.Properties(
1118                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1119                ),
1120                sep=" ",
1121                prefix=" ",
1122                wrapped=False,
1123            )
1124
1125        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1126        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1127        no_schema_binding = (
1128            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1129        )
1130
1131        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1132        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1133
1134        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1135        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1136
1137    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1138        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1139        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1140        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1141        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1142        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1143        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1144        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1145        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1146        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1147        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1148
1149        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1150        if cache is None:
1151            cache_str = ""
1152        elif cache is True:
1153            cache_str = " CACHE"
1154        else:
1155            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1156
1157        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1158        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1159
1160        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1161
1162    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1163        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1164        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1165        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1166        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1167
1168    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1169        style = expression.args.get("style")
1170        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1171        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1172        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1173        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{partition}"
1174
1175    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1176        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1177        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1178
1179    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1180        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1181        if with_:
1182            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1183        return sql
1184
1185    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1186        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1187        recursive = (
1188            "RECURSIVE "
1189            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1190            else ""
1191        )
1192
1193        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1194
1195    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1196        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1197
1198        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1199        if materialized is False:
1200            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1201        elif materialized:
1202            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1203
1204        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1205
1206    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1207        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1208        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1209        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1210
1211        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1212            columns = ""
1213            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1214
1215        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1216            alias = self._next_name()
1217
1218        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1219
1220    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1221        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1222        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1223            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1224        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1225
1226    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1227        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1228        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1229            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1230        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1231
1232    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1233        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1234        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1235            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1236        return this
1237
1238    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1239        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1240        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1241
1242        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1243            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1244            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1245        else:
1246            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1247            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1248
1249        if escape:
1250            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1251            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1252        else:
1253            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1254            escape_sql = ""
1255
1256        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1257            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1258
1259        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
1260
1261    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1262        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1263        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1264
1265    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1266        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1267        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1268        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1269        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1270
1271    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1272        nested = ""
1273        values = ""
1274        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1275
1276        type_value = expression.this
1277        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1278            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1279        else:
1280            type_sql = (
1281                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1282                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1283                else type_value
1284            )
1285
1286        if interior:
1287            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1288                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1289                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1290                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1291                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1292                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1293            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1294                nested = f" {interior}"
1295            else:
1296                nested = f"({interior})"
1297
1298        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1299        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1300            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1301            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1302        ):
1303            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1304
1305        return type_sql
1306
1307    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1308        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1309        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1310        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1311        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1312
1313    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1314        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1315        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1316        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1317        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1318        cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1319        cluster = f" {cluster}" if cluster else ""
1320        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1321        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1322        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1323        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1324        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1325        if self.RETURNING_END:
1326            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1327        else:
1328            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{limit}"
1329        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1330
1331    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1332        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1333        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1334        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1335        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1336        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1337        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1338        concurrently_sql = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1339        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1340        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1341        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1342        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1343        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1344        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1345        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1346        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{concurrently_sql}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1347
1348    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1349        op_type = type(expression)
1350        op_name = op_type.key.upper()
1351
1352        distinct = expression.args.get("distinct")
1353        if (
1354            distinct is False
1355            and op_type in (exp.Except, exp.Intersect)
1356            and not self.EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE
1357        ):
1358            self.unsupported(f"{op_name} ALL is not supported")
1359
1360        default_distinct = self.dialect.SET_OP_DISTINCT_BY_DEFAULT[op_type]
1361
1362        if distinct is None:
1363            distinct = default_distinct
1364            if distinct is None:
1365                self.unsupported(f"{op_name} requires DISTINCT or ALL to be specified")
1366
1367        if distinct is default_distinct:
1368            kind = ""
1369        else:
1370            kind = " DISTINCT" if distinct else " ALL"
1371
1372        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1373        return f"{op_name}{kind}{by_name}"
1374
1375    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1376        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
1377            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1378            order = expression.args.get("order")
1379
1380            if limit or order:
1381                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
1382
1383                if limit:
1384                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
1385                if order:
1386                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
1387                return self.sql(select)
1388
1389        sqls: t.List[str] = []
1390        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
1391
1392        while stack:
1393            node = stack.pop()
1394
1395            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
1396                stack.append(node.expression)
1397                stack.append(
1398                    self.maybe_comment(
1399                        self.set_operation(node), comments=node.comments, separated=True
1400                    )
1401                )
1402                stack.append(node.this)
1403            else:
1404                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
1405
1406        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
1407        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
1408        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
1409
1410    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1411        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1412        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1413        count = self.sql(expression, "count")
1414        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1415        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1416            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1417        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1418        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1419
1420    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1421        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1422            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1423            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1424            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1425
1426        agg = expression.this
1427        agg_arg = agg.this
1428        cond = expression.expression.this
1429        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1430        return self.sql(agg)
1431
1432    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1433        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1434            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1435            return ""
1436
1437        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1438
1439    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1440        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1441        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1442        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1443        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1444        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1445        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1446        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1447        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1448        if include:
1449            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1450        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1451        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1452        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1453        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1454        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1455        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1456
1457        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
1458
1459    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1460        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1461        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1462        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1463        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1464        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1465        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1466        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1467
1468        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1469
1470        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1471        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1472
1473    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1474        text = expression.name
1475        lower = text.lower()
1476        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1477        text = text.replace(self._identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1478        if (
1479            expression.quoted
1480            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1481            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1482            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1483        ):
1484            text = f"{self._identifier_start}{text}{self._identifier_end}"
1485        return text
1486
1487    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1488        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1489        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1490            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1491
1492        return text
1493
1494    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1495        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1496        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1497            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1498        return text
1499
1500    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1501        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1502        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1503        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1504        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1505        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1506
1507    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1508        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1509        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1510
1511    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1512        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1513
1514    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1515        root_properties = []
1516        with_properties = []
1517
1518        for p in expression.expressions:
1519            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1520            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1521                with_properties.append(p)
1522            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1523                root_properties.append(p)
1524
1525        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1526        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1527
1528        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1529            with_props = " " + with_props
1530
1531        return root_props + with_props
1532
1533    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1534        if properties.expressions:
1535            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1536        return ""
1537
1538    def properties(
1539        self,
1540        properties: exp.Properties,
1541        prefix: str = "",
1542        sep: str = ", ",
1543        suffix: str = "",
1544        wrapped: bool = True,
1545    ) -> str:
1546        if properties.expressions:
1547            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1548            if expressions:
1549                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1550                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1551        return ""
1552
1553    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1554        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
1555
1556    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1557        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1558        for p in properties.expressions:
1559            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1560            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1561                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1562            else:
1563                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1564
1565        return properties_locs
1566
1567    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1568        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1569            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1570        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1571
1572    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1573        property_cls = expression.__class__
1574        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1575            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1576
1577        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1578        if not property_name:
1579            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1580
1581        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1582
1583    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1584        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1585            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1586            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1587
1588            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1589            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1590                like = f"({like})"
1591
1592            return like
1593
1594        if expression.expressions:
1595            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1596
1597        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1598        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1599
1600    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1601        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1602        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1603        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1604
1605    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1606        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1607        local = expression.args.get("local")
1608        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1609        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1610        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1611        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1612        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1613
1614    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1615        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1616        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1617        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1618
1619    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1620        if expression.args.get("default"):
1621            property = "DEFAULT"
1622        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1623            property = "ON"
1624        else:
1625            property = "OFF"
1626        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1627
1628    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1629        if expression.args.get("no"):
1630            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1631        if expression.args.get("default"):
1632            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1633
1634        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1635        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1636
1637    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1638        default = expression.args.get("default")
1639        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1640        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1641        if default or minimum or maximum:
1642            if default:
1643                prop = "DEFAULT"
1644            elif minimum:
1645                prop = "MINIMUM"
1646            else:
1647                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1648            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1649        units = expression.args.get("units")
1650        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1651        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1652
1653    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1654        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1655        always = expression.args.get("always")
1656        default = expression.args.get("default")
1657        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1658        never = expression.args.get("never")
1659
1660        if autotemp is not None:
1661            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1662        elif always:
1663            prop = "ALWAYS"
1664        elif default:
1665            prop = "DEFAULT"
1666        elif manual:
1667            prop = "MANUAL"
1668        elif never:
1669            prop = "NEVER"
1670        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1671
1672    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1673        no = expression.args.get("no")
1674        no = " NO" if no else ""
1675        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1676        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1677        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1678        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1679        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1680
1681    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1682        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1683            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1684        if expression.this:
1685            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1686            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1687            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1688
1689        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1690        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1691        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1692
1693    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1694        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1695
1696        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1697        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1698            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1699        else:
1700            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1701
1702        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1703
1704    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1705        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1706        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1707        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1708        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1709        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1710        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1711        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1712
1713    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1714        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1715        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1716        statistics_sql = ""
1717        if statistics is not None:
1718            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1719        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1720
1721    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1722        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1723        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1724        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1725        data_consistency = (
1726            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1727        )
1728        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1729        retention_period = (
1730            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1731        )
1732
1733        if this:
1734            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1735        else:
1736            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1737
1738        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1739
1740        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
1741
1742    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1743        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1744        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1745
1746        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1747            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1748        else:
1749            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1750
1751        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1752        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1753        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1754        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1755        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1756        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1757        if is_function:
1758            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1759        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1760
1761        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1762        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1763        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1764        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1765        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1766        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1767        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1768        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1769
1770        if self.RETURNING_END:
1771            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1772        else:
1773            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1774
1775        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1776        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1777        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
1778        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
1779
1780        source = self.sql(expression, "source")
1781        source = f"TABLE {source}" if source else ""
1782
1783        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}{source}"
1784        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1785
1786    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1787        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1788
1789    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1790        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1791        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1792        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1793        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1794        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1795
1796    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1797        return expression.name
1798
1799    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1800        return expression.name
1801
1802    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1803        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1804
1805        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1806        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1807
1808        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1809        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1810        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1811
1812        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1813        if expressions:
1814            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1815            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1816
1817        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1818
1819    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1820        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1821
1822    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1823        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1824        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1825        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1826        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1827        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1828        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1829        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1830        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1831        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1832        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1833        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1834        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1835        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1836
1837    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1838        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1839
1840    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1841        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1842        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1843        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1844        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1845
1846    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1847        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1848        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1849        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1850        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1851
1852    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1853        return ".".join(
1854            self.sql(part)
1855            for part in (
1856                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1857                expression.args.get("db"),
1858                expression.args.get("this"),
1859            )
1860            if part is not None
1861        )
1862
1863    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1864        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1865        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1866        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1867        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1868        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1869        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1870        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1871        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1872
1873        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
1874        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE:
1875            sample_pre_alias = sample
1876            sample_post_alias = ""
1877        else:
1878            sample_pre_alias = ""
1879            sample_post_alias = sample
1880
1881        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1882        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1883        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
1884        joins = self.indent(
1885            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1886        )
1887        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1888
1889        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1890        if file_format:
1891            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1892            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1893            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1894
1895        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1896        if ordinality:
1897            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1898            alias = ""
1899
1900        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1901        if when:
1902            table = f"{table} {when}"
1903
1904        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
1905        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
1906
1907        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
1908        if rows_from:
1909            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
1910
1911        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{sample_pre_alias}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{sample_post_alias}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1912
1913    def tablesample_sql(
1914        self,
1915        expression: exp.TableSample,
1916        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1917    ) -> str:
1918        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1919        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1920        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1921        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1922        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1923        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1924        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1925        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1926        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1927
1928        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1929        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1930            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1931
1932        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1933        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1934            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1935
1936        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1937        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1938            expr = f"({expr})"
1939
1940        return f" {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}"
1941
1942    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1943        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1944
1945        if expression.this:
1946            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1947            if not expressions:
1948                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1949
1950            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1951            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1952            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1953            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1954            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1955
1956        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1957        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1958        direction = self.seg("UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT")
1959
1960        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1961
1962        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1963        if include_nulls is not None:
1964            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1965        else:
1966            nulls = ""
1967
1968        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
1969        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
1970        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"
1971
1972    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1973        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1974        kind = expression.text("kind")
1975        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1976        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1977
1978    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1979        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
1980
1981    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1982        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1983        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1984        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1985        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1986        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1987        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1988        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1989        if self.RETURNING_END:
1990            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1991        else:
1992            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1993        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1994        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1995
1996    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1997        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1998
1999        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
2000        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
2001            args = self.expressions(expression)
2002            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2003            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
2004            values = (
2005                f"({values})"
2006                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
2007                else values
2008            )
2009            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
2010
2011        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
2012        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
2013        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
2014
2015        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
2016
2017        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
2018            row = tup.expressions
2019
2020            if i == 0 and column_names:
2021                row = [
2022                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
2023                ]
2024
2025            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
2026
2027        if self.pretty:
2028            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
2029            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
2030            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
2031            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
2032            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
2033
2034        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
2035        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
2036        return f"({unions}){alias}"
2037
2038    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
2039        return self.sql(expression, "this")
2040
2041    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
2042        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
2043        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
2044        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2045
2046    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
2047        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2048
2049    def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: exp.GroupingSets) -> str:
2050        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2051        return f"GROUPING SETS {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}"
2052
2053    def rollup_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollup) -> str:
2054        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2055        return f"ROLLUP {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH ROLLUP"
2056
2057    def cube_sql(self, expression: exp.Cube) -> str:
2058        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2059        return f"CUBE {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH CUBE"
2060
2061    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
2062        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
2063        if group_by_all is True:
2064            modifier = " ALL"
2065        elif group_by_all is False:
2066            modifier = " DISTINCT"
2067        else:
2068            modifier = ""
2069
2070        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
2071
2072        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets")
2073        cube = self.expressions(expression, key="cube")
2074        rollup = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup")
2075
2076        groupings = csv(
2077            self.seg(grouping_sets) if grouping_sets else "",
2078            self.seg(cube) if cube else "",
2079            self.seg(rollup) if rollup else "",
2080            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
2081            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
2082        )
2083
2084        if (
2085            expression.expressions
2086            and groupings
2087            and groupings.strip() not in ("WITH CUBE", "WITH ROLLUP")
2088        ):
2089            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
2090
2091        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
2092
2093    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
2094        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2095        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2096
2097    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
2098        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
2099        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
2100        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
2101        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
2102        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
2103        return start + connect
2104
2105    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
2106        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2107
2108    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
2109        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
2110            side = None
2111        else:
2112            side = expression.side
2113
2114        op_sql = " ".join(
2115            op
2116            for op in (
2117                expression.method,
2118                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
2119                side,
2120                expression.kind,
2121                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
2122            )
2123            if op
2124        )
2125        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
2126        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
2127        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
2128        using = expression.args.get("using")
2129
2130        if not on_sql and using:
2131            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
2132
2133        this = expression.this
2134        this_sql = self.sql(this)
2135
2136        if on_sql:
2137            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
2138            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2139            if using:
2140                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2141            else:
2142                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2143        elif not op_sql:
2144            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2145                return f" {this_sql}"
2146
2147            return f", {this_sql}"
2148
2149        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2150            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2151
2152        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
2153
2154    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2155        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2156        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2157        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2158
2159    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2160        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2161
2162        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2163        if cross_apply is True:
2164            op = "INNER JOIN "
2165        elif cross_apply is False:
2166            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2167        else:
2168            op = ""
2169
2170        return f"{op}LATERAL"
2171
2172    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2173        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2174
2175        if expression.args.get("view"):
2176            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2177            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2178            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2179            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2180            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2181            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2182
2183        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2184        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2185        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
2186
2187    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2188        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2189
2190        args = [
2191            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2192            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2193            if e
2194        ]
2195
2196        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2197        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2198        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2199        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2200
2201        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
2202
2203    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2204        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2205        value = expression.expression
2206        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2207        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2208        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2209        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2210
2211    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2212        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2213        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2214        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2215        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2216        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2217        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2218        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2219        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2220
2221    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2222        expressions = (
2223            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2224        )
2225        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2226        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2227
2228    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2229        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2230
2231    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2232        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2233            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2234            return ""
2235
2236        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2237        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2238        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2239        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2240
2241        if wait is not None:
2242            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2243                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2244            else:
2245                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2246
2247        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2248
2249    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2250        text = expression.this or ""
2251        if expression.is_string:
2252            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2253        return text
2254
2255    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2256        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2257            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2258            text = "".join(
2259                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2260            )
2261
2262        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2263            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2264        )
2265
2266    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2267        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2268        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2269        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2270        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2271        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2272        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2273        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2274        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2275        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2276        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2277        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2278
2279    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2280        return "NULL"
2281
2282    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2283        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2284
2285    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2286        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2287        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2288        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2289        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2290
2291    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2292        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2293        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2294        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2295        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2296        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2297        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2298        interpolated_values = [
2299            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2300            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2301        ]
2302        interpolate = (
2303            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2304        )
2305        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}{interpolate}"
2306
2307    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2308        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2309
2310    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2311        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2312
2313    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2314        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2315
2316    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2317        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2318        asc = not desc
2319
2320        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2321        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2322        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2323        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2324        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2325
2326        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2327
2328        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2329        nulls_sort_change = ""
2330        if nulls_first and (
2331            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2332        ):
2333            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2334        elif (
2335            nulls_last
2336            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2337            and not nulls_are_last
2338        ):
2339            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2340
2341        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2342        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2343            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2344            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2345                self.unsupported(
2346                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2347                )
2348                nulls_sort_change = ""
2349            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2350                if expression.this.is_int:
2351                    self.unsupported(
2352                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2353                    )
2354                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2355                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2356                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2357                nulls_sort_change = ""
2358
2359        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2360        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2361
2362        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2363
2364    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2365        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2366        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2367
2368        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2369
2370        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2371
2372    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2373        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2374        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2375        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2376        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2377        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2378        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2379        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2380        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2381        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2382        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2383        definition_sqls = [
2384            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2385            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2386        ]
2387        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2388        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2389        body = "".join(
2390            (
2391                partition,
2392                order,
2393                measures,
2394                rows,
2395                after,
2396                pattern,
2397                define,
2398            )
2399        )
2400        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2401        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2402        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2403
2404    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2405        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2406
2407        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2408            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2409        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2410            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2411
2412        return csv(
2413            *sqls,
2414            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2415            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2416            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2417            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2418            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2419            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2420            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2421            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2422            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2423            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2424            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2425            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2426            self.options_modifier(expression),
2427            sep="",
2428        )
2429
2430    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2431        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2432        return f" {options}" if options else ""
2433
2434    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2435        return ""
2436
2437    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2438        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2439    ) -> t.List[str]:
2440        return [
2441            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2442            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2443        ]
2444
2445    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2446        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2447        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2448        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2449
2450    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2451        into = expression.args.get("into")
2452        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2453            into.pop()
2454
2455        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2456        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2457        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2458        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2459
2460        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2461        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2462            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2463            limit.pop()
2464        else:
2465            top = ""
2466
2467        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2468
2469        if kind:
2470            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2471                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2472            else:
2473                if kind == "STRUCT":
2474                    expressions = self.expressions(
2475                        sqls=[
2476                            self.sql(
2477                                exp.Struct(
2478                                    expressions=[
2479                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2480                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2481                                        else e
2482                                        for e in expression.expressions
2483                                    ]
2484                                )
2485                            )
2486                        ]
2487                    )
2488                kind = ""
2489
2490        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2491        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2492        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2493        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2494        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2495            expression,
2496            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2497            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2498            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2499        )
2500
2501        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2502
2503        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2504            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2505                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2506            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2507                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2508            else:
2509                table_kind = ""
2510            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2511
2512        return sql
2513
2514    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2515        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2516        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2517        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2518
2519    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2520        if expression.expressions:
2521            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2522        return ""
2523
2524    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2525        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2526        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2527        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2528        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2529        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2530        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2531        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2532
2533    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2534        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2535        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2536
2537    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2538        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2539        kind = expression.text("kind")
2540        if kind:
2541            kind = f"{kind}."
2542        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2543
2544    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2545        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2546
2547    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2548        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2549        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2550        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
2551        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and sample:
2552            alias = f"{sample}{alias}"
2553
2554            # Set to None so it's not generated again by self.query_modifiers()
2555            expression.set("sample", None)
2556
2557        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2558        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2559        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2560
2561    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2562        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2563        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2564
2565    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2566        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2567
2568        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2569        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2570
2571        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2572            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2573                alias.append("columns", offset)
2574
2575        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2576            columns = alias.columns
2577            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2578        else:
2579            alias = self.sql(alias)
2580
2581        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2582        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2583            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2584        else:
2585            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2586                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2587            elif offset:
2588                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2589            else:
2590                suffix = alias
2591
2592        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2593
2594    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2595        return ""
2596
2597    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2598        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2599        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2600
2601    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2602        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2603        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2604        order = expression.args.get("order")
2605        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2606        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2607        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2608        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2609
2610        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2611
2612        first = expression.args.get("first")
2613        if first is None:
2614            first = ""
2615        else:
2616            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2617
2618        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2619            return f"{this} {alias}"
2620
2621        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2622        return f"{this} ({args})"
2623
2624    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2625        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2626        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2627
2628    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2629        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2630        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2631        end = (
2632            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2633            or "CURRENT ROW"
2634        )
2635        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2636
2637    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2638        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2639        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2640        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2641
2642    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2643        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2644        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2645        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2646        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2647
2648    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2649        return apply_index_offset(
2650            expression.this,
2651            expression.expressions,
2652            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2653        )
2654
2655    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2656        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2657        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2658        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2659
2660    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2661        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2662
2663    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2664        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2665        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2666            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2667                this = self.wrap(this)
2668            return f"ANY{this}"
2669        return f"ANY {this}"
2670
2671    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2672        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2673
2674    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2675        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2676        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2677
2678        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2679            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2680            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2681
2682        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2683
2684        if default:
2685            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2686
2687        statements.append("END")
2688
2689        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2690            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2691
2692        return " ".join(statements)
2693
2694    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2695        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2696        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2697        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2698
2699    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2700        order = expression.args.get("order")
2701        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2702        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2703
2704    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2705        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2706        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2707        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2708
2709    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2710        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2711
2712        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2713            func_name = "LTRIM"
2714        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2715            func_name = "RTRIM"
2716        else:
2717            func_name = "TRIM"
2718
2719        return self.func(func_name, expression.this, expression.expression)
2720
2721    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2722        args = expression.expressions
2723        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2724            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2725
2726        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2727            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2728
2729        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2730            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2731
2732        return args
2733
2734    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2735        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2736
2737        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2738        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2739            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2740
2741        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2742
2743    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2744        return self.func(
2745            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2746        )
2747
2748    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2749        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2750        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2751
2752    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2753        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2754        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2755        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2756        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2757        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2758        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2759        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2760        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2761
2762    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2763        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2764        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2765        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2766        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2767
2768    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2769        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2770
2771    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2772        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2773        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2774        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2775
2776    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2777        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2778
2779    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2780        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2781
2782        if expression.args.get("escape"):
2783            path = self.escape_str(path)
2784
2785        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2786            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2787
2788        return path
2789
2790    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2791        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2792            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2793            if not callable(transform):
2794                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2795                return ""
2796
2797            return transform(self, expression)
2798
2799        if isinstance(expression, int):
2800            return str(expression)
2801
2802        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2803            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2804            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2805        else:
2806            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2807            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2808
2809        return escaped
2810
2811    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2812        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2813
2814    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2815        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2816        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2817
2818        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2819        if unique_keys is not None:
2820            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2821        else:
2822            unique_keys = ""
2823
2824        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2825        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2826        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2827        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2828
2829        return self.func(
2830            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2831            *expression.expressions,
2832            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2833        )
2834
2835    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2836        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2837
2838    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2839        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2840        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2841        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2842        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2843        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2844        return self.func(
2845            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2846        )
2847
2848    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2849        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2850        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2851        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2852        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2853        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2854        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2855        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2856        return self.func(
2857            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2858            this,
2859            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2860        )
2861
2862    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2863        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2864        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2865        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2866
2867        if nested_schema:
2868            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2869
2870        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2871        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2872        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2873        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2874
2875    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2876        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2877
2878    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2879        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2880        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2881        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2882        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2883        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2884        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2885        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2886        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2887        return self.func(
2888            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2889        )
2890
2891    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2892        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2893        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2894        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2895        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2896        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2897        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2898
2899    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2900        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2901        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2902        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2903        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2904        with_ = (
2905            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2906            if expressions
2907            else ""
2908        )
2909        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2910
2911    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2912        query = expression.args.get("query")
2913        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2914        field = expression.args.get("field")
2915        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2916
2917        if query:
2918            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2919        elif unnest:
2920            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2921        elif field:
2922            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2923        else:
2924            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2925
2926        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2927
2928    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2929        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2930
2931    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2932        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2933        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2934            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2935        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2936
2937        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2938            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2939            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2940
2941        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2942        if this:
2943            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2944            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2945
2946        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2947
2948    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2949        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2950
2951    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2952        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2953        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2954        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2955        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2956        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2957        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2958
2959    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2960        # We don't normalize qualified functions such as a.b.foo(), because they can be case-sensitive
2961        parent = expression.parent
2962        is_qualified = isinstance(parent, exp.Dot) and expression is parent.expression
2963        return self.func(
2964            self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions, normalize=not is_qualified
2965        )
2966
2967    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2968        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2969        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2970
2971    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2972        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2973        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2974        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2975        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2976
2977    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2978        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2979
2980    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2981        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2982        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2983        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2984
2985    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2986        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2987
2988        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2989        literal_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Literal)
2990
2991        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2992            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2993        elif not identifier_alias and literal_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2994            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2995
2996        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2997
2998    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2999        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3000
3001    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3002        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3003        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3004        return f"{this} AT {index}"
3005
3006    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3007        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3008        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3009        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
3010
3011    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
3012        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3013        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3014        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
3015
3016    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
3017        return self.binary(expression, "+")
3018
3019    def and_sql(
3020        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3021    ) -> str:
3022        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
3023
3024    def or_sql(
3025        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3026    ) -> str:
3027        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
3028
3029    def xor_sql(
3030        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3031    ) -> str:
3032        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
3033
3034    def connector_sql(
3035        self,
3036        expression: exp.Connector,
3037        op: str,
3038        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3039    ) -> str:
3040        if stack is not None:
3041            if expression.expressions:
3042                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
3043            else:
3044                stack.append(expression.right)
3045                if expression.comments and self.comments:
3046                    for comment in expression.comments:
3047                        if comment:
3048                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
3049                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
3050            return op
3051
3052        stack = [expression]
3053        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3054        ops = set()
3055
3056        while stack:
3057            node = stack.pop()
3058            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
3059                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
3060            else:
3061                sql = self.sql(node)
3062                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
3063                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
3064                else:
3065                    sqls.append(sql)
3066
3067        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
3068        return sep.join(sqls)
3069
3070    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
3071        return self.binary(expression, "&")
3072
3073    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
3074        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
3075
3076    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
3077        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3078
3079    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
3080        return self.binary(expression, "|")
3081
3082    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3083        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
3084
3085    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3086        return self.binary(expression, "^")
3087
3088    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3089        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
3090        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
3091        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
3092        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
3093        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
3094        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
3095        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
3096
3097    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
3098        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
3099        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
3100
3101    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
3102        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
3103            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3104        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
3105
3106    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
3107        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
3108
3109    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
3110        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3111        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3112        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3113        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3114        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3115        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
3116
3117    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3118        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3119        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3120        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3121        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3122        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3123        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3124        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3125        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3126        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
3127
3128    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3129        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3130        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3131        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3132        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3133
3134        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3135            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3136
3137        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
3138
3139    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3140        return "BEGIN"
3141
3142    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3143        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3144        if chain is not None:
3145            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3146
3147        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
3148
3149    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3150        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3151        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3152        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
3153
3154    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3155        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3156
3157        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3158        if dtype:
3159            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3160            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3161            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3162            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3163            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3164
3165        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3166        if default:
3167            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3168
3169        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3170        if comment:
3171            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3172
3173        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3174        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3175
3176        if not drop and not allow_null:
3177            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3178
3179        if allow_null is not None:
3180            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3181            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3182
3183        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3184
3185    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3186        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3187        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3188            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3189        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3190
3191    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3192        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3193        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3194        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3195        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3196        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3197
3198    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3199        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3200            # Remove db from tables
3201            expression = expression.transform(
3202                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3203            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3204        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3205        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3206
3207    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3208        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3209        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3210        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3211        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3212
3213    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3214        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3215        return f"SET {exprs}"
3216
3217    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3218        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3219
3220        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3221            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3222        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3223            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3224        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3225            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3226        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Query):
3227            actions = "AS " + self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
3228        else:
3229            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3230
3231        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3232        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3233        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3234        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3235        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3236        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3237        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3238        not_valid = " NOT VALID" if expression.args.get("not_valid") else ""
3239
3240        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{not_valid}{options}"
3241
3242    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3243        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3244            return self.expressions(
3245                expression,
3246                key="actions",
3247                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3248                skip_first=True,
3249            )
3250        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3251
3252    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3253        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3254        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3255        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3256
3257    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3258        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3259
3260    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3261        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3262
3263        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3264            case = exp.case()
3265            for arg in expression.expressions:
3266                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3267            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3268
3269        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3270
3271        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3272        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3273        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3274
3275    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3276        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3277
3278    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3279        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3280
3281    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3282        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3283        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3284        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3285        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3286
3287    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3288        return self.sql(
3289            exp.Cast(
3290                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3291                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3292            )
3293        )
3294
3295    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3296        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3297            return self.func(
3298                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3299            )
3300        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3301
3302    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3303        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3304
3305        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3306            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3307
3308        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3309            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3310                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3311
3312        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3313            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3314                return self.sql(
3315                    exp.cast(
3316                        l / r,
3317                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3318                    )
3319                )
3320
3321        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3322
3323    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3324        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3325
3326    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3327        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3328
3329    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3330        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3331
3332    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3333        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3334
3335    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3336        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3337
3338    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3339        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3340
3341    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3342        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3343
3344    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3345        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3346
3347    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3348        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3349
3350    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3351        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3352
3353    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3354        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3355
3356    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3357        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3358            return self.sql(
3359                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3360            )
3361        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3362
3363    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3364        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3365
3366    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3367        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3368
3369    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3370        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3371
3372    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3373        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3374
3375    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3376        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3377
3378    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3379        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3380
3381    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3382        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3383
3384    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3385        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3386
3387    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3388        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3389
3390    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3391        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3392
3393    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3394        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3395
3396    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3397        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3398
3399    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3400        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3401
3402    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3403        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3404            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3405            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3406
3407        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3408
3409    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3410        this = expression.this
3411        expr = expression.expression
3412
3413        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3414            this, expr = expr, this
3415        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3416            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3417                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3418
3419            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3420
3421        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3422
3423    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3424        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3425        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3426        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3427        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3428        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3429
3430    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3431        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3432        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
3433        binary_type = type(expression)
3434
3435        while stack:
3436            node = stack.pop()
3437
3438            if type(node) is binary_type:
3439                op_func = node.args.get("operator")
3440                if op_func:
3441                    op = f"OPERATOR({self.sql(op_func)})"
3442
3443                stack.append(node.right)
3444                stack.append(f" {self.maybe_comment(op, comments=node.comments)} ")
3445                stack.append(node.left)
3446            else:
3447                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
3448
3449        return "".join(sqls)
3450
3451    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3452        args = []
3453
3454        for key in expression.arg_types:
3455            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3456
3457            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3458                for value in arg_value:
3459                    args.append(value)
3460            elif arg_value is not None:
3461                args.append(arg_value)
3462
3463        if self.normalize_functions:
3464            name = expression.sql_name()
3465        else:
3466            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3467
3468        return self.func(name, *args)
3469
3470    def func(
3471        self,
3472        name: str,
3473        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3474        prefix: str = "(",
3475        suffix: str = ")",
3476        normalize: bool = True,
3477    ) -> str:
3478        name = self.normalize_func(name) if normalize else name
3479        return f"{name}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3480
3481    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3482        arg_sqls = tuple(
3483            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
3484        )
3485        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3486            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3487        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3488
3489    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3490        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3491
3492    def format_time(
3493        self,
3494        expression: exp.Expression,
3495        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3496        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3497    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3498        return format_time(
3499            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3500            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3501            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3502        )
3503
3504    def expressions(
3505        self,
3506        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3507        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3508        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3509        flat: bool = False,
3510        indent: bool = True,
3511        skip_first: bool = False,
3512        skip_last: bool = False,
3513        sep: str = ", ",
3514        prefix: str = "",
3515        dynamic: bool = False,
3516        new_line: bool = False,
3517    ) -> str:
3518        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3519
3520        if not expressions:
3521            return ""
3522
3523        if flat:
3524            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3525
3526        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3527        result_sqls = []
3528
3529        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3530            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3531            if not sql:
3532                continue
3533
3534            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3535
3536            if self.pretty:
3537                if self.leading_comma:
3538                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3539                else:
3540                    result_sqls.append(
3541                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3542                    )
3543            else:
3544                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3545
3546        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3547            if new_line:
3548                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3549                result_sqls.append("")
3550            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
3551        else:
3552            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3553
3554        return (
3555            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3556            if indent
3557            else result_sql
3558        )
3559
3560    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3561        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3562        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3563        if flat:
3564            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3565        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3566
3567    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3568        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3569        if not property_name:
3570            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3571        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3572
3573    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3574        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3575
3576    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3577        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3578
3579    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3580        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3581        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3582        expressions = (
3583            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3584        )
3585        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3586
3587    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3588        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3589        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3590        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3591
3592    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3593        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3594
3595    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3596        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3597        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3598        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3599        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3600
3601        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3602        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3603            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3604            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3605            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3606            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3607        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3608            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3609                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3610            else:
3611                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3612        else:
3613            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3614        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3615
3616    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3617        table = expression.this
3618        table_alias = ""
3619
3620        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3621        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3622            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3623            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3624
3625        this = self.sql(table)
3626        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3627        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3628        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3629        sep = self.sep()
3630        returning = self.expressions(expression, key="returning", indent=False)
3631        returning = f"RETURNING {returning}" if returning else ""
3632
3633        return self.prepend_ctes(
3634            expression,
3635            f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}{sep}{returning}",
3636        )
3637
3638    @unsupported_args("format")
3639    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3640        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3641
3642    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3643        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3644            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3645            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3646
3647        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3648        if not fmt:
3649            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3650            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3651
3652        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3653
3654    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3655        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3656        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3657        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3658        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3659        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3660
3661    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3662        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3663        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3664        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3665        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3666
3667    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3668        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3669
3670    def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DuplicateKeyProperty) -> str:
3671        return f"DUPLICATE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3672
3673    # https://docs.starrocks.io/docs/sql-reference/sql-statements/data-definition/CREATE_TABLE/#distribution_desc
3674    def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DistributedByProperty) -> str:
3675        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3676        expressions = f" {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else ""
3677        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3678        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3679        buckets = f" BUCKETS {buckets}" if buckets else ""
3680        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
3681        return f"DISTRIBUTED BY {kind}{expressions}{buckets}{order}"
3682
3683    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3684        return ""
3685
3686    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3687        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3688        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3689        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3690        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3691        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3692
3693    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3694        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3695        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3696
3697        if having:
3698            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3699
3700        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3701
3702    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3703        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3704        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3705        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3706        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3707        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3708        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3709        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3710        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3711        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3712        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3713        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3714        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3715        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3716
3717    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3718        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3719        if key_block_size:
3720            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3721
3722        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3723        if using:
3724            return f"USING {using}"
3725
3726        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3727        if parser:
3728            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3729
3730        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3731        if comment:
3732            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3733
3734        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3735        if visible is not None:
3736            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3737
3738        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3739        if engine_attr:
3740            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3741
3742        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3743        if secondary_engine_attr:
3744            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3745
3746        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3747        return ""
3748
3749    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3750        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3751        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3752
3753    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3754        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3755        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3756        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3757        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3758        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3759        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3760        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3761        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3762        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3763        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3764        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3765
3766    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3767        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3768            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3769
3770        case = exp.Case().when(
3771            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3772            expression.args["true"],
3773            copy=False,
3774        )
3775        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3776        if else_cond:
3777            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3778
3779        return self.sql(case)
3780
3781    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3782        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3783        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3784        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3785        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3786        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3787        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3788
3789    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3790        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3791
3792    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3793        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3794
3795    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3796        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3797        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3798        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3799        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3800        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3801        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3802
3803    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3804        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3805        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3806        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3807
3808    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3809        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3810        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3811        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3812
3813    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3814        arg = expression.this
3815        if not arg.type:
3816            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3817
3818            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3819
3820        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3821            return self.sql(arg)
3822
3823        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3824        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3825
3826    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3827        this = expression.this
3828        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3829            return self.sql(this)
3830
3831        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3832
3833    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3834        this = expression.this
3835        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3836            return self.sql(this)
3837
3838        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
3839
3840    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3841        this = expression.this
3842        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3843
3844        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3845            return self.sql(
3846                exp.cast(
3847                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3848                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3849                )
3850            )
3851
3852        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3853            return self.sql(this)
3854
3855        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3856
3857    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3858        return self.sql(
3859            exp.func(
3860                "DATEDIFF",
3861                expression.this,
3862                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3863                "day",
3864            )
3865        )
3866
3867    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3868        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3869            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3870
3871        unit = expression.text("unit")
3872        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3873            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3874
3875        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3876
3877    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3878        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3879
3880        return self.func(
3881            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3882        )
3883
3884    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3885        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3886            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3887            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3888            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3889            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3890
3891        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3892
3893        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3894        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3895            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3896
3897        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3898
3899    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3900        expression.set(
3901            "expressions",
3902            [
3903                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3904                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3905                else e
3906                for e in expression.expressions
3907            ],
3908        )
3909
3910        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3911
3912    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3913        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3914        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3915
3916        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3917
3918    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3919        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3920        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3921
3922        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3923
3924        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3925        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3926
3927        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3928        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3929
3930        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3931        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3932
3933        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3934        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3935
3936        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3937
3938    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3939    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3940    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3941        to = expression.this
3942        value = expression.expression
3943        style = expression.args.get("style")
3944        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3945        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3946
3947        if not to or not value:
3948            return ""
3949
3950        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3951        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3952            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3953
3954        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3955        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3956
3957        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3958        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3959            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3960
3961            style_value = style.name
3962            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3963            if not converted_style:
3964                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3965
3966            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3967
3968            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3969                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3970            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3971                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3972            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3973                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3974            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3975                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3976
3977        if not transformed:
3978            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3979
3980        return self.sql(transformed)
3981
3982    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
3983        this = expression.this
3984        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
3985            this = self.json_path_part(this)
3986            return f".{this}" if this else ""
3987
3988        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
3989            return f".{this}"
3990
3991        this = self.json_path_part(this)
3992        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
3993
3994    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
3995        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
3996        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
3997
3998    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3999        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
4000            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
4001
4002            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
4003
4004        return expression
4005
4006    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
4007        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
4008            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
4009            mods = sorted(
4010                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
4011                key=lambda x: 0
4012                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
4013                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
4014            )
4015
4016            if mods:
4017                mod = mods[0]
4018                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
4019                this.meta["inline"] = True
4020                mod.this.replace(this)
4021                return self.sql(expression.this)
4022
4023            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
4024
4025            if agg_func:
4026                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
4027
4028        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
4029
4030    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
4031        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
4032        if self.pretty:
4033            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
4034        return string
4035
4036    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
4037        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
4038
4039        if expression.expressions:
4040            upper = option.upper()
4041
4042            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
4043            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
4044
4045            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
4046            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
4047            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
4048            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
4049
4050        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4051
4052        if not value:
4053            return option
4054
4055        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
4056
4057        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
4058
4059    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
4060        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
4061        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
4062            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
4063            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4064            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
4065        else:
4066            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
4067            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
4068            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
4069
4070        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
4071        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
4072
4073        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
4074        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
4075
4076        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
4077        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
4078
4079        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
4080        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
4081
4082        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
4083
4084    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
4085        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4086        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
4087
4088        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4089        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
4090        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
4091        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
4092
4093        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
4094        params = self.expressions(
4095            expression,
4096            key="params",
4097            sep=sep,
4098            new_line=True,
4099            skip_last=True,
4100            skip_first=True,
4101            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
4102        )
4103
4104        if params:
4105            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
4106                params = f" WITH ({params})"
4107            elif not self.pretty:
4108                params = f" {params}"
4109
4110        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
4111
4112    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
4113        return ""
4114
4115    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4116        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
4117        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
4118        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
4119        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
4120        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
4121
4122        if filter_col or retention_period:
4123            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
4124
4125        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
4126
4127    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
4128        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
4129    ) -> str:
4130        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4131        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4132        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4133        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
4134
4135    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
4136        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4137        this = f"TABLE {this}"
4138        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
4139
4140    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4141        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
4142
4143    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4144        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4145        expr = expression.expression
4146
4147        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4148            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4149            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4150        else:
4151            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4152
4153        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
4154
4155    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4156        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4157            return self.sql(expression.this)
4158
4159        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
4160
4161    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4162        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4163        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4164
4165        if lower and upper:
4166            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4167        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
4168
4169    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4170        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4171        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4172        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4173        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4174        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4175        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4176
4177        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
4178
4179    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4180        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4181
4182        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4183        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4184            fill_pattern = "' '"
4185
4186        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
4187
4188    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
4189        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
4190        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
4191
4192    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4193        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
4194
4195        parent = expression.parent
4196        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
4197            parent = parent.parent
4198
4199        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
4200            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
4201
4202        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
4203            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
4204
4205        return self.sql(generate_series)
4206
4207    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
4208        exprs = expression.expressions
4209        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
4210            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
4211        else:
4212            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
4213
4214        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs)
4215
4216    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4217        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
4218            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4219
4220        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
4221        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
4222        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
4223
4224        if source_tz and timestamp:
4225            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
4226                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
4227            )
4228
4229        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
4230
4231        return self.sql(expr)
4232
4233    def json_sql(self, expression: exp.JSON) -> str:
4234        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4235        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4236
4237        _with = expression.args.get("with")
4238
4239        if _with is None:
4240            with_sql = ""
4241        elif not _with:
4242            with_sql = " WITHOUT"
4243        else:
4244            with_sql = " WITH"
4245
4246        unique_sql = " UNIQUE KEYS" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
4247
4248        return f"JSON{this}{with_sql}{unique_sql}"
4249
4250    def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONValue) -> str:
4251        def _generate_on_options(arg: t.Any) -> str:
4252            return arg if isinstance(arg, str) else f"DEFAULT {self.sql(arg)}"
4253
4254        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4255        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
4256        returning = f" RETURNING {returning}" if returning else ""
4257
4258        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4259        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4260
4261        return self.func("JSON_VALUE", expression.this, f"{path}{returning}{on_condition}")
4262
4263    def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: exp.ConditionalInsert) -> str:
4264        else_ = "ELSE " if expression.args.get("else_") else ""
4265        condition = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4266        condition = f"WHEN {condition} THEN " if condition else else_
4267        insert = self.sql(expression, "this")[len("INSERT") :].strip()
4268        return f"{condition}{insert}"
4269
4270    def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: exp.MultitableInserts) -> str:
4271        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4272        expressions = self.seg(self.expressions(expression, sep=" "))
4273        res = f"INSERT {kind}{expressions}{self.seg(self.sql(expression, 'source'))}"
4274        return res
4275
4276    def oncondition_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCondition) -> str:
4277        # Static options like "NULL ON ERROR" are stored as strings, in contrast to "DEFAULT <expr> ON ERROR"
4278        empty = expression.args.get("empty")
4279        empty = (
4280            f"DEFAULT {empty} ON EMPTY"
4281            if isinstance(empty, exp.Expression)
4282            else self.sql(expression, "empty")
4283        )
4284
4285        error = expression.args.get("error")
4286        error = (
4287            f"DEFAULT {error} ON ERROR"
4288            if isinstance(error, exp.Expression)
4289            else self.sql(expression, "error")
4290        )
4291
4292        if error and empty:
4293            error = (
4294                f"{empty} {error}"
4295                if self.dialect.ON_CONDITION_EMPTY_BEFORE_ERROR
4296                else f"{error} {empty}"
4297            )
4298            empty = ""
4299
4300        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
4301
4302        return f"{empty}{error}{null}"
4303
4304    def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExists) -> str:
4305        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4306        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4307
4308        passing = self.expressions(expression, "passing")
4309        passing = f" PASSING {passing}" if passing else ""
4310
4311        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4312        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4313
4314        path = f"{path}{passing}{on_condition}"
4315
4316        return self.func("JSON_EXISTS", this, path)
4317
4318    def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAgg) -> str:
4319        array_agg = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4320
4321        if self.dialect.ARRAY_AGG_INCLUDES_NULLS and expression.args.get("nulls_excluded"):
4322            parent = expression.parent
4323            if isinstance(parent, exp.Filter):
4324                parent_cond = parent.expression.this
4325                parent_cond.replace(parent_cond.and_(expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_()))
4326            else:
4327                array_agg = f"{array_agg} FILTER(WHERE {self.sql(expression, 'this')} IS NOT NULL)"
4328
4329        return array_agg

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

Arguments:
  • pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
  • identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  • normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
  • pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level. Default: 2.
  • indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of subqueries and filters under a WHERE clause. Default: 2.
  • normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
  • unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True, dialect: Union[str, sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect, Type[sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect], NoneType] = None)
637    def __init__(
638        self,
639        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
640        identify: str | bool = False,
641        normalize: bool = False,
642        pad: int = 2,
643        indent: int = 2,
644        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
645        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
646        max_unsupported: int = 3,
647        leading_comma: bool = False,
648        max_text_width: int = 80,
649        comments: bool = True,
650        dialect: DialectType = None,
651    ):
652        import sqlglot
653        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
654
655        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
656        self.identify = identify
657        self.normalize = normalize
658        self.pad = pad
659        self._indent = indent
660        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
661        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
662        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
663        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
664        self.comments = comments
665        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
666
667        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
668        self.normalize_functions = (
669            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
670        )
671
672        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
673        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
674            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
675        )
676        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
677            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
678        )
679
680        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
681
682        self._identifier_start = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START
683        self._identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
TRANSFORMS: Dict[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], Callable[..., str]] = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathFilter'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathKey'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRecursive'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRoot'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathScript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSelector'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSlice'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSubscript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathUnion'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathWildcard'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AllowedValuesProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ConnectByRoot'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DynamicProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EmptyProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EphemeralColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExcludeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Except'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Intersect'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalSpan'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NonClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Operator'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PivotAny'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecureProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Stream'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StreamingTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StrictProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TagColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Union'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnpackColumns'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Uuid'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSchemaBindingProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithOperator'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: Optional[bool] = True
IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE = True
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINT_SEP = ', '
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
RETURNING_END = True
EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = 'TABLESAMPLE'
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = 'SEED'
COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
ENSURE_BOOLS = False
CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ':'
INSERT_OVERWRITE = ' OVERWRITE TABLE'
SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
TRY_SUPPORTED = True
SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
STAR_EXCEPT = 'EXCEPT'
HEX_FUNC = 'HEX'
WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = 'WITH'
QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
PARSE_JSON_NAME: Optional[str] = 'PARSE_JSON'
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.TINYTEXT: 'TINYTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.TINYBLOB: 'TINYBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET', <Type.ROWVERSION: 'ROWVERSION'>: 'VARBINARY'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'MICROSECONDS': 'MICROSECOND', 'SECONDS': 'SECOND', 'MINUTES': 'MINUTE', 'HOURS': 'HOUR', 'DAYS': 'DAY', 'WEEKS': 'WEEK', 'MONTHS': 'MONTH', 'QUARTERS': 'QUARTER', 'YEARS': 'YEAR'}
AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {'cluster': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'distribute': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'sort': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'windows': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'qualify': <function Generator.<lambda>>}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ':'
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AllowedValuesProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistributedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DuplicateKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataDeletionProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DynamicProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EmptyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecureProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StreamingTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StrictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSchemaBindingProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Binary'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation'>)
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {<Type.CHAR: 'CHAR'>, <Type.VARCHAR: 'VARCHAR'>, <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>, <Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>}
EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: Set[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = set()
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
dialect
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
685    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
686        """
687        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
688
689        Args:
690            expression: The syntax tree.
691            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
692                it is safer to copy.
693
694        Returns:
695            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
696        """
697        if copy:
698            expression = expression.copy()
699
700        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
701
702        self.unsupported_messages = []
703        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
704
705        if self.pretty:
706            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
707
708        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
709            return sql
710
711        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
712            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
713                logger.warning(msg)
714        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
715            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
716
717        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

Arguments:
  • expression: The syntax tree.
  • copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so it is safer to copy.
Returns:

The SQL string corresponding to expression.

def preprocess( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> sqlglot.expressions.Expression:
719    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
720        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
721        if (
722            not expression.parent
723            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
724            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
725        ):
726            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
727
728            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
729
730        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
731            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
732
733            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
734
735        return expression

Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
737    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
738        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
739            raise UnsupportedError(message)
740        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
742    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
743        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
745    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
746        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
748    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
749        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
750        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
751        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None, separated: bool = False) -> str:
753    def maybe_comment(
754        self,
755        sql: str,
756        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
757        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
758        separated: bool = False,
759    ) -> str:
760        comments = (
761            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
762            if self.comments
763            else None
764        )
765
766        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
767            return sql
768
769        comments_sql = " ".join(
770            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
771        )
772
773        if not comments_sql:
774            return sql
775
776        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
777
778        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
779            return (
780                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
781                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
782                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
783            )
784
785        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
787    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
788        this_sql = (
789            self.sql(expression)
790            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
791            else self.sql(expression, "this")
792        )
793        if not this_sql:
794            return "()"
795
796        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
797        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
799    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
800        original = self.identify
801        self.identify = False
802        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
803        self.identify = original
804        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
806    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
807        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
808            return name.upper()
809        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
810            return name.lower()
811        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
813    def indent(
814        self,
815        sql: str,
816        level: int = 0,
817        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
818        skip_first: bool = False,
819        skip_last: bool = False,
820    ) -> str:
821        if not self.pretty or not sql:
822            return sql
823
824        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
825        lines = sql.split("\n")
826
827        return "\n".join(
828            (
829                line
830                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
831                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
832            )
833            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
834        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
836    def sql(
837        self,
838        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
839        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
840        comment: bool = True,
841    ) -> str:
842        if not expression:
843            return ""
844
845        if isinstance(expression, str):
846            return expression
847
848        if key:
849            value = expression.args.get(key)
850            if value:
851                return self.sql(value)
852            return ""
853
854        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
855
856        if callable(transform):
857            sql = transform(self, expression)
858        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
859            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
860
861            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
862                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
863            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
864                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
865            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
866                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
867            else:
868                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
869        else:
870            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
871
872        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
874    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
875        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
876        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
877        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
879    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
880        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
881        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
882        options = expression.args.get("options")
883        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
884        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
885        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
886        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
887        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
889    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
890        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
891            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
892        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
893        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
895    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
896        return ".".join(
897            self.sql(part)
898            for part in (
899                expression.args.get("catalog"),
900                expression.args.get("db"),
901                expression.args.get("table"),
902                expression.args.get("this"),
903            )
904            if part
905        )
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
907    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
908        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
909
910        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
911            join_mark = ""
912            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
913
914        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
916    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
917        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
918        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
919        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
920        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
922    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
923        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
924        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
925        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
926        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
927        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
928        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
929        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
930        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
931
932        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
933            kind = ""
934
935        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
937    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
938        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
939        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
940        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
942    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
943        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
944        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
945            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
946        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
947            persisted = " PERSISTED"
948        else:
949            persisted = ""
950        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
952    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
953        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
955    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
956        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
957            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
958        else:
959            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
960
961        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
963    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
964        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
965    ) -> str:
966        this = ""
967        if expression.this is not None:
968            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
969            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
970
971        start = expression.args.get("start")
972        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
973        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
974        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
975        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
976        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
977        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
978        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
979        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
980        cycle_sql = ""
981
982        if cycle is not None:
983            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
984            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
985
986        sequence_opts = ""
987        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
988            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
989            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
990
991        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
992        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
993
994        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint) -> str:
 996    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 997        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 998    ) -> str:
 999        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
1000        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
1001        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint) -> str:
1003    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
1004        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
1005    ) -> str:
1006        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
1008    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
1009        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
1011    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
1012        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
1014    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
1015        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1016        if desc is not None:
1017            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
1018        return "PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
1020    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
1021        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1022        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1023        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
1024        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
1025        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
1026        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1027        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
1028        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: DefaultDict) -> str:
1030    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
1031        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
1033    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
1034        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1035        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1036        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
1037        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
1038
1039        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
1040
1041        properties_sql = ""
1042        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
1043            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
1044        ):
1045            properties_sql = self.sql(
1046                exp.Properties(
1047                    expressions=[
1048                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
1049                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
1050                    ]
1051                )
1052            )
1053
1054            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
1055                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
1056            elif not self.pretty:
1057                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
1058                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
1059
1060        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
1061        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
1062
1063        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1064        if expression_sql:
1065            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
1066
1067            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
1068                postalias_props_sql = ""
1069                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1070                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1071                        exp.Properties(
1072                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1073                        ),
1074                        wrapped=False,
1075                    )
1076                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1077                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1078
1079        postindex_props_sql = ""
1080        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1081            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1082                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1083                wrapped=False,
1084                prefix=" ",
1085            )
1086
1087        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1088        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1089        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1090
1091        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1092        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
1093        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1094
1095        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
1096        if clustered is None:
1097            clustered_sql = ""
1098        elif clustered:
1099            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1100        else:
1101            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1102
1103        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1104        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1105            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1106                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1107                sep=" ",
1108                prefix=" ",
1109                wrapped=False,
1110            )
1111
1112        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1113
1114        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1115        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1116            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1117                exp.Properties(
1118                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1119                ),
1120                sep=" ",
1121                prefix=" ",
1122                wrapped=False,
1123            )
1124
1125        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1126        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1127        no_schema_binding = (
1128            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1129        )
1130
1131        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1132        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1133
1134        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1135        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1137    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1138        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1139        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1140        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1141        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1142        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1143        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1144        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1145        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1146        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1147        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1148
1149        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1150        if cache is None:
1151            cache_str = ""
1152        elif cache is True:
1153            cache_str = " CACHE"
1154        else:
1155            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1156
1157        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1158        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1159
1160        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
1162    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1163        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1164        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1165        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1166        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
1168    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1169        style = expression.args.get("style")
1170        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1171        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1172        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1173        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{partition}"
def heredoc_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Heredoc) -> str:
1175    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1176        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1177        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1179    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1180        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1181        if with_:
1182            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1183        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
1185    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1186        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1187        recursive = (
1188            "RECURSIVE "
1189            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1190            else ""
1191        )
1192
1193        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
1195    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1196        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1197
1198        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1199        if materialized is False:
1200            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1201        elif materialized:
1202            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1203
1204        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
1206    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1207        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1208        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1209        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1210
1211        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1212            columns = ""
1213            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1214
1215        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1216            alias = self._next_name()
1217
1218        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
1220    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1221        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1222        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1223            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1224        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
1226    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1227        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1228        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1229            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1230        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
1232    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1233        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1234        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1235            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1236        return this
def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnicodeString) -> str:
1238    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1239        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1240        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1241
1242        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1243            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1244            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1245        else:
1246            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1247            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1248
1249        if escape:
1250            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1251            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1252        else:
1253            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1254            escape_sql = ""
1255
1256        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1257            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1258
1259        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str:
1261    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1262        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1263        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1265    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1266        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1267        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1268        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1269        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
1271    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1272        nested = ""
1273        values = ""
1274        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1275
1276        type_value = expression.this
1277        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1278            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1279        else:
1280            type_sql = (
1281                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1282                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1283                else type_value
1284            )
1285
1286        if interior:
1287            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1288                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1289                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1290                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1291                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1292                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1293            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1294                nested = f" {interior}"
1295            else:
1296                nested = f"({interior})"
1297
1298        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1299        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1300            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1301            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1302        ):
1303            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1304
1305        return type_sql
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
1307    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1308        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1309        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1310        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1311        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
1313    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1314        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1315        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1316        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1317        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1318        cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1319        cluster = f" {cluster}" if cluster else ""
1320        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1321        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1322        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1323        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1324        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1325        if self.RETURNING_END:
1326            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1327        else:
1328            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{limit}"
1329        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
1331    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1332        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1333        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1334        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1335        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1336        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1337        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1338        concurrently_sql = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1339        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1340        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1341        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1342        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1343        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1344        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1345        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1346        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{concurrently_sql}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
def set_operation(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation) -> str:
1348    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1349        op_type = type(expression)
1350        op_name = op_type.key.upper()
1351
1352        distinct = expression.args.get("distinct")
1353        if (
1354            distinct is False
1355            and op_type in (exp.Except, exp.Intersect)
1356            and not self.EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE
1357        ):
1358            self.unsupported(f"{op_name} ALL is not supported")
1359
1360        default_distinct = self.dialect.SET_OP_DISTINCT_BY_DEFAULT[op_type]
1361
1362        if distinct is None:
1363            distinct = default_distinct
1364            if distinct is None:
1365                self.unsupported(f"{op_name} requires DISTINCT or ALL to be specified")
1366
1367        if distinct is default_distinct:
1368            kind = ""
1369        else:
1370            kind = " DISTINCT" if distinct else " ALL"
1371
1372        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1373        return f"{op_name}{kind}{by_name}"
def set_operations(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation) -> str:
1375    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1376        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
1377            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1378            order = expression.args.get("order")
1379
1380            if limit or order:
1381                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
1382
1383                if limit:
1384                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
1385                if order:
1386                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
1387                return self.sql(select)
1388
1389        sqls: t.List[str] = []
1390        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
1391
1392        while stack:
1393            node = stack.pop()
1394
1395            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
1396                stack.append(node.expression)
1397                stack.append(
1398                    self.maybe_comment(
1399                        self.set_operation(node), comments=node.comments, separated=True
1400                    )
1401                )
1402                stack.append(node.this)
1403            else:
1404                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
1405
1406        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
1407        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
1408        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
1410    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1411        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1412        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1413        count = self.sql(expression, "count")
1414        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1415        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1416            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1417        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1418        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
1420    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1421        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1422            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1423            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1424            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1425
1426        agg = expression.this
1427        agg_arg = agg.this
1428        cond = expression.expression.this
1429        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1430        return self.sql(agg)
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
1432    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1433        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1434            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1435            return ""
1436
1437        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexParameters) -> str:
1439    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1440        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1441        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1442        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1443        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1444        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1445        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1446        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1447        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1448        if include:
1449            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1450        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1451        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1452        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1453        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1454        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1455        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1456
1457        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
1459    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1460        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1461        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1462        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1463        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1464        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1465        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1466        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1467
1468        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1469
1470        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1471        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
1473    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1474        text = expression.name
1475        lower = text.lower()
1476        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1477        text = text.replace(self._identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1478        if (
1479            expression.quoted
1480            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1481            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1482            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1483        ):
1484            text = f"{self._identifier_start}{text}{self._identifier_end}"
1485        return text
def hex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hex) -> str:
1487    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1488        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1489        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1490            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1491
1492        return text
def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LowerHex) -> str:
1494    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1495        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1496        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1497            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1498        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1500    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1501        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1502        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1503        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1504        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1505        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str:
1507    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1508        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1509        return f"{prefix}{string}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
1511    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1512        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1514    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1515        root_properties = []
1516        with_properties = []
1517
1518        for p in expression.expressions:
1519            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1520            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1521                with_properties.append(p)
1522            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1523                root_properties.append(p)
1524
1525        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1526        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1527
1528        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1529            with_props = " " + with_props
1530
1531        return root_props + with_props
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1533    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1534        if properties.expressions:
1535            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1536        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
1538    def properties(
1539        self,
1540        properties: exp.Properties,
1541        prefix: str = "",
1542        sep: str = ", ",
1543        suffix: str = "",
1544        wrapped: bool = True,
1545    ) -> str:
1546        if properties.expressions:
1547            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1548            if expressions:
1549                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1550                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1551        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1553    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1554        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
def locate_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> DefaultDict:
1556    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1557        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1558        for p in properties.expressions:
1559            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1560            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1561                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1562            else:
1563                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1564
1565        return properties_locs
def property_name( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1567    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1568        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1569            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1570        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
1572    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1573        property_cls = expression.__class__
1574        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1575            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1576
1577        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1578        if not property_name:
1579            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1580
1581        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
1583    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1584        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1585            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1586            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1587
1588            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1589            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1590                like = f"({like})"
1591
1592            return like
1593
1594        if expression.expressions:
1595            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1596
1597        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1598        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1600    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1601        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1602        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1603        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
1605    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1606        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1607        local = expression.args.get("local")
1608        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1609        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1610        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1611        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1612        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1614    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1615        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1616        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1617        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1619    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1620        if expression.args.get("default"):
1621            property = "DEFAULT"
1622        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1623            property = "ON"
1624        else:
1625            property = "OFF"
1626        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1628    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1629        if expression.args.get("no"):
1630            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1631        if expression.args.get("default"):
1632            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1633
1634        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1635        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1637    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1638        default = expression.args.get("default")
1639        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1640        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1641        if default or minimum or maximum:
1642            if default:
1643                prop = "DEFAULT"
1644            elif minimum:
1645                prop = "MINIMUM"
1646            else:
1647                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1648            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1649        units = expression.args.get("units")
1650        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1651        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1653    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1654        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1655        always = expression.args.get("always")
1656        default = expression.args.get("default")
1657        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1658        never = expression.args.get("never")
1659
1660        if autotemp is not None:
1661            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1662        elif always:
1663            prop = "ALWAYS"
1664        elif default:
1665            prop = "DEFAULT"
1666        elif manual:
1667            prop = "MANUAL"
1668        elif never:
1669            prop = "NEVER"
1670        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1672    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1673        no = expression.args.get("no")
1674        no = " NO" if no else ""
1675        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1676        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1677        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1678        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1679        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1681    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1682        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1683            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1684        if expression.this:
1685            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1686            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1687            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1688
1689        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1690        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1691        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1693    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1694        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1695
1696        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1697        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1698            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1699        else:
1700            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1701
1702        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1704    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1705        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1706        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1707        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1708        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1709        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1710        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1711        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1713    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1714        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1715        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1716        statistics_sql = ""
1717        if statistics is not None:
1718            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1719        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def withsystemversioningproperty_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1721    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1722        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1723        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1724        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1725        data_consistency = (
1726            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1727        )
1728        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1729        retention_period = (
1730            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1731        )
1732
1733        if this:
1734            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1735        else:
1736            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1737
1738        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1739
1740        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1742    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1743        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1744        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1745
1746        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1747            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1748        else:
1749            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1750
1751        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1752        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1753        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1754        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1755        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1756        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1757        if is_function:
1758            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1759        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1760
1761        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1762        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1763        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1764        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1765        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1766        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1767        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1768        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1769
1770        if self.RETURNING_END:
1771            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1772        else:
1773            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1774
1775        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1776        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1777        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
1778        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
1779
1780        source = self.sql(expression, "source")
1781        source = f"TABLE {source}" if source else ""
1782
1783        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}{source}"
1784        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1786    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1787        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def kill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kill) -> str:
1789    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1790        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1791        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1792        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1793        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1794        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1796    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1797        return expression.name
def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1799    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1800        return expression.name
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1802    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1803        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1804
1805        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1806        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1807
1808        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1809        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1810        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1811
1812        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1813        if expressions:
1814            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1815            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1816
1817        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1819    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1820        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1822    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1823        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1824        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1825        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1826        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1827        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1828        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1829        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1830        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1831        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1832        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1833        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1834        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1835        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint) -> str:
1837    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1838        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1840    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1841        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1842        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1843        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1844        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HistoricalData) -> str:
1846    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1847        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1848        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1849        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1850        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
def table_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table) -> str:
1852    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1853        return ".".join(
1854            self.sql(part)
1855            for part in (
1856                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1857                expression.args.get("db"),
1858                expression.args.get("this"),
1859            )
1860            if part is not None
1861        )
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1863    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1864        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1865        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1866        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1867        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1868        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1869        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1870        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1871        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1872
1873        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
1874        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE:
1875            sample_pre_alias = sample
1876            sample_post_alias = ""
1877        else:
1878            sample_pre_alias = ""
1879            sample_post_alias = sample
1880
1881        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1882        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1883        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
1884        joins = self.indent(
1885            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1886        )
1887        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1888
1889        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1890        if file_format:
1891            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1892            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1893            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1894
1895        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1896        if ordinality:
1897            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1898            alias = ""
1899
1900        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1901        if when:
1902            table = f"{table} {when}"
1903
1904        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
1905        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
1906
1907        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
1908        if rows_from:
1909            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
1910
1911        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{sample_pre_alias}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{sample_post_alias}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, tablesample_keyword: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
1913    def tablesample_sql(
1914        self,
1915        expression: exp.TableSample,
1916        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1917    ) -> str:
1918        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1919        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1920        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1921        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1922        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1923        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1924        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1925        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1926        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1927
1928        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1929        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1930            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1931
1932        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1933        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1934            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1935
1936        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1937        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1938            expr = f"({expr})"
1939
1940        return f" {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}"
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1942    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1943        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1944
1945        if expression.this:
1946            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1947            if not expressions:
1948                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1949
1950            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1951            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1952            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1953            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1954            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1955
1956        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1957        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1958        direction = self.seg("UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT")
1959
1960        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1961
1962        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1963        if include_nulls is not None:
1964            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1965        else:
1966            nulls = ""
1967
1968        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
1969        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
1970        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"
def version_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Version) -> str:
1972    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1973        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1974        kind = expression.text("kind")
1975        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1976        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
1978    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1979        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
1981    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1982        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1983        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1984        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1985        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1986        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1987        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1988        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1989        if self.RETURNING_END:
1990            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1991        else:
1992            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1993        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1994        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1996    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1997        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1998
1999        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
2000        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
2001            args = self.expressions(expression)
2002            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2003            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
2004            values = (
2005                f"({values})"
2006                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
2007                else values
2008            )
2009            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
2010
2011        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
2012        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
2013        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
2014
2015        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
2016
2017        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
2018            row = tup.expressions
2019
2020            if i == 0 and column_names:
2021                row = [
2022                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
2023                ]
2024
2025            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
2026
2027        if self.pretty:
2028            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
2029            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
2030            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
2031            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
2032            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
2033
2034        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
2035        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
2036        return f"({unions}){alias}"
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
2038    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
2039        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
2041    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
2042        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
2043        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
2044        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
2046    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
2047        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GroupingSets) -> str:
2049    def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: exp.GroupingSets) -> str:
2050        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2051        return f"GROUPING SETS {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}"
def rollup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollup) -> str:
2053    def rollup_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollup) -> str:
2054        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2055        return f"ROLLUP {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH ROLLUP"
def cube_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cube) -> str:
2057    def cube_sql(self, expression: exp.Cube) -> str:
2058        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2059        return f"CUBE {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH CUBE"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
2061    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
2062        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
2063        if group_by_all is True:
2064            modifier = " ALL"
2065        elif group_by_all is False:
2066            modifier = " DISTINCT"
2067        else:
2068            modifier = ""
2069
2070        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
2071
2072        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets")
2073        cube = self.expressions(expression, key="cube")
2074        rollup = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup")
2075
2076        groupings = csv(
2077            self.seg(grouping_sets) if grouping_sets else "",
2078            self.seg(cube) if cube else "",
2079            self.seg(rollup) if rollup else "",
2080            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
2081            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
2082        )
2083
2084        if (
2085            expression.expressions
2086            and groupings
2087            and groupings.strip() not in ("WITH CUBE", "WITH ROLLUP")
2088        ):
2089            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
2090
2091        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
2093    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
2094        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2095        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def connect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connect) -> str:
2097    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
2098        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
2099        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
2100        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
2101        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
2102        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
2103        return start + connect
def prior_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Prior) -> str:
2105    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
2106        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
2108    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
2109        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
2110            side = None
2111        else:
2112            side = expression.side
2113
2114        op_sql = " ".join(
2115            op
2116            for op in (
2117                expression.method,
2118                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
2119                side,
2120                expression.kind,
2121                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
2122            )
2123            if op
2124        )
2125        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
2126        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
2127        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
2128        using = expression.args.get("using")
2129
2130        if not on_sql and using:
2131            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
2132
2133        this = expression.this
2134        this_sql = self.sql(this)
2135
2136        if on_sql:
2137            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
2138            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2139            if using:
2140                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2141            else:
2142                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2143        elif not op_sql:
2144            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2145                return f" {this_sql}"
2146
2147            return f", {this_sql}"
2148
2149        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2150            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2151
2152        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
2154    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2155        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2156        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2157        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
2159    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2160        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2161
2162        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2163        if cross_apply is True:
2164            op = "INNER JOIN "
2165        elif cross_apply is False:
2166            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2167        else:
2168            op = ""
2169
2170        return f"{op}LATERAL"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
2172    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2173        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2174
2175        if expression.args.get("view"):
2176            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2177            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2178            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2179            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2180            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2181            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2182
2183        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2184        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2185        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2187    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2188        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2189
2190        args = [
2191            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2192            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2193            if e
2194        ]
2195
2196        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2197        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2198        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2199        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2200
2201        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
2203    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2204        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2205        value = expression.expression
2206        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2207        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2208        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2209        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
2211    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2212        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2213        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2214        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2215        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2216        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2217        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2218        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2219        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
2221    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2222        expressions = (
2223            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2224        )
2225        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2226        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
2228    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2229        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
2231    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2232        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2233            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2234            return ""
2235
2236        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2237        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2238        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2239        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2240
2241        if wait is not None:
2242            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2243                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2244            else:
2245                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2246
2247        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
2249    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2250        text = expression.this or ""
2251        if expression.is_string:
2252            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2253        return text
def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2255    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2256        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2257            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2258            text = "".join(
2259                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2260            )
2261
2262        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2263            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2264        )
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
2266    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2267        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2268        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2269        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2270        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2271        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2272        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2273        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2274        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2275        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2276        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2277        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2279    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2280        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
2282    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2283        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2285    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2286        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2287        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2288        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2289        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
def withfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithFill) -> str:
2291    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2292        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2293        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2294        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2295        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2296        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2297        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2298        interpolated_values = [
2299            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2300            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2301        ]
2302        interpolate = (
2303            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2304        )
2305        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}{interpolate}"
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
2307    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2308        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
2310    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2311        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
2313    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2314        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
2316    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2317        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2318        asc = not desc
2319
2320        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2321        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2322        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2323        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2324        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2325
2326        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2327
2328        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2329        nulls_sort_change = ""
2330        if nulls_first and (
2331            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2332        ):
2333            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2334        elif (
2335            nulls_last
2336            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2337            and not nulls_are_last
2338        ):
2339            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2340
2341        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2342        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2343            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2344            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2345                self.unsupported(
2346                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2347                )
2348                nulls_sort_change = ""
2349            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2350                if expression.this.is_int:
2351                    self.unsupported(
2352                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2353                    )
2354                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2355                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2356                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2357                nulls_sort_change = ""
2358
2359        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2360        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2361
2362        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2364    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2365        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2366        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2367
2368        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2369
2370        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2372    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2373        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2374        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2375        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2376        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2377        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2378        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2379        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2380        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2381        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2382        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2383        definition_sqls = [
2384            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2385            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2386        ]
2387        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2388        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2389        body = "".join(
2390            (
2391                partition,
2392                order,
2393                measures,
2394                rows,
2395                after,
2396                pattern,
2397                define,
2398            )
2399        )
2400        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2401        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2402        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2404    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2405        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2406
2407        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2408            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2409        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2410            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2411
2412        return csv(
2413            *sqls,
2414            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2415            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2416            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2417            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2418            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2419            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2420            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2421            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2422            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2423            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2424            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2425            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2426            self.options_modifier(expression),
2427            sep="",
2428        )
def options_modifier(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> str:
2430    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2431        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2432        return f" {options}" if options else ""
def queryoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryOption) -> str:
2434    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2435        return ""
def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]:
2437    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2438        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2439    ) -> t.List[str]:
2440        return [
2441            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2442            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2443        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
2445    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2446        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2447        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2448        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
2450    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2451        into = expression.args.get("into")
2452        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2453            into.pop()
2454
2455        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2456        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2457        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2458        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2459
2460        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2461        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2462            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2463            limit.pop()
2464        else:
2465            top = ""
2466
2467        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2468
2469        if kind:
2470            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2471                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2472            else:
2473                if kind == "STRUCT":
2474                    expressions = self.expressions(
2475                        sqls=[
2476                            self.sql(
2477                                exp.Struct(
2478                                    expressions=[
2479                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2480                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2481                                        else e
2482                                        for e in expression.expressions
2483                                    ]
2484                                )
2485                            )
2486                        ]
2487                    )
2488                kind = ""
2489
2490        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2491        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2492        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2493        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2494        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2495            expression,
2496            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2497            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2498            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2499        )
2500
2501        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2502
2503        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2504            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2505                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2506            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2507                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2508            else:
2509                table_kind = ""
2510            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2511
2512        return sql
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2514    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2515        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2516        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2517        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2519    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2520        if expression.expressions:
2521            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2522        return ""
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
2524    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2525        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2526        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2527        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2528        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2529        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2530        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2531        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
2533    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2534        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2535        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
2537    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2538        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2539        kind = expression.text("kind")
2540        if kind:
2541            kind = f"{kind}."
2542        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
2544    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2545        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
2547    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2548        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2549        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2550        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
2551        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and sample:
2552            alias = f"{sample}{alias}"
2553
2554            # Set to None so it's not generated again by self.query_modifiers()
2555            expression.set("sample", None)
2556
2557        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2558        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2559        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
2561    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2562        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2563        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2565    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2566        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2567
2568        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2569        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2570
2571        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2572            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2573                alias.append("columns", offset)
2574
2575        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2576            columns = alias.columns
2577            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2578        else:
2579            alias = self.sql(alias)
2580
2581        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2582        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2583            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2584        else:
2585            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2586                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2587            elif offset:
2588                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2589            else:
2590                suffix = alias
2591
2592        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
def prewhere_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PreWhere) -> str:
2594    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2595        return ""
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
2597    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2598        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2599        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
2601    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2602        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2603        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2604        order = expression.args.get("order")
2605        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2606        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2607        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2608        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2609
2610        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2611
2612        first = expression.args.get("first")
2613        if first is None:
2614            first = ""
2615        else:
2616            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2617
2618        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2619            return f"{this} {alias}"
2620
2621        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2622        return f"{this} ({args})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2624    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2625        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2626        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
2628    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2629        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2630        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2631        end = (
2632            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2633            or "CURRENT ROW"
2634        )
2635        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
2637    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2638        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2639        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2640        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
2642    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2643        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2644        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2645        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2646        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_offset_expressions( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]:
2648    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2649        return apply_index_offset(
2650            expression.this,
2651            expression.expressions,
2652            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2653        )
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
2655    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2656        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2657        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2658        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
2660    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2661        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
2663    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2664        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2665        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2666            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2667                this = self.wrap(this)
2668            return f"ANY{this}"
2669        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
2671    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2672        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
2674    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2675        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2676        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2677
2678        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2679            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2680            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2681
2682        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2683
2684        if default:
2685            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2686
2687        statements.append("END")
2688
2689        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2690            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2691
2692        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
2694    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2695        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2696        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2697        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
2699    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2700        order = expression.args.get("order")
2701        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2702        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
2704    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2705        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2706        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2707        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
2709    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2710        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2711
2712        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2713            func_name = "LTRIM"
2714        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2715            func_name = "RTRIM"
2716        else:
2717            func_name = "TRIM"
2718
2719        return self.func(func_name, expression.this, expression.expression)
def convert_concat_args( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat | sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]:
2721    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2722        args = expression.expressions
2723        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2724            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2725
2726        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2727            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2728
2729        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2730            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2731
2732        return args
def concat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat) -> str:
2734    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2735        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2736
2737        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2738        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2739            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2740
2741        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
def concatws_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> str:
2743    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2744        return self.func(
2745            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2746        )
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
2748    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2749        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2750        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2752    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2753        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2754        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2755        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2756        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2757        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2758        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2759        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2760        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2762    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2763        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2764        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2765        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2766        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
2768    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2769        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2771    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2772        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2773        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2774        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2776    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2777        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONPath) -> str:
2779    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2780        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2781
2782        if expression.args.get("escape"):
2783            path = self.escape_str(path)
2784
2785        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2786            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2787
2788        return path
def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2790    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2791        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2792            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2793            if not callable(transform):
2794                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2795                return ""
2796
2797            return transform(self, expression)
2798
2799        if isinstance(expression, int):
2800            return str(expression)
2801
2802        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2803            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2804            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2805        else:
2806            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2807            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2808
2809        return escaped
def formatjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FormatJson) -> str:
2811    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2812        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
def jsonobject_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject | sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2814    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2815        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2816        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2817
2818        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2819        if unique_keys is not None:
2820            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2821        else:
2822            unique_keys = ""
2823
2824        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2825        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2826        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2827        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2828
2829        return self.func(
2830            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2831            *expression.expressions,
2832            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2833        )
def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2835    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2836        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArray) -> str:
2838    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2839        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2840        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2841        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2842        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2843        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2844        return self.func(
2845            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2846        )
def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2848    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2849        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2850        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2851        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2852        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2853        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2854        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2855        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2856        return self.func(
2857            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2858            this,
2859            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2860        )
def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2862    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2863        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2864        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2865        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2866
2867        if nested_schema:
2868            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2869
2870        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2871        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2872        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2873        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONSchema) -> str:
2875    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2876        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
def jsontable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONTable) -> str:
2878    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2879        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2880        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2881        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2882        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2883        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2884        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2885        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2886        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2887        return self.func(
2888            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2889        )
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2891    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2892        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2893        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2894        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2895        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2896        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2897        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
2899    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2900        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2901        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2902        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2903        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2904        with_ = (
2905            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2906            if expressions
2907            else ""
2908        )
2909        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
2911    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2912        query = expression.args.get("query")
2913        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2914        field = expression.args.get("field")
2915        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2916
2917        if query:
2918            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2919        elif unnest:
2920            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2921        elif field:
2922            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2923        else:
2924            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2925
2926        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2928    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2929        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
2931    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2932        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2933        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2934            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2935        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2936
2937        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2938            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2939            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2940
2941        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2942        if this:
2943            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2944            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2945
2946        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
2948    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2949        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
2951    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2952        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2953        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2954        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2955        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2956        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2957        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
2959    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2960        # We don't normalize qualified functions such as a.b.foo(), because they can be case-sensitive
2961        parent = expression.parent
2962        is_qualified = isinstance(parent, exp.Dot) and expression is parent.expression
2963        return self.func(
2964            self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions, normalize=not is_qualified
2965        )
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
2967    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2968        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2969        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
2971    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2972        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2973        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2974        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2975        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
2977    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2978        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
2980    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2981        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2982        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2983        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PivotAlias) -> str:
2985    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2986        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2987
2988        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2989        literal_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Literal)
2990
2991        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2992            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2993        elif not identifier_alias and literal_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2994            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2995
2996        return self.alias_sql(expression)
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
2998    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2999        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def atindex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3001    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3002        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3003        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3004        return f"{this} AT {index}"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3006    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3007        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3008        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3009        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FromTimeZone) -> str:
3011    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
3012        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3013        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3014        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
3016    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
3017        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
3019    def and_sql(
3020        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3021    ) -> str:
3022        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
def or_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
3024    def or_sql(
3025        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3026    ) -> str:
3027        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
def xor_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Xor, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
3029    def xor_sql(
3030        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3031    ) -> str:
3032        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
def connector_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
3034    def connector_sql(
3035        self,
3036        expression: exp.Connector,
3037        op: str,
3038        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3039    ) -> str:
3040        if stack is not None:
3041            if expression.expressions:
3042                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
3043            else:
3044                stack.append(expression.right)
3045                if expression.comments and self.comments:
3046                    for comment in expression.comments:
3047                        if comment:
3048                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
3049                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
3050            return op
3051
3052        stack = [expression]
3053        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3054        ops = set()
3055
3056        while stack:
3057            node = stack.pop()
3058            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
3059                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
3060            else:
3061                sql = self.sql(node)
3062                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
3063                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
3064                else:
3065                    sqls.append(sql)
3066
3067        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
3068        return sep.join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
3070    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
3071        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
3073    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
3074        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
3076    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
3077        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
3079    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
3080        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3082    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3083        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3085    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3086        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3088    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3089        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
3090        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
3091        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
3092        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
3093        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
3094        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
3095        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
3097    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
3098        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
3099        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
3101    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
3102        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
3103            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3104        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
3106    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
3107        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
3109    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
3110        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3111        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3112        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3113        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3114        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3115        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3117    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3118        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3119        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3120        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3121        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3122        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3123        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3124        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3125        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3126        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3128    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3129        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3130        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3131        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3132        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3133
3134        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3135            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3136
3137        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
3139    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3140        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
3142    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3143        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3144        if chain is not None:
3145            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3146
3147        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
3149    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3150        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3151        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3152        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
3154    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3155        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3156
3157        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3158        if dtype:
3159            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3160            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3161            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3162            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3163            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3164
3165        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3166        if default:
3167            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3168
3169        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3170        if comment:
3171            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3172
3173        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3174        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3175
3176        if not drop and not allow_null:
3177            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3178
3179        if allow_null is not None:
3180            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3181            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3182
3183        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3185    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3186        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3187        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3188            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3189        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3191    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3192        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3193        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3194        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3195        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3196        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str:
3198    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3199        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3200            # Remove db from tables
3201            expression = expression.transform(
3202                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3203            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3204        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3205        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameColumn) -> str:
3207    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3208        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3209        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3210        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3211        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
def alterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterSet) -> str:
3213    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3214        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3215        return f"SET {exprs}"
def alter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alter) -> str:
3217    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3218        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3219
3220        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3221            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3222        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3223            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3224        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3225            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3226        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Query):
3227            actions = "AS " + self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
3228        else:
3229            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3230
3231        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3232        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3233        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3234        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3235        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3236        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3237        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3238        not_valid = " NOT VALID" if expression.args.get("not_valid") else ""
3239
3240        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{not_valid}{options}"
def add_column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alter) -> str:
3242    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3243        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3244            return self.expressions(
3245                expression,
3246                key="actions",
3247                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3248                skip_first=True,
3249            )
3250        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
3252    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3253        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3254        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3255        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
3257    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3258        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
3260    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3261        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3262
3263        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3264            case = exp.case()
3265            for arg in expression.expressions:
3266                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3267            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3268
3269        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3270
3271        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3272        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3273        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3275    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3276        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
3278    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3279        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
def havingmax_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HavingMax) -> str:
3281    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3282        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3283        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3284        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3285        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
3287    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3288        return self.sql(
3289            exp.Cast(
3290                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3291                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3292            )
3293        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
3295    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3296        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3297            return self.func(
3298                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3299            )
3300        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
3302    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3303        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3304
3305        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3306            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3307
3308        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3309            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3310                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3311
3312        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3313            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3314                return self.sql(
3315                    exp.cast(
3316                        l / r,
3317                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3318                    )
3319                )
3320
3321        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
3323    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3324        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
3326    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3327        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
3329    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3330        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
3332    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3333        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3335    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3336        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
3338    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3339        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
3341    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3342        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
3344    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3345        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
3347    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3348        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
3350    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3351        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
3353    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3354        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
3356    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3357        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3358            return self.sql(
3359                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3360            )
3361        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
3363    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3364        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
3366    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3367        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
3369    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3370        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
3372    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3373        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
3375    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3376        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
3378    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3379        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
3381    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3382        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
3384    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3385        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3387    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3388        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3390    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3391        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
3393    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3394        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
3396    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3397        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
3399    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3400        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
def try_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Try) -> str:
3402    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3403        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3404            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3405            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3406
3407        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
def log_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Log) -> str:
3409    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3410        this = expression.this
3411        expr = expression.expression
3412
3413        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3414            this, expr = expr, this
3415        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3416            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3417                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3418
3419            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3420
3421        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
3423    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3424        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3425        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3426        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3427        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3428        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3430    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3431        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3432        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
3433        binary_type = type(expression)
3434
3435        while stack:
3436            node = stack.pop()
3437
3438            if type(node) is binary_type:
3439                op_func = node.args.get("operator")
3440                if op_func:
3441                    op = f"OPERATOR({self.sql(op_func)})"
3442
3443                stack.append(node.right)
3444                stack.append(f" {self.maybe_comment(op, comments=node.comments)} ")
3445                stack.append(node.left)
3446            else:
3447                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
3448
3449        return "".join(sqls)
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
3451    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3452        args = []
3453
3454        for key in expression.arg_types:
3455            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3456
3457            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3458                for value in arg_value:
3459                    args.append(value)
3460            elif arg_value is not None:
3461                args.append(arg_value)
3462
3463        if self.normalize_functions:
3464            name = expression.sql_name()
3465        else:
3466            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3467
3468        return self.func(name, *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')', normalize: bool = True) -> str:
3470    def func(
3471        self,
3472        name: str,
3473        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3474        prefix: str = "(",
3475        suffix: str = ")",
3476        normalize: bool = True,
3477    ) -> str:
3478        name = self.normalize_func(name) if normalize else name
3479        return f"{name}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
3481    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3482        arg_sqls = tuple(
3483            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
3484        )
3485        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3486            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3487        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
def too_wide(self, args: Iterable) -> bool:
3489    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3490        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
def format_time( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, inverse_time_mapping: Optional[Dict[str, str]] = None, inverse_time_trie: Optional[Dict] = None) -> Optional[str]:
3492    def format_time(
3493        self,
3494        expression: exp.Expression,
3495        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3496        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3497    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3498        return format_time(
3499            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3500            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3501            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3502        )
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[Collection[Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression]]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '', dynamic: bool = False, new_line: bool = False) -> str:
3504    def expressions(
3505        self,
3506        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3507        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3508        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3509        flat: bool = False,
3510        indent: bool = True,
3511        skip_first: bool = False,
3512        skip_last: bool = False,
3513        sep: str = ", ",
3514        prefix: str = "",
3515        dynamic: bool = False,
3516        new_line: bool = False,
3517    ) -> str:
3518        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3519
3520        if not expressions:
3521            return ""
3522
3523        if flat:
3524            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3525
3526        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3527        result_sqls = []
3528
3529        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3530            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3531            if not sql:
3532                continue
3533
3534            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3535
3536            if self.pretty:
3537                if self.leading_comma:
3538                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3539                else:
3540                    result_sqls.append(
3541                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3542                    )
3543            else:
3544                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3545
3546        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3547            if new_line:
3548                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3549                result_sqls.append("")
3550            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
3551        else:
3552            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3553
3554        return (
3555            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3556            if indent
3557            else result_sql
3558        )
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3560    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3561        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3562        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3563        if flat:
3564            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3565        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
3567    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3568        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3569        if not property_name:
3570            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3571        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
3573    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3574        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
3576    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3577        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3579    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3580        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3581        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3582        expressions = (
3583            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3584        )
3585        return f"{this}{expressions}"
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
3587    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3588        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3589        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3590        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
3592    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3593        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
3595    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3596        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3597        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3598        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3599        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3600
3601        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3602        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3603            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3604            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3605            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3606            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3607        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3608            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3609                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3610            else:
3611                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3612        else:
3613            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3614        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
3616    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3617        table = expression.this
3618        table_alias = ""
3619
3620        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3621        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3622            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3623            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3624
3625        this = self.sql(table)
3626        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3627        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3628        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3629        sep = self.sep()
3630        returning = self.expressions(expression, key="returning", indent=False)
3631        returning = f"RETURNING {returning}" if returning else ""
3632
3633        return self.prepend_ctes(
3634            expression,
3635            f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}{sep}{returning}",
3636        )
@unsupported_args('format')
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
3638    @unsupported_args("format")
3639    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3640        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
def tonumber_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToNumber) -> str:
3642    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3643        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3644            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3645            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3646
3647        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3648        if not fmt:
3649            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3650            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3651
3652        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str:
3654    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3655        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3656        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3657        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3658        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3659        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str:
3661    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3662        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3663        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3664        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3665        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3667    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3668        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DuplicateKeyProperty) -> str:
3670    def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DuplicateKeyProperty) -> str:
3671        return f"DUPLICATE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DistributedByProperty) -> str:
3674    def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DistributedByProperty) -> str:
3675        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3676        expressions = f" {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else ""
3677        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3678        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3679        buckets = f" BUCKETS {buckets}" if buckets else ""
3680        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
3681        return f"DISTRIBUTED BY {kind}{expressions}{buckets}{order}"
def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str:
3683    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3684        return ""
def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3686    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3687        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3688        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3689        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3690        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3691        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue) -> str:
3693    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3694        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3695        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3696
3697        if having:
3698            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3699
3700        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
def querytransform_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryTransform) -> str:
3702    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3703        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3704        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3705        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3706        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3707        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3708        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3709        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3710        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3711        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3712        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3713        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3714        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3715        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3717    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3718        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3719        if key_block_size:
3720            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3721
3722        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3723        if using:
3724            return f"USING {using}"
3725
3726        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3727        if parser:
3728            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3729
3730        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3731        if comment:
3732            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3733
3734        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3735        if visible is not None:
3736            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3737
3738        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3739        if engine_attr:
3740            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3741
3742        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3743        if secondary_engine_attr:
3744            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3745
3746        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3747        return ""
def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3749    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3750        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3751        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3753    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3754        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3755        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3756        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3757        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3758        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3759        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3760        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3761        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3762        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3763        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3764        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
def nvl2_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Nvl2) -> str:
3766    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3767        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3768            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3769
3770        case = exp.Case().when(
3771            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3772            expression.args["true"],
3773            copy=False,
3774        )
3775        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3776        if else_cond:
3777            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3778
3779        return self.sql(case)
def comprehension_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comprehension) -> str:
3781    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3782        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3783        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3784        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3785        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3786        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3787        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3789    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3790        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def opclass_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Opclass) -> str:
3792    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3793        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def predict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Predict) -> str:
3795    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3796        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3797        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3798        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3799        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3800        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3801        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
def forin_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForIn) -> str:
3803    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3804        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3805        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3806        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
def refresh_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Refresh) -> str:
3808    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3809        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3810        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3811        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
def toarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToArray) -> str:
3813    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3814        arg = expression.this
3815        if not arg.type:
3816            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3817
3818            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3819
3820        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3821            return self.sql(arg)
3822
3823        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3824        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3826    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3827        this = expression.this
3828        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3829            return self.sql(this)
3830
3831        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3833    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3834        this = expression.this
3835        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3836            return self.sql(this)
3837
3838        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3840    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3841        this = expression.this
3842        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3843
3844        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3845            return self.sql(
3846                exp.cast(
3847                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3848                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3849                )
3850            )
3851
3852        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3853            return self.sql(this)
3854
3855        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
def unixdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnixDate) -> str:
3857    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3858        return self.sql(
3859            exp.func(
3860                "DATEDIFF",
3861                expression.this,
3862                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3863                "day",
3864            )
3865        )
def lastday_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LastDay) -> str:
3867    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3868        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3869            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3870
3871        unit = expression.text("unit")
3872        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3873            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3874
3875        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
def dateadd_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd) -> str:
3877    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3878        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3879
3880        return self.func(
3881            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3882        )
def arrayany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayAny) -> str:
3884    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3885        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3886            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3887            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3888            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3889            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3890
3891        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3892
3893        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3894        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3895            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3896
3897        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def struct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Struct) -> str:
3899    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3900        expression.set(
3901            "expressions",
3902            [
3903                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3904                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3905                else e
3906                for e in expression.expressions
3907            ],
3908        )
3909
3910        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionRange) -> str:
3912    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3913        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3914        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3915
3916        return f"{low} TO {high}"
def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TruncateTable) -> str:
3918    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3919        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3920        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3921
3922        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3923
3924        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3925        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3926
3927        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3928        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3929
3930        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3931        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3932
3933        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3934        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3935
3936        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
def convert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Convert) -> str:
3940    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3941        to = expression.this
3942        value = expression.expression
3943        style = expression.args.get("style")
3944        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3945        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3946
3947        if not to or not value:
3948            return ""
3949
3950        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3951        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3952            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3953
3954        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3955        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3956
3957        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3958        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3959            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3960
3961            style_value = style.name
3962            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3963            if not converted_style:
3964                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3965
3966            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3967
3968            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3969                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3970            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3971                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3972            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3973                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3974            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3975                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3976
3977        if not transformed:
3978            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3979
3980        return self.sql(transformed)
def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CopyParameter) -> str:
4036    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
4037        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
4038
4039        if expression.expressions:
4040            upper = option.upper()
4041
4042            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
4043            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
4044
4045            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
4046            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
4047            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
4048            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
4049
4050        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4051
4052        if not value:
4053            return option
4054
4055        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
4056
4057        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
def credentials_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Credentials) -> str:
4059    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
4060        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
4061        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
4062            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
4063            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4064            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
4065        else:
4066            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
4067            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
4068            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
4069
4070        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
4071        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
4072
4073        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
4074        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
4075
4076        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
4077        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
4078
4079        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
4080        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
4081
4082        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
def copy_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Copy) -> str:
4084    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
4085        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4086        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
4087
4088        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4089        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
4090        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
4091        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
4092
4093        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
4094        params = self.expressions(
4095            expression,
4096            key="params",
4097            sep=sep,
4098            new_line=True,
4099            skip_last=True,
4100            skip_first=True,
4101            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
4102        )
4103
4104        if params:
4105            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
4106                params = f" WITH ({params})"
4107            elif not self.pretty:
4108                params = f" {params}"
4109
4110        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
def semicolon_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Semicolon) -> str:
4112    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
4113        return ""
def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4115    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4116        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
4117        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
4118        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
4119        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
4120        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
4121
4122        if filter_col or retention_period:
4123            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
4124
4125        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint) -> str:
4127    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
4128        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
4129    ) -> str:
4130        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4131        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4132        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4133        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
def gapfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GapFill) -> str:
4135    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
4136        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4137        this = f"TABLE {this}"
4138        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4140    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4141        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4143    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4144        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4145        expr = expression.expression
4146
4147        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4148            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4149            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4150        else:
4151            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4152
4153        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
def parsejson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ParseJSON) -> str:
4155    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4156        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4157            return self.sql(expression.this)
4158
4159        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
def rand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rand) -> str:
4161    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4162        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4163        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4164
4165        if lower and upper:
4166            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4167        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
def changes_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Changes) -> str:
4169    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4170        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4171        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4172        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4173        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4174        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4175        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4176
4177        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
def pad_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pad) -> str:
4179    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4180        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4181
4182        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4183        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4184            fill_pattern = "' '"
4185
4186        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
def summarize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Summarize) -> str:
4188    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
4189        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
4190        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4192    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4193        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
4194
4195        parent = expression.parent
4196        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
4197            parent = parent.parent
4198
4199        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
4200            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
4201
4202        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
4203            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
4204
4205        return self.sql(generate_series)
def arrayconcat_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayConcat, name: str = 'ARRAY_CONCAT') -> str:
4207    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
4208        exprs = expression.expressions
4209        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
4210            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
4211        else:
4212            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
4213
4214        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs)
def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4216    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4217        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
4218            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4219
4220        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
4221        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
4222        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
4223
4224        if source_tz and timestamp:
4225            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
4226                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
4227            )
4228
4229        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
4230
4231        return self.sql(expr)
def json_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSON) -> str:
4233    def json_sql(self, expression: exp.JSON) -> str:
4234        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4235        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4236
4237        _with = expression.args.get("with")
4238
4239        if _with is None:
4240            with_sql = ""
4241        elif not _with:
4242            with_sql = " WITHOUT"
4243        else:
4244            with_sql = " WITH"
4245
4246        unique_sql = " UNIQUE KEYS" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
4247
4248        return f"JSON{this}{with_sql}{unique_sql}"
def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONValue) -> str:
4250    def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONValue) -> str:
4251        def _generate_on_options(arg: t.Any) -> str:
4252            return arg if isinstance(arg, str) else f"DEFAULT {self.sql(arg)}"
4253
4254        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4255        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
4256        returning = f" RETURNING {returning}" if returning else ""
4257
4258        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4259        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4260
4261        return self.func("JSON_VALUE", expression.this, f"{path}{returning}{on_condition}")
def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConditionalInsert) -> str:
4263    def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: exp.ConditionalInsert) -> str:
4264        else_ = "ELSE " if expression.args.get("else_") else ""
4265        condition = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4266        condition = f"WHEN {condition} THEN " if condition else else_
4267        insert = self.sql(expression, "this")[len("INSERT") :].strip()
4268        return f"{condition}{insert}"
def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MultitableInserts) -> str:
4270    def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: exp.MultitableInserts) -> str:
4271        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4272        expressions = self.seg(self.expressions(expression, sep=" "))
4273        res = f"INSERT {kind}{expressions}{self.seg(self.sql(expression, 'source'))}"
4274        return res
def oncondition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCondition) -> str:
4276    def oncondition_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCondition) -> str:
4277        # Static options like "NULL ON ERROR" are stored as strings, in contrast to "DEFAULT <expr> ON ERROR"
4278        empty = expression.args.get("empty")
4279        empty = (
4280            f"DEFAULT {empty} ON EMPTY"
4281            if isinstance(empty, exp.Expression)
4282            else self.sql(expression, "empty")
4283        )
4284
4285        error = expression.args.get("error")
4286        error = (
4287            f"DEFAULT {error} ON ERROR"
4288            if isinstance(error, exp.Expression)
4289            else self.sql(expression, "error")
4290        )
4291
4292        if error and empty:
4293            error = (
4294                f"{empty} {error}"
4295                if self.dialect.ON_CONDITION_EMPTY_BEFORE_ERROR
4296                else f"{error} {empty}"
4297            )
4298            empty = ""
4299
4300        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
4301
4302        return f"{empty}{error}{null}"
def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONExists) -> str:
4304    def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExists) -> str:
4305        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4306        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4307
4308        passing = self.expressions(expression, "passing")
4309        passing = f" PASSING {passing}" if passing else ""
4310
4311        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4312        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4313
4314        path = f"{path}{passing}{on_condition}"
4315
4316        return self.func("JSON_EXISTS", this, path)
def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayAgg) -> str:
4318    def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAgg) -> str:
4319        array_agg = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4320
4321        if self.dialect.ARRAY_AGG_INCLUDES_NULLS and expression.args.get("nulls_excluded"):
4322            parent = expression.parent
4323            if isinstance(parent, exp.Filter):
4324                parent_cond = parent.expression.this
4325                parent_cond.replace(parent_cond.and_(expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_()))
4326            else:
4327                array_agg = f"{array_agg} FILTER(WHERE {self.sql(expression, 'this')} IS NOT NULL)"
4328
4329        return array_agg