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sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import re
   5import typing as t
   6from collections import defaultdict
   7from functools import reduce
   8
   9from sqlglot import exp
  10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, seq_get
  12from sqlglot.time import format_time
  13from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  14
  15if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  16    from sqlglot._typing import E
  17    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  18
  19logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  20
  21ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
  22
  23
  24class Generator:
  25    """
  26    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  27
  28    Args:
  29        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  30            Default: False.
  31        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  32            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  33            True or 'always': Always quote.
  34            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  35        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  36            Default: False.
  37        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  38            Default: 2.
  39        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  40            Default: 2.
  41        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  42            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  43            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  44            False: Disables function name normalization.
  45        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  46            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  47        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  48            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  49            Default: 3
  50        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  51            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  52            Default: False
  53        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  54            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  55            line length.
  56            Default: 80
  57        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  58            Default: True
  59    """
  60
  61    TRANSFORMS = {
  62        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  63            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  64        ),
  65        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  66        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  67        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  68        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  69        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  70        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  71        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  72        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  73        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  74        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  75        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  76        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  77        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  78        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  79        exp.HeapProperty: lambda self, e: "HEAP",
  80        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
  81        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  82        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  83        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
  84        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  85        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  86        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  87        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  88        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  89        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  90        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
  91        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  92        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  95        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  96        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  97        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  98        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  99        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 100        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 101        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 102        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
 103        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 104        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
 105        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
 106        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 107        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
 108        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 109        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 110        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
 111        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 112        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
 113        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 114    }
 115
 116    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
 117    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
 118    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 119
 120    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 121    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 122
 123    # Always do union distinct or union all
 124    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 125
 126    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 127    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 128
 129    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 130    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 131
 132    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 133    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 134
 135    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 136    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 137
 138    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 139    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 140
 141    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 142    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 143
 144    # Whether or not limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 145    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 146
 147    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 148    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 149
 150    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 151    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 152
 153    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 154    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 155
 156    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 157    JOIN_HINTS = True
 158
 159    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 160    TABLE_HINTS = True
 161
 162    # Whether or not query hints should be generated
 163    QUERY_HINTS = True
 164
 165    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 166    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 167
 168    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 169    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 170
 171    # Whether or not to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 172    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 173
 174    # Whether or not to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 175    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 176
 177    # Whether or not to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 178    RETURNING_END = True
 179
 180    # Whether or not to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 181    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 182
 183    # Whether or not to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 184    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 185
 186    # Whether or not TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 187    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 188
 189    # Whether or not the NVL2 function is supported
 190    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 191
 192    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 193    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 194
 195    # Whether or not VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 196    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 197    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 198    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 199
 200    # Whether or not the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 201    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 202
 203    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 204    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 205
 206    # Whether or not FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 207    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 208
 209    # Whether or not JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 210    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 211
 212    # Whether or not to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 213    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 214
 215    # Whether or not CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 216    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 217
 218    # Whether or not parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 219    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 220
 221    # Whether or not a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 222    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 223
 224    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 225    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 226
 227    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 228    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 229
 230    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 231    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 232
 233    # Whether or not COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 234    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 235
 236    # Whether or not data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 237    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 238
 239    # Whether or not conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 240    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 241
 242    # Whether or not the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 243    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 244
 245    # Whether or not CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 246    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 247
 248    # Whether or not LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 249    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 250
 251    # Whether or not named columns are allowed in table aliases
 252    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 253
 254    # Whether or not UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 255    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 256
 257    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 258    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 259
 260    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 261    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 262
 263    # Whether or not the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 264    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 265
 266    # Whether or not UNLOGGED tables can be created
 267    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 268
 269    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 270        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 271        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 272        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 273        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 274        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 275        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 276        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 277        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 278        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 279    }
 280
 281    STAR_MAPPING = {
 282        "except": "EXCEPT",
 283        "replace": "REPLACE",
 284    }
 285
 286    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 287        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 288        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 289        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 290        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 291        "DAYS": "DAY",
 292        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 293        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 294        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 295        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 296    }
 297
 298    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 299
 300    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 301
 302    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 303
 304    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 305        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 306        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 307        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 308        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 309        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 310        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 311        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 312        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 313        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 314        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 315        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 316        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 317        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 318        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 319        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 320        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 321        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 322        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 323        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 324        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 325        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 326        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 327        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 328        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 329        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 330        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 331        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 332        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 333        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 334        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 335        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 336        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 337        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 338        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 339        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 340        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 341        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 342        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 343        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 344        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 345        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 346        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 347        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 348        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 349        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 350        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 351        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 352        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 353        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 354        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 355        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 356        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 357        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 358        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 359        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 360        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 361        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 362        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 363        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 364        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 365        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 366        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 367        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 368        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 369        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 370        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 371        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 372        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 373    }
 374
 375    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 376    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 377
 378    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 379    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 380        exp.Create,
 381        exp.Delete,
 382        exp.Drop,
 383        exp.From,
 384        exp.Insert,
 385        exp.Join,
 386        exp.Select,
 387        exp.Update,
 388        exp.Where,
 389        exp.With,
 390    )
 391
 392    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 393    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 394        exp.Binary,
 395        exp.Union,
 396    )
 397
 398    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 399    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 400        exp.Column,
 401        exp.Literal,
 402        exp.Neg,
 403        exp.Paren,
 404    )
 405
 406    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 407    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 408
 409    KEY_VALUE_DEFINITIONS = (exp.Bracket, exp.EQ, exp.PropertyEQ, exp.Slice)
 410
 411    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 412
 413    __slots__ = (
 414        "pretty",
 415        "identify",
 416        "normalize",
 417        "pad",
 418        "_indent",
 419        "normalize_functions",
 420        "unsupported_level",
 421        "max_unsupported",
 422        "leading_comma",
 423        "max_text_width",
 424        "comments",
 425        "dialect",
 426        "unsupported_messages",
 427        "_escaped_quote_end",
 428        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 429    )
 430
 431    def __init__(
 432        self,
 433        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 434        identify: str | bool = False,
 435        normalize: bool = False,
 436        pad: int = 2,
 437        indent: int = 2,
 438        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 439        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 440        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 441        leading_comma: bool = False,
 442        max_text_width: int = 80,
 443        comments: bool = True,
 444        dialect: DialectType = None,
 445    ):
 446        import sqlglot
 447        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 448
 449        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 450        self.identify = identify
 451        self.normalize = normalize
 452        self.pad = pad
 453        self._indent = indent
 454        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 455        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 456        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 457        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 458        self.comments = comments
 459        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 460
 461        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 462        self.normalize_functions = (
 463            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 464        )
 465
 466        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 467        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 468            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 469        )
 470        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 471            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 472        )
 473
 474    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 475        """
 476        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 477
 478        Args:
 479            expression: The syntax tree.
 480            copy: Whether or not to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 481                it is safer to copy.
 482
 483        Returns:
 484            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 485        """
 486        if copy:
 487            expression = expression.copy()
 488
 489        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 490
 491        self.unsupported_messages = []
 492        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 493
 494        if self.pretty:
 495            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 496
 497        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 498            return sql
 499
 500        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 501            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 502                logger.warning(msg)
 503        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 504            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 505
 506        return sql
 507
 508    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 509        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 510        if (
 511            not expression.parent
 512            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 513            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 514        ):
 515            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 516
 517            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 518
 519        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 520            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 521
 522            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 523
 524        return expression
 525
 526    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 527        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 528            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 529        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 530
 531    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 532        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 533
 534    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 535        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 536
 537    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 538        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 539        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 540        return comment
 541
 542    def maybe_comment(
 543        self,
 544        sql: str,
 545        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 546        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 547    ) -> str:
 548        comments = (
 549            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 550            if self.comments
 551            else None
 552        )
 553
 554        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 555            return sql
 556
 557        comments_sql = " ".join(
 558            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 559        )
 560
 561        if not comments_sql:
 562            return sql
 563
 564        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 565            return (
 566                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 567                if sql[0].isspace()
 568                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 569            )
 570
 571        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 572
 573    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 574        this_sql = self.indent(
 575            (
 576                self.sql(expression)
 577                if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 578                else self.sql(expression, "this")
 579            ),
 580            level=1,
 581            pad=0,
 582        )
 583        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 584
 585    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 586        original = self.identify
 587        self.identify = False
 588        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 589        self.identify = original
 590        return result
 591
 592    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 593        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 594            return name.upper()
 595        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 596            return name.lower()
 597        return name
 598
 599    def indent(
 600        self,
 601        sql: str,
 602        level: int = 0,
 603        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 604        skip_first: bool = False,
 605        skip_last: bool = False,
 606    ) -> str:
 607        if not self.pretty:
 608            return sql
 609
 610        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 611        lines = sql.split("\n")
 612
 613        return "\n".join(
 614            (
 615                line
 616                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 617                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 618            )
 619            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 620        )
 621
 622    def sql(
 623        self,
 624        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 625        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 626        comment: bool = True,
 627    ) -> str:
 628        if not expression:
 629            return ""
 630
 631        if isinstance(expression, str):
 632            return expression
 633
 634        if key:
 635            value = expression.args.get(key)
 636            if value:
 637                return self.sql(value)
 638            return ""
 639
 640        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 641
 642        if callable(transform):
 643            sql = transform(self, expression)
 644        elif transform:
 645            sql = transform
 646        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 647            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 648
 649            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 650                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 651            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 652                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 653            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 654                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 655            else:
 656                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 657        else:
 658            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 659
 660        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 661
 662    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 663        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 664        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 665        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 666
 667    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 668        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 669        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 670        options = expression.args.get("options")
 671        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 672        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 673        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 674        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 675        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 676
 677    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 678        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 679            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 680        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 681        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 682
 683    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 684        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 685
 686        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 687            join_mark = ""
 688            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 689
 690        column = ".".join(
 691            self.sql(part)
 692            for part in (
 693                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 694                expression.args.get("db"),
 695                expression.args.get("table"),
 696                expression.args.get("this"),
 697            )
 698            if part
 699        )
 700
 701        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 702
 703    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 704        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 705        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 706        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 707        return f"{position}{this}"
 708
 709    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 710        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 711        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 712        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 713        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 714        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 715        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 716        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 717        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 718
 719        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 720            kind = ""
 721
 722        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 723
 724    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 725        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 726        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 727        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 728
 729    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 730        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 731        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 732            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 733        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 734            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 735        else:
 736            persisted = ""
 737        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 738
 739    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 740        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 741
 742    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 743        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 744            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 745        else:
 746            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 747
 748        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 749
 750    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 751        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 752    ) -> str:
 753        this = ""
 754        if expression.this is not None:
 755            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 756            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 757
 758        start = expression.args.get("start")
 759        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 760        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 761        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 762        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 763        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 764        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 765        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 766        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 767        cycle_sql = ""
 768
 769        if cycle is not None:
 770            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 771            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 772
 773        sequence_opts = ""
 774        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 775            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 776            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 777
 778        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 779        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 780
 781        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 782
 783    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 784        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 785    ) -> str:
 786        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
 787        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 788        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 789
 790    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 791        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 792    ) -> str:
 793        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 794
 795    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 796        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 797
 798    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 799        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 800
 801    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 802        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 803        if desc is not None:
 804            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 805        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 806
 807    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 808        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 809        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 810        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 811        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 812        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}"
 813
 814    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 815        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 816
 817    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 818        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 819        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 820        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 821
 822        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 823
 824        properties_sql = ""
 825        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 826            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 827        ):
 828            properties_sql = self.sql(
 829                exp.Properties(
 830                    expressions=[
 831                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 832                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 833                    ]
 834                )
 835            )
 836
 837        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 838        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 839
 840        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 841        if expression_sql:
 842            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 843
 844            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 845                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 846                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 847                        exp.Properties(
 848                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 849                        ),
 850                        wrapped=False,
 851                    )
 852                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 853                else:
 854                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 855
 856        postindex_props_sql = ""
 857        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 858            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 859                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 860                wrapped=False,
 861                prefix=" ",
 862            )
 863
 864        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 865        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 866        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 867
 868        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 869        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 870
 871        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 872        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 873            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 874                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 875                sep=" ",
 876                prefix=" ",
 877                wrapped=False,
 878            )
 879
 880        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 881
 882        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 883        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 884            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 885                exp.Properties(
 886                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 887                ),
 888                sep=" ",
 889                prefix=" ",
 890                wrapped=False,
 891            )
 892
 893        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 894        no_schema_binding = (
 895            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 896        )
 897
 898        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 899        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 900
 901        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 902        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 903
 904    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 905        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 906        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
 907        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
 908        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
 909
 910    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 911        extended = " EXTENDED" if expression.args.get("extended") else ""
 912        return f"DESCRIBE{extended} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 913
 914    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
 915        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
 916        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
 917
 918    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 919        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 920        if with_:
 921            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 922        return sql
 923
 924    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 925        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 926        recursive = (
 927            "RECURSIVE "
 928            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
 929            else ""
 930        )
 931
 932        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 933
 934    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 935        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 936        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 937
 938    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 939        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 940        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 941        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 942
 943        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
 944            columns = ""
 945            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
 946
 947        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
 948            alias = "_t"
 949
 950        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 951
 952    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 953        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 954        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
 955            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
 956        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 957
 958    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 959        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 960        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
 961            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
 962        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 963
 964    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 965        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 966        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
 967            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
 968        return this
 969
 970    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
 971        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 972        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
 973
 974        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
 975            escape = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if escape else ""
 976            return f"{self.dialect.UNICODE_START}{this}{self.dialect.UNICODE_END}{escape}"
 977
 978        if escape:
 979            pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
 980        else:
 981            pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
 982
 983        this = pattern.sub(r"\\u\1", this)
 984        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
 985
 986    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 987        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
 988        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
 989
 990    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
 991        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 992        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 993        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
 994        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 995
 996    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 997        type_value = expression.this
 998
 999        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1000            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1001        else:
1002            type_sql = (
1003                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1004                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1005                else type_value
1006            )
1007
1008        nested = ""
1009        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1010        values = ""
1011
1012        if interior:
1013            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1014                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1015                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1016                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1017                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1018                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1019            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1020                nested = f" {interior}"
1021            else:
1022                nested = f"({interior})"
1023
1024        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1025        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1026            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1027            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1028        ):
1029            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1030
1031        return type_sql
1032
1033    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1034        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1035        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1036        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1037        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1038
1039    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1040        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1041        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1042        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1043        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1044        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1045        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1046        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1047        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1048        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1049        if self.RETURNING_END:
1050            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1051        else:
1052            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1053        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1054
1055    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1056        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1057        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1058        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1059        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1060        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1061        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1062        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1063        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1064        return (
1065            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1066        )
1067
1068    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1069        return self.prepend_ctes(
1070            expression,
1071            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
1072        )
1073
1074    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1075        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1076
1077    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1078        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1079        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1080        count = expression.args.get("count")
1081        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1082        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1083            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1084        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1085        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1086
1087    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1088        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1089            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1090            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1091            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1092
1093        agg = expression.this
1094        agg_arg = agg.this
1095        cond = expression.expression.this
1096        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1097        return self.sql(agg)
1098
1099    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1100        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1101            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1102            return ""
1103
1104        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1105
1106    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1107        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1108        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1109        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1110        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1111        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1112        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1113        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1114        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1115        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1116        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1117        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1118        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1119        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1120        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1121        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1122        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1123        if include:
1124            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1125        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{include}{partition_by}{where}"
1126
1127    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1128        text = expression.name
1129        lower = text.lower()
1130        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1131        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1132        if (
1133            expression.quoted
1134            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1135            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1136            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1137        ):
1138            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1139        return text
1140
1141    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1142        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1143        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1144        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1145        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1146        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1147
1148    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1149        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1150        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1151
1152    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1153        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1154
1155    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1156        root_properties = []
1157        with_properties = []
1158
1159        for p in expression.expressions:
1160            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1161            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1162                with_properties.append(p)
1163            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1164                root_properties.append(p)
1165
1166        return self.root_properties(
1167            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1168        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1169
1170    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1171        if properties.expressions:
1172            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1173        return ""
1174
1175    def properties(
1176        self,
1177        properties: exp.Properties,
1178        prefix: str = "",
1179        sep: str = ", ",
1180        suffix: str = "",
1181        wrapped: bool = True,
1182    ) -> str:
1183        if properties.expressions:
1184            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1185            if expressions:
1186                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1187                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1188        return ""
1189
1190    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1191        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1192
1193    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1194        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1195        for p in properties.expressions:
1196            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1197            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1198                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1199            else:
1200                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1201
1202        return properties_locs
1203
1204    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1205        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1206            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1207        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1208
1209    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1210        property_cls = expression.__class__
1211        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1212            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1213
1214        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1215        if not property_name:
1216            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1217
1218        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1219
1220    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1221        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1222        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1223        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1224
1225    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1226        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1227        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1228        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1229
1230    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1231        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1232        local = expression.args.get("local")
1233        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1234        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1235        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1236        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1237        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1238
1239    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1240        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1241        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1242        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1243
1244    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1245        if expression.args.get("default"):
1246            property = "DEFAULT"
1247        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1248            property = "ON"
1249        else:
1250            property = "OFF"
1251        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1252
1253    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1254        if expression.args.get("no"):
1255            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1256        if expression.args.get("default"):
1257            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1258
1259        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1260        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1261
1262    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1263        default = expression.args.get("default")
1264        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1265        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1266        if default or minimum or maximum:
1267            if default:
1268                prop = "DEFAULT"
1269            elif minimum:
1270                prop = "MINIMUM"
1271            else:
1272                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1273            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1274        units = expression.args.get("units")
1275        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1276        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1277
1278    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1279        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1280        always = expression.args.get("always")
1281        default = expression.args.get("default")
1282        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1283        never = expression.args.get("never")
1284
1285        if autotemp is not None:
1286            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1287        elif always:
1288            prop = "ALWAYS"
1289        elif default:
1290            prop = "DEFAULT"
1291        elif manual:
1292            prop = "MANUAL"
1293        elif never:
1294            prop = "NEVER"
1295        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1296
1297    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1298        no = expression.args.get("no")
1299        no = " NO" if no else ""
1300        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1301        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1302
1303        for_ = ""
1304        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1305            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1306        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1307            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1308        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1309            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1310        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1311
1312    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1313        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1314            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1315        if expression.this:
1316            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1317            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1318            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1319
1320        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1321        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1322        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1323
1324    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1325        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1326
1327        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1328        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1329            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1330        else:
1331            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1332
1333        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1334
1335    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1336        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1337        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1338        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1339        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1340        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1341        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1342        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1343
1344    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1345        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1346        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1347        statistics_sql = ""
1348        if statistics is not None:
1349            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1350        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1351
1352    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1353        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
1354
1355        if expression.this:
1356            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
1357            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
1358
1359            if expression.expression:
1360                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1361                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
1362
1363            sql = f"{sql})"
1364
1365        return f"{sql})"
1366
1367    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1368        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1369
1370        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1371            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1372        else:
1373            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1374
1375        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1376        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1377        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1378
1379        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1380
1381        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1382        partition_sql = (
1383            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1384        )
1385        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1386        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1387        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1388        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1389        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1390        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1391
1392        if self.RETURNING_END:
1393            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1394        else:
1395            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1396
1397        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1398        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1399
1400    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1401        return self.prepend_ctes(
1402            expression,
1403            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1404        )
1405
1406    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1407        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1408
1409    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1410        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1411
1412    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1413        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1414        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1415        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1416        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1417        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1418
1419    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1420        return expression.name
1421
1422    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1423        return expression.name
1424
1425    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1426        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1427        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1428        if constraint:
1429            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1430        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1431        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1432        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1433        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1434        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1435        if expressions:
1436            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1437        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1438
1439    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1440        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1441
1442    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1443        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1444        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1445        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1446        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1447        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1448        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1449        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1450        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1451        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1452        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1453        null = expression.args.get("null")
1454        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1455        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1456
1457    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1458        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1459
1460    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1461        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1462        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1463        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1464        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1465
1466    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1467        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1468        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1469        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1470        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1471
1472    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1473        table = ".".join(
1474            self.sql(part)
1475            for part in (
1476                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1477                expression.args.get("db"),
1478                expression.args.get("this"),
1479            )
1480            if part is not None
1481        )
1482
1483        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1484        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1485        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1486        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1487        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1488        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1489        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1490        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1491        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1492        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1493
1494        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1495        if file_format:
1496            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1497            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1498            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1499
1500        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1501        if ordinality:
1502            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1503            alias = ""
1504
1505        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1506        if when:
1507            table = f"{table} {when}"
1508
1509        return f"{table}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1510
1511    def tablesample_sql(
1512        self,
1513        expression: exp.TableSample,
1514        sep: str = " AS ",
1515        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1516    ) -> str:
1517        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1518            table = expression.this.copy()
1519            table.set("alias", None)
1520            this = self.sql(table)
1521            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1522        else:
1523            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1524            alias = ""
1525
1526        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1527        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1528        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1529        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1530        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1531        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1532        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1533        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1534        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1535
1536        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1537        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1538            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1539
1540        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1541        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1542            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1543
1544        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1545        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1546            expr = f"({expr})"
1547
1548        return (
1549            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1550        )
1551
1552    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1553        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1554
1555        if expression.this:
1556            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1557            if not expressions:
1558                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1559
1560            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1561            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1562            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1563            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1564            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1565
1566        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1567        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1568        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1569        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1570        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1571        if include_nulls is not None:
1572            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1573        else:
1574            nulls = ""
1575        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1576
1577    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1578        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1579        kind = expression.text("kind")
1580        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1581        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1582
1583    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1584        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1585
1586    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1587        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1588        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1589        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1590        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1591        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1592        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1593        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1594        if self.RETURNING_END:
1595            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1596        else:
1597            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1598        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1599        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1600
1601    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1602        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1603        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1604            args = self.expressions(expression)
1605            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1606            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1607            values = (
1608                f"({values})"
1609                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1610                else values
1611            )
1612            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1613
1614        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1615        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1616        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1617
1618        selects: t.List[exp.Subqueryable] = []
1619
1620        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1621            row = tup.expressions
1622
1623            if i == 0 and column_names:
1624                row = [
1625                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1626                ]
1627
1628            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1629
1630        if self.pretty:
1631            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1632            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1633            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1634            subqueryable = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1635            return self.subquery_sql(
1636                subqueryable.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False)
1637            )
1638
1639        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1640        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1641        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1642
1643    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1644        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1645
1646    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1647        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1648        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1649        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1650
1651    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1652        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1653
1654    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1655        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1656
1657        if expression.args.get("all"):
1658            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1659
1660        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1661        grouping_sets = (
1662            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1663        )
1664
1665        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1666        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1667            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1668        else:
1669            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1670            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1671
1672        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1673        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1674            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1675        else:
1676            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1677            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1678
1679        groupings = csv(
1680            grouping_sets,
1681            cube_sql,
1682            rollup_sql,
1683            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1684            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1685        )
1686
1687        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1688            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1689
1690        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1691
1692    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1693        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1694        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1695
1696    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1697        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1698        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1699        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1700        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY {connect}")
1701        return start + connect
1702
1703    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1704        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1705
1706    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1707        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1708            side = None
1709        else:
1710            side = expression.side
1711
1712        op_sql = " ".join(
1713            op
1714            for op in (
1715                expression.method,
1716                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1717                side,
1718                expression.kind,
1719                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1720            )
1721            if op
1722        )
1723        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1724        using = expression.args.get("using")
1725
1726        if not on_sql and using:
1727            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1728
1729        this = expression.this
1730        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1731
1732        if on_sql:
1733            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1734            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1735            if using:
1736                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1737            else:
1738                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1739        elif not op_sql:
1740            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
1741                return f" {this_sql}"
1742
1743            return f", {this_sql}"
1744
1745        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1746        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1747
1748    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1749        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1750        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1751        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1752
1753    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1754        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
1755
1756        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
1757        if cross_apply is True:
1758            op = "INNER JOIN "
1759        elif cross_apply is False:
1760            op = "LEFT JOIN "
1761        else:
1762            op = ""
1763
1764        return f"{op}LATERAL"
1765
1766    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1767        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1768
1769        if expression.args.get("view"):
1770            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1771            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1772            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1773            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1774            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1775            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1776
1777        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1778        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1779        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
1780
1781    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1782        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1783
1784        args = [
1785            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
1786            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1787            if e
1788        ]
1789
1790        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
1791        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if any(top and not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
1792        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}"
1793
1794    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1795        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1796        expression = expression.expression
1797        expression = (
1798            self._simplify_unless_literal(expression) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else expression
1799        )
1800        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression)}"
1801
1802    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1803        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1804        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1805        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1806        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1807        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1808        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1809        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1810        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1811
1812    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1813        expressions = (
1814            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1815        )
1816        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1817        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1818
1819    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1820        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1821
1822    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1823        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1824            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1825            return ""
1826
1827        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1828        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1829        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1830        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1831
1832        if wait is not None:
1833            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1834                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1835            else:
1836                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1837
1838        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1839
1840    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1841        text = expression.this or ""
1842        if expression.is_string:
1843            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1844        return text
1845
1846    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1847        text = text.replace(self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1848        if self.dialect.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES:
1849            text = "".join(self.dialect.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES.get(ch, ch) for ch in text)
1850        elif self.pretty:
1851            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1852        return text
1853
1854    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1855        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1856        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1857        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1858        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1859        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1860        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1861        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1862        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1863        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1864        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1865        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1866
1867    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1868        return "NULL"
1869
1870    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1871        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1872
1873    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1874        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1875        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1876        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
1877        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1878        interpolated_values = [
1879            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
1880            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
1881        ]
1882        interpolate = (
1883            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
1884        )
1885        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
1886
1887    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
1888        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1889        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
1890        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
1891        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
1892        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
1893        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
1894        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
1895
1896    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1897        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1898
1899    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1900        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1901
1902    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1903        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1904
1905    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1906        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1907        asc = not desc
1908
1909        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1910        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1911        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1912        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1913        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1914
1915        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1916
1917        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
1918        nulls_sort_change = ""
1919        if nulls_first and (
1920            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1921        ):
1922            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1923        elif (
1924            nulls_last
1925            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1926            and not nulls_are_last
1927        ):
1928            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1929
1930        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
1931        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1932            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
1933            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
1934                self.unsupported(
1935                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
1936                )
1937                nulls_sort_change = ""
1938            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
1939                if expression.this.is_int:
1940                    self.unsupported(
1941                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
1942                    )
1943                else:
1944                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
1945                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
1946                nulls_sort_change = ""
1947
1948        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
1949        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
1950
1951        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
1952
1953    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1954        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1955        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1956        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1957        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1958        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1959        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1960        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1961        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1962        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1963        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1964        definition_sqls = [
1965            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1966            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1967        ]
1968        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1969        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1970        body = "".join(
1971            (
1972                partition,
1973                order,
1974                measures,
1975                rows,
1976                after,
1977                pattern,
1978                define,
1979            )
1980        )
1981        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1982        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1983        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1984
1985    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1986        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1987
1988        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1989        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1990
1991        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1992            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1993        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1994            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1995
1996        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1997
1998        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1999            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
2000            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
2001            else []
2002        )
2003
2004        return csv(
2005            *sqls,
2006            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2007            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2008            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2009            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2010            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2011            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2012            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2013            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
2014            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2015            *offset_limit_modifiers,
2016            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2017            sep="",
2018        )
2019
2020    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2021        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2022    ) -> t.List[str]:
2023        return [
2024            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2025            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2026        ]
2027
2028    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2029        return [
2030            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
2031            (
2032                self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
2033                if expression.args.get("windows")
2034                else ""
2035            ),
2036            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
2037            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
2038            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
2039        ]
2040
2041    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2042        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2043        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2044        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2045
2046    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2047        into = expression.args.get("into")
2048        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2049            into.pop()
2050
2051        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2052        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2053        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2054        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2055        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2056        top = (
2057            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2058            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
2059            else ""
2060        )
2061
2062        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2063
2064        if kind:
2065            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2066                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2067            else:
2068                if kind == "STRUCT":
2069                    expressions = self.expressions(
2070                        sqls=[
2071                            self.sql(
2072                                exp.Struct(
2073                                    expressions=[
2074                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
2075                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
2076                                        )
2077                                        for e in expression.expressions
2078                                    ]
2079                                )
2080                            )
2081                        ]
2082                    )
2083                kind = ""
2084
2085        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2086        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2087        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2088        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2089        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2090            expression,
2091            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2092            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2093            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2094        )
2095
2096        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2097
2098        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2099            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2100                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2101            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2102                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2103            else:
2104                table_kind = ""
2105            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2106
2107        return sql
2108
2109    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2110        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2111        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2112        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2113
2114    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2115        if expression.expressions:
2116            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2117        return ""
2118
2119    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2120        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2121        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2122        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2123        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2124        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
2125
2126    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2127        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2128        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2129
2130    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2131        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2132        kind = expression.text("kind")
2133        if kind:
2134            kind = f"{kind}."
2135        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2136
2137    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2138        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
2139
2140    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2141        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2142        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2143
2144        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2145        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2146
2147        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2148        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2149
2150    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2151        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2152        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2153
2154    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2155        return self.prepend_ctes(
2156            expression,
2157            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
2158        )
2159
2160    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2161        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2162        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2163        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2164        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2165
2166    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2167        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2168
2169        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2170        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2171
2172        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2173            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2174                alias.append("columns", offset)
2175
2176        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2177            columns = alias.columns
2178            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2179        else:
2180            alias = self.sql(alias)
2181
2182        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2183        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2184            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2185        else:
2186            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2187                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2188            elif offset:
2189                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2190            else:
2191                suffix = alias
2192
2193        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2194
2195    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2196        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2197        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2198
2199    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2200        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2201        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2202        order = expression.args.get("order")
2203        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2204        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2205        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2206        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2207
2208        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2209
2210        first = expression.args.get("first")
2211        if first is None:
2212            first = ""
2213        else:
2214            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2215
2216        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2217            return f"{this} {alias}"
2218
2219        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2220        return f"{this} ({args})"
2221
2222    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2223        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2224        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2225
2226    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2227        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2228        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2229        end = (
2230            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2231            or "CURRENT ROW"
2232        )
2233        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2234
2235    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2236        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2237        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2238        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2239
2240    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2241        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2242        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2243        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2244        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2245
2246    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2247        expressions = apply_index_offset(
2248            expression.this,
2249            expression.expressions,
2250            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2251        )
2252        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2253        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2254
2255    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2256        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2257
2258    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2259        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2260        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
2261            this = self.wrap(this)
2262        return f"ANY {this}"
2263
2264    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2265        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2266
2267    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2268        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2269        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2270
2271        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2272            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2273            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2274
2275        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2276
2277        if default:
2278            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2279
2280        statements.append("END")
2281
2282        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
2283            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2284
2285        return " ".join(statements)
2286
2287    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2288        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2289        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2290        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2291
2292    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2293        order = expression.args.get("order")
2294        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2295        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2296
2297    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2298        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2299        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2300        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2301
2302    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2303        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2304
2305        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2306            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2307        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2308            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2309        else:
2310            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2311
2312    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2313        args = expression.expressions
2314        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2315            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2316
2317        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2318            args = [exp.cast(e, "text") for e in args]
2319
2320        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2321            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2322
2323        return args
2324
2325    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2326        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2327
2328        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2329        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2330            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2331
2332        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2333
2334    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2335        return self.func(
2336            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2337        )
2338
2339    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2340        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2341        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2342
2343    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2344        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2345        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2346        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2347        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2348        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2349        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2350        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2351        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2352
2353    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2354        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2355        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2356        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2357        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2358
2359    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2360        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2361
2362    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2363        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2364        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2365        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2366
2367    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2368        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2369
2370    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2371        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2372
2373    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2374        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2375        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2376
2377        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2378        if unique_keys is not None:
2379            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2380        else:
2381            unique_keys = ""
2382
2383        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2384        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2385        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2386        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2387
2388        return self.func(
2389            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2390            *expression.expressions,
2391            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2392        )
2393
2394    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2395        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2396
2397    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2398        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2399        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2400        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2401        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2402        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2403        return self.func(
2404            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2405        )
2406
2407    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2408        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2409        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2410        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2411        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2412        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2413        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2414        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2415        return self.func(
2416            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2417            this,
2418            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2419        )
2420
2421    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2422        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2423        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2424        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2425
2426        if nested_schema:
2427            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2428
2429        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2430        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2431        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2432        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2433
2434    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2435        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2436
2437    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2438        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2439        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2440        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2441        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2442        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2443        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2444        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2445        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2446        return self.func(
2447            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2448        )
2449
2450    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2451        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2452        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2453        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2454        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2455        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2456        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2457
2458    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2459        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2460        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2461        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2462        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2463        with_ = (
2464            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2465            if expressions
2466            else ""
2467        )
2468        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2469
2470    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2471        query = expression.args.get("query")
2472        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2473        field = expression.args.get("field")
2474        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2475
2476        if query:
2477            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2478        elif unnest:
2479            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2480        elif field:
2481            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2482        else:
2483            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2484
2485        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2486
2487    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2488        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2489
2490    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2491        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2492        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2493            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2494        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2495
2496        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2497            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2498            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2499
2500        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2501        if this:
2502            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2503            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2504
2505        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2506
2507    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2508        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2509
2510    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2511        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2512        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2513        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2514        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2515        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2516        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2517
2518    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2519        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
2520
2521    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2522        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2523            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2524        else:
2525            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2526            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2527
2528        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2529
2530    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2531        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2532        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2533        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2534        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2535
2536    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2537        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2538
2539    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2540        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2541        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2542        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2543
2544    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2545        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2546        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2547
2548        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2549            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2550        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2551            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2552
2553        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2554
2555    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2556        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2557
2558    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2559        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2560        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2561        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2562
2563    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2564        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2565        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2566        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2567
2568    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2569        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2570        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2571        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
2572
2573    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2574        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2575
2576    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2577        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
2578
2579    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2580        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
2581
2582    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2583        if not self.pretty:
2584            return self.binary(expression, op)
2585
2586        sqls = tuple(
2587            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2588            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2589        )
2590
2591        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2592        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
2593
2594    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2595        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2596
2597    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2598        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2599
2600    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2601        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2602
2603    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2604        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2605
2606    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2607        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2608
2609    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2610        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2611
2612    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2613        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2614        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2615        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2616        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2617        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql})"
2618
2619    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2620        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2621        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2622
2623    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2624        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2625            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2626        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2627
2628    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2629        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2630
2631    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2632        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2633        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2634        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2635        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2636        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2637
2638    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2639        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2640        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2641        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2642        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2643        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2644        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2645        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2646        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2647        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2648
2649    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2650        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2651        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2652        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2653        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2654
2655        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2656            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2657
2658        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2659
2660    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2661        return "BEGIN"
2662
2663    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2664        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2665        if chain is not None:
2666            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2667
2668        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2669
2670    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2671        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2672        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2673        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2674
2675    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2676        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2677
2678        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2679        if dtype:
2680            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2681            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2682            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2683            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2684            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2685
2686        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2687        if default:
2688            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2689
2690        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2691        if comment:
2692            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
2693
2694        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2695            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2696
2697        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2698
2699    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2700        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2701            # Remove db from tables
2702            expression = expression.transform(
2703                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2704            )
2705        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2706        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2707
2708    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
2709        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2710        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
2711        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
2712        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
2713
2714    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2715        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2716
2717        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2718            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
2719        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2720            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2721        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2722            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2723        else:
2724            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2725
2726        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2727        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2728        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2729
2730    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2731        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
2732            return self.expressions(
2733                expression,
2734                key="actions",
2735                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
2736            )
2737        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
2738
2739    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2740        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2741        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2742        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2743
2744    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2745        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2746        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2747        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2748
2749        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2750        if enforced is not None:
2751            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2752
2753        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2754
2755    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2756        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2757        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2758
2759        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2760        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2761        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2762
2763    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2764        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2765
2766    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2767        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2768
2769    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2770        return self.sql(
2771            exp.Cast(
2772                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2773                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2774            )
2775        )
2776
2777    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2778        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2779            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2780        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2781
2782    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2783        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
2784
2785        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
2786            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
2787
2788        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
2789            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.FLOAT_TYPES) and not r.is_type(
2790                *exp.DataType.FLOAT_TYPES
2791            ):
2792                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
2793
2794        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
2795            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
2796                return self.sql(
2797                    exp.cast(
2798                        l / r,
2799                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
2800                    )
2801                )
2802
2803        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2804
2805    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2806        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2807
2808    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2809        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2810
2811    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2812        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2813
2814    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2815        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2816
2817    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
2818        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
2819
2820    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2821        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2822
2823    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2824        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2825
2826    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2827        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2828
2829    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2830        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2831
2832    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2833        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2834
2835    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2836        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2837
2838    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2839        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2840            return self.sql(
2841                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2842            )
2843        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2844
2845    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2846        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2847
2848    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2849        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2850
2851    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2852        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2853
2854    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2855        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2856
2857    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2858        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2859
2860    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2861        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2862
2863    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2864        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2865
2866    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2867        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2868
2869    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2870        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2871
2872    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2873        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2874
2875    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2876        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2877
2878    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2879        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2880
2881    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2882        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2883
2884    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2885        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
2886
2887    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
2888        this = expression.this
2889        expr = expression.expression
2890
2891        if not self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST:
2892            this, expr = expr, this
2893
2894        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
2895
2896    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2897        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2898        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2899        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2900        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2901        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2902
2903    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2904        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2905        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2906
2907    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2908        args = []
2909
2910        for key in expression.arg_types:
2911            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2912
2913            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2914                for value in arg_value:
2915                    args.append(value)
2916            elif arg_value is not None:
2917                args.append(arg_value)
2918
2919        if self.normalize_functions:
2920            name = expression.sql_name()
2921        else:
2922            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2923
2924        return self.func(name, *args)
2925
2926    def func(
2927        self,
2928        name: str,
2929        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2930        prefix: str = "(",
2931        suffix: str = ")",
2932    ) -> str:
2933        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2934
2935    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2936        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2937        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2938            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2939        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2940
2941    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2942        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2943
2944    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2945        return format_time(
2946            self.sql(expression, "format"),
2947            self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
2948            self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
2949        )
2950
2951    def expressions(
2952        self,
2953        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2954        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2955        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2956        flat: bool = False,
2957        indent: bool = True,
2958        skip_first: bool = False,
2959        sep: str = ", ",
2960        prefix: str = "",
2961    ) -> str:
2962        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2963
2964        if not expressions:
2965            return ""
2966
2967        if flat:
2968            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2969
2970        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2971
2972        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2973        pad = " " * self.pad
2974        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2975
2976        result_sqls = []
2977        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2978            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2979            if not sql:
2980                continue
2981
2982            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2983
2984            if self.pretty:
2985                if self.leading_comma:
2986                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2987                else:
2988                    result_sqls.append(
2989                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2990                    )
2991            else:
2992                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2993
2994        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2995        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
2996
2997    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2998        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2999        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3000        if flat:
3001            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3002        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3003
3004    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3005        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3006        if not property_name:
3007            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3008        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3009
3010    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Union, op: str) -> str:
3011        this = self.maybe_comment(self.sql(expression, "this"), comments=expression.comments)
3012        op = self.seg(op)
3013        return self.query_modifiers(
3014            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3015        )
3016
3017    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3018        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3019
3020    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3021        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3022
3023    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3024        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3025        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3026        expressions = (
3027            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3028        )
3029        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3030
3031    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3032        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3033        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3034        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3035
3036    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3037        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3038
3039    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3040        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3041        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3042        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3043        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3044
3045        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3046        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3047            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
3048            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
3049                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
3050        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3051            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3052                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3053            else:
3054                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3055        else:
3056            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3057        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3058
3059    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3060        table = expression.this
3061        table_alias = ""
3062
3063        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3064        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3065            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3066            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3067
3068        this = self.sql(table)
3069        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3070        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3071        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
3072
3073        return self.prepend_ctes(
3074            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
3075        )
3076
3077    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3078        if expression.args.get("format"):
3079            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3080
3081        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
3082
3083    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3084        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3085        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3086        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3087        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3088        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3089
3090    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3091        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3092        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3093        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3094        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3095
3096    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3097        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3098
3099    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3100        return ""
3101
3102    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3103        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3104        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3105        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3106        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3107        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3108
3109    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3110        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3111        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3112
3113        if having:
3114            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3115
3116        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3117
3118    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3119        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3120        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3121        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3122        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3123        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3124        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3125        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3126        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3127        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3128        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3129        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3130        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3131        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3132
3133    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3134        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3135        if key_block_size:
3136            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3137
3138        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3139        if using:
3140            return f"USING {using}"
3141
3142        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3143        if parser:
3144            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3145
3146        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3147        if comment:
3148            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3149
3150        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3151        if visible is not None:
3152            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3153
3154        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3155        if engine_attr:
3156            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3157
3158        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3159        if secondary_engine_attr:
3160            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3161
3162        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3163        return ""
3164
3165    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3166        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3167        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3168        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3169        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3170        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3171        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3172        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3173        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
3174        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3175        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3176        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{schema}{options}"
3177
3178    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3179        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3180            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3181
3182        case = exp.Case().when(
3183            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3184            expression.args["true"],
3185            copy=False,
3186        )
3187        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3188        if else_cond:
3189            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3190
3191        return self.sql(case)
3192
3193    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3194        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3195        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3196        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3197        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3198        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3199        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3200
3201    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3202        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3203
3204    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3205        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3206
3207    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3208        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3209        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3210        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3211        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3212        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3213        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3214
3215    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3216        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3217        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3218        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3219
3220    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3221        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3222        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3223        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3224
3225    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3226        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3227
3228    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3229        arg = expression.this
3230        if not arg.type:
3231            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3232
3233            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3234
3235        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3236            return self.sql(arg)
3237
3238        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3239        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.Array(expressions=[arg])))
3240
3241    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3242        this = expression.this
3243        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3244            return self.sql(this)
3245
3246        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "time"))
3247
3248    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3249        this = expression.this
3250        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3251
3252        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3253            return self.sql(
3254                exp.cast(exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]), "date")
3255            )
3256
3257        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3258            return self.sql(this)
3259
3260        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "date"))
3261
3262    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3263        return self.sql(
3264            exp.func(
3265                "DATEDIFF",
3266                expression.this,
3267                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), "date"),
3268                "day",
3269            )
3270        )
3271
3272    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3273        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3274            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3275
3276        unit = expression.text("unit")
3277        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3278            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3279
3280        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3281
3282    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3283        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3284            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3285
3286            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3287
3288        return expression
3289
3290    def _ensure_string_if_null(self, values: t.List[exp.Expression]) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
3291        return [
3292            exp.func("COALESCE", exp.cast(value, "text"), exp.Literal.string(""))
3293            for value in values
3294            if value
3295        ]
logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile('\\\\(\\d+)')
class Generator:
  25class Generator:
  26    """
  27    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  28
  29    Args:
  30        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  31            Default: False.
  32        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  33            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  34            True or 'always': Always quote.
  35            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  36        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  37            Default: False.
  38        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  39            Default: 2.
  40        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  41            Default: 2.
  42        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  43            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  44            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  45            False: Disables function name normalization.
  46        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  47            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  48        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  49            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  50            Default: 3
  51        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  52            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  53            Default: False
  54        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  55            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  56            line length.
  57            Default: 80
  58        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  59            Default: True
  60    """
  61
  62    TRANSFORMS = {
  63        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  64            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  65        ),
  66        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  67        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  68        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  69        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  70        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  71        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  72        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  73        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  74        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  75        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  76        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  77        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  78        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  79        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  80        exp.HeapProperty: lambda self, e: "HEAP",
  81        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
  82        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  83        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  84        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
  85        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  86        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  87        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  88        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  89        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  90        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  91        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
  92        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  93        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  95        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  96        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  97        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  98        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  99        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 100        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 101        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 102        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 103        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
 104        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 105        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
 106        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
 107        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 108        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
 109        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 110        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 111        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
 112        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 113        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
 114        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 115    }
 116
 117    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
 118    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
 119    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 120
 121    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 122    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 123
 124    # Always do union distinct or union all
 125    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 126
 127    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 128    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 129
 130    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 131    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 132
 133    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 134    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 135
 136    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 137    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 138
 139    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 140    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 141
 142    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 143    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 144
 145    # Whether or not limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 146    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 147
 148    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 149    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 150
 151    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 152    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 153
 154    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 155    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 156
 157    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 158    JOIN_HINTS = True
 159
 160    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 161    TABLE_HINTS = True
 162
 163    # Whether or not query hints should be generated
 164    QUERY_HINTS = True
 165
 166    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 167    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 168
 169    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 170    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 171
 172    # Whether or not to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 173    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 174
 175    # Whether or not to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 176    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 177
 178    # Whether or not to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 179    RETURNING_END = True
 180
 181    # Whether or not to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 182    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 183
 184    # Whether or not to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 185    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 186
 187    # Whether or not TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 188    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 189
 190    # Whether or not the NVL2 function is supported
 191    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 192
 193    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 194    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 195
 196    # Whether or not VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 197    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 198    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 199    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 200
 201    # Whether or not the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 202    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 203
 204    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 205    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 206
 207    # Whether or not FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 208    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 209
 210    # Whether or not JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 211    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 212
 213    # Whether or not to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 214    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 215
 216    # Whether or not CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 217    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 218
 219    # Whether or not parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 220    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 221
 222    # Whether or not a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 223    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 224
 225    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 226    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 227
 228    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 229    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 230
 231    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 232    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 233
 234    # Whether or not COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 235    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 236
 237    # Whether or not data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 238    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 239
 240    # Whether or not conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 241    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 242
 243    # Whether or not the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 244    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 245
 246    # Whether or not CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 247    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 248
 249    # Whether or not LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 250    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 251
 252    # Whether or not named columns are allowed in table aliases
 253    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 254
 255    # Whether or not UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 256    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 257
 258    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 259    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 260
 261    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 262    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 263
 264    # Whether or not the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 265    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 266
 267    # Whether or not UNLOGGED tables can be created
 268    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 269
 270    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 271        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 272        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 273        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 274        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 275        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 276        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 277        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 278        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 279        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 280    }
 281
 282    STAR_MAPPING = {
 283        "except": "EXCEPT",
 284        "replace": "REPLACE",
 285    }
 286
 287    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 288        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 289        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 290        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 291        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 292        "DAYS": "DAY",
 293        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 294        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 295        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 296        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 297    }
 298
 299    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 300
 301    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 302
 303    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 304
 305    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 306        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 307        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 308        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 309        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 310        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 311        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 312        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 313        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 314        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 315        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 316        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 317        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 318        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 319        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 320        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 321        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 322        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 323        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 324        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 325        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 326        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 327        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 328        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 329        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 330        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 331        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 332        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 333        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 334        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 335        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 336        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 337        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 338        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 339        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 340        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 341        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 342        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 343        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 344        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 345        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 346        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 347        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 348        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 349        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 350        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 351        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 352        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 353        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 354        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 355        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 356        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 357        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 358        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 359        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 360        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 361        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 362        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 363        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 364        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 365        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 366        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 367        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 368        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 369        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 370        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 371        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 372        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 373        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 374    }
 375
 376    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 377    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 378
 379    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 380    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 381        exp.Create,
 382        exp.Delete,
 383        exp.Drop,
 384        exp.From,
 385        exp.Insert,
 386        exp.Join,
 387        exp.Select,
 388        exp.Update,
 389        exp.Where,
 390        exp.With,
 391    )
 392
 393    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 394    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 395        exp.Binary,
 396        exp.Union,
 397    )
 398
 399    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 400    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 401        exp.Column,
 402        exp.Literal,
 403        exp.Neg,
 404        exp.Paren,
 405    )
 406
 407    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 408    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 409
 410    KEY_VALUE_DEFINITIONS = (exp.Bracket, exp.EQ, exp.PropertyEQ, exp.Slice)
 411
 412    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 413
 414    __slots__ = (
 415        "pretty",
 416        "identify",
 417        "normalize",
 418        "pad",
 419        "_indent",
 420        "normalize_functions",
 421        "unsupported_level",
 422        "max_unsupported",
 423        "leading_comma",
 424        "max_text_width",
 425        "comments",
 426        "dialect",
 427        "unsupported_messages",
 428        "_escaped_quote_end",
 429        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 430    )
 431
 432    def __init__(
 433        self,
 434        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 435        identify: str | bool = False,
 436        normalize: bool = False,
 437        pad: int = 2,
 438        indent: int = 2,
 439        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 440        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 441        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 442        leading_comma: bool = False,
 443        max_text_width: int = 80,
 444        comments: bool = True,
 445        dialect: DialectType = None,
 446    ):
 447        import sqlglot
 448        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 449
 450        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 451        self.identify = identify
 452        self.normalize = normalize
 453        self.pad = pad
 454        self._indent = indent
 455        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 456        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 457        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 458        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 459        self.comments = comments
 460        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 461
 462        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 463        self.normalize_functions = (
 464            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 465        )
 466
 467        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 468        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 469            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 470        )
 471        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 472            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 473        )
 474
 475    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 476        """
 477        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 478
 479        Args:
 480            expression: The syntax tree.
 481            copy: Whether or not to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 482                it is safer to copy.
 483
 484        Returns:
 485            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 486        """
 487        if copy:
 488            expression = expression.copy()
 489
 490        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 491
 492        self.unsupported_messages = []
 493        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 494
 495        if self.pretty:
 496            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 497
 498        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 499            return sql
 500
 501        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 502            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 503                logger.warning(msg)
 504        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 505            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 506
 507        return sql
 508
 509    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 510        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 511        if (
 512            not expression.parent
 513            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 514            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 515        ):
 516            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 517
 518            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 519
 520        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 521            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 522
 523            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 524
 525        return expression
 526
 527    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 528        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 529            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 530        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 531
 532    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 533        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 534
 535    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 536        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 537
 538    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 539        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 540        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 541        return comment
 542
 543    def maybe_comment(
 544        self,
 545        sql: str,
 546        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 547        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 548    ) -> str:
 549        comments = (
 550            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 551            if self.comments
 552            else None
 553        )
 554
 555        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 556            return sql
 557
 558        comments_sql = " ".join(
 559            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 560        )
 561
 562        if not comments_sql:
 563            return sql
 564
 565        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 566            return (
 567                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 568                if sql[0].isspace()
 569                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 570            )
 571
 572        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 573
 574    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 575        this_sql = self.indent(
 576            (
 577                self.sql(expression)
 578                if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 579                else self.sql(expression, "this")
 580            ),
 581            level=1,
 582            pad=0,
 583        )
 584        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 585
 586    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 587        original = self.identify
 588        self.identify = False
 589        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 590        self.identify = original
 591        return result
 592
 593    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 594        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 595            return name.upper()
 596        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 597            return name.lower()
 598        return name
 599
 600    def indent(
 601        self,
 602        sql: str,
 603        level: int = 0,
 604        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 605        skip_first: bool = False,
 606        skip_last: bool = False,
 607    ) -> str:
 608        if not self.pretty:
 609            return sql
 610
 611        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 612        lines = sql.split("\n")
 613
 614        return "\n".join(
 615            (
 616                line
 617                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 618                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 619            )
 620            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 621        )
 622
 623    def sql(
 624        self,
 625        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 626        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 627        comment: bool = True,
 628    ) -> str:
 629        if not expression:
 630            return ""
 631
 632        if isinstance(expression, str):
 633            return expression
 634
 635        if key:
 636            value = expression.args.get(key)
 637            if value:
 638                return self.sql(value)
 639            return ""
 640
 641        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 642
 643        if callable(transform):
 644            sql = transform(self, expression)
 645        elif transform:
 646            sql = transform
 647        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 648            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 649
 650            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 651                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 652            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 653                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 654            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 655                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 656            else:
 657                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 658        else:
 659            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 660
 661        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 662
 663    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 664        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 665        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 666        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 667
 668    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 669        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 670        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 671        options = expression.args.get("options")
 672        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 673        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 674        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 675        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 676        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 677
 678    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 679        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 680            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 681        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 682        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 683
 684    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 685        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 686
 687        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 688            join_mark = ""
 689            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 690
 691        column = ".".join(
 692            self.sql(part)
 693            for part in (
 694                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 695                expression.args.get("db"),
 696                expression.args.get("table"),
 697                expression.args.get("this"),
 698            )
 699            if part
 700        )
 701
 702        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 703
 704    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 705        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 706        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 707        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 708        return f"{position}{this}"
 709
 710    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 711        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 712        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 713        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 714        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 715        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 716        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 717        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 718        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 719
 720        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 721            kind = ""
 722
 723        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 724
 725    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 726        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 727        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 728        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 729
 730    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 731        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 732        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 733            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 734        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 735            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 736        else:
 737            persisted = ""
 738        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 739
 740    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 741        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 742
 743    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 744        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 745            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 746        else:
 747            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 748
 749        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 750
 751    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 752        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 753    ) -> str:
 754        this = ""
 755        if expression.this is not None:
 756            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 757            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 758
 759        start = expression.args.get("start")
 760        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 761        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 762        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 763        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 764        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 765        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 766        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 767        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 768        cycle_sql = ""
 769
 770        if cycle is not None:
 771            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 772            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 773
 774        sequence_opts = ""
 775        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 776            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 777            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 778
 779        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 780        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 781
 782        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 783
 784    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 785        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 786    ) -> str:
 787        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
 788        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 789        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 790
 791    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 792        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 793    ) -> str:
 794        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 795
 796    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 797        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 798
 799    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 800        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 801
 802    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 803        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 804        if desc is not None:
 805            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 806        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 807
 808    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 809        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 810        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 811        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 812        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 813        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}"
 814
 815    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 816        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 817
 818    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 819        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 820        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 821        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 822
 823        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 824
 825        properties_sql = ""
 826        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 827            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 828        ):
 829            properties_sql = self.sql(
 830                exp.Properties(
 831                    expressions=[
 832                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 833                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 834                    ]
 835                )
 836            )
 837
 838        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 839        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 840
 841        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 842        if expression_sql:
 843            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 844
 845            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 846                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 847                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 848                        exp.Properties(
 849                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 850                        ),
 851                        wrapped=False,
 852                    )
 853                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 854                else:
 855                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 856
 857        postindex_props_sql = ""
 858        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 859            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 860                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 861                wrapped=False,
 862                prefix=" ",
 863            )
 864
 865        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 866        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 867        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 868
 869        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 870        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 871
 872        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 873        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 874            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 875                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 876                sep=" ",
 877                prefix=" ",
 878                wrapped=False,
 879            )
 880
 881        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 882
 883        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 884        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 885            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 886                exp.Properties(
 887                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 888                ),
 889                sep=" ",
 890                prefix=" ",
 891                wrapped=False,
 892            )
 893
 894        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 895        no_schema_binding = (
 896            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 897        )
 898
 899        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 900        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 901
 902        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 903        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 904
 905    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 906        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 907        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
 908        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
 909        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
 910
 911    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 912        extended = " EXTENDED" if expression.args.get("extended") else ""
 913        return f"DESCRIBE{extended} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 914
 915    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
 916        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
 917        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
 918
 919    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 920        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 921        if with_:
 922            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 923        return sql
 924
 925    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 926        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 927        recursive = (
 928            "RECURSIVE "
 929            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
 930            else ""
 931        )
 932
 933        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 934
 935    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 936        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 937        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 938
 939    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 940        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 941        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 942        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 943
 944        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
 945            columns = ""
 946            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
 947
 948        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
 949            alias = "_t"
 950
 951        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 952
 953    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 954        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 955        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
 956            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
 957        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 958
 959    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 960        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 961        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
 962            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
 963        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 964
 965    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 966        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 967        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
 968            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
 969        return this
 970
 971    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
 972        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 973        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
 974
 975        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
 976            escape = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if escape else ""
 977            return f"{self.dialect.UNICODE_START}{this}{self.dialect.UNICODE_END}{escape}"
 978
 979        if escape:
 980            pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
 981        else:
 982            pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
 983
 984        this = pattern.sub(r"\\u\1", this)
 985        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
 986
 987    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 988        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
 989        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
 990
 991    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
 992        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 993        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 994        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
 995        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 996
 997    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 998        type_value = expression.this
 999
1000        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1001            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1002        else:
1003            type_sql = (
1004                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1005                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1006                else type_value
1007            )
1008
1009        nested = ""
1010        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1011        values = ""
1012
1013        if interior:
1014            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1015                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1016                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1017                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1018                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1019                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1020            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1021                nested = f" {interior}"
1022            else:
1023                nested = f"({interior})"
1024
1025        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1026        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1027            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1028            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1029        ):
1030            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1031
1032        return type_sql
1033
1034    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1035        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1036        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1037        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1038        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1039
1040    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1041        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1042        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1043        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1044        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1045        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1046        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1047        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1048        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1049        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1050        if self.RETURNING_END:
1051            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1052        else:
1053            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1054        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1055
1056    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1057        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1058        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1059        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1060        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1061        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1062        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1063        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1064        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1065        return (
1066            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1067        )
1068
1069    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1070        return self.prepend_ctes(
1071            expression,
1072            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
1073        )
1074
1075    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1076        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1077
1078    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1079        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1080        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1081        count = expression.args.get("count")
1082        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1083        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1084            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1085        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1086        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1087
1088    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1089        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1090            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1091            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1092            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1093
1094        agg = expression.this
1095        agg_arg = agg.this
1096        cond = expression.expression.this
1097        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1098        return self.sql(agg)
1099
1100    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1101        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1102            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1103            return ""
1104
1105        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1106
1107    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1108        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1109        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1110        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1111        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1112        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1113        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1114        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1115        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1116        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1117        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1118        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1119        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1120        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1121        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1122        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1123        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1124        if include:
1125            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1126        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{include}{partition_by}{where}"
1127
1128    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1129        text = expression.name
1130        lower = text.lower()
1131        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1132        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1133        if (
1134            expression.quoted
1135            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1136            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1137            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1138        ):
1139            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1140        return text
1141
1142    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1143        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1144        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1145        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1146        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1147        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1148
1149    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1150        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1151        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1152
1153    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1154        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1155
1156    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1157        root_properties = []
1158        with_properties = []
1159
1160        for p in expression.expressions:
1161            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1162            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1163                with_properties.append(p)
1164            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1165                root_properties.append(p)
1166
1167        return self.root_properties(
1168            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1169        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1170
1171    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1172        if properties.expressions:
1173            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1174        return ""
1175
1176    def properties(
1177        self,
1178        properties: exp.Properties,
1179        prefix: str = "",
1180        sep: str = ", ",
1181        suffix: str = "",
1182        wrapped: bool = True,
1183    ) -> str:
1184        if properties.expressions:
1185            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1186            if expressions:
1187                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1188                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1189        return ""
1190
1191    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1192        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1193
1194    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1195        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1196        for p in properties.expressions:
1197            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1198            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1199                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1200            else:
1201                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1202
1203        return properties_locs
1204
1205    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1206        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1207            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1208        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1209
1210    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1211        property_cls = expression.__class__
1212        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1213            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1214
1215        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1216        if not property_name:
1217            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1218
1219        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1220
1221    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1222        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1223        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1224        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1225
1226    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1227        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1228        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1229        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1230
1231    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1232        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1233        local = expression.args.get("local")
1234        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1235        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1236        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1237        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1238        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1239
1240    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1241        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1242        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1243        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1244
1245    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1246        if expression.args.get("default"):
1247            property = "DEFAULT"
1248        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1249            property = "ON"
1250        else:
1251            property = "OFF"
1252        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1253
1254    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1255        if expression.args.get("no"):
1256            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1257        if expression.args.get("default"):
1258            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1259
1260        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1261        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1262
1263    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1264        default = expression.args.get("default")
1265        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1266        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1267        if default or minimum or maximum:
1268            if default:
1269                prop = "DEFAULT"
1270            elif minimum:
1271                prop = "MINIMUM"
1272            else:
1273                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1274            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1275        units = expression.args.get("units")
1276        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1277        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1278
1279    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1280        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1281        always = expression.args.get("always")
1282        default = expression.args.get("default")
1283        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1284        never = expression.args.get("never")
1285
1286        if autotemp is not None:
1287            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1288        elif always:
1289            prop = "ALWAYS"
1290        elif default:
1291            prop = "DEFAULT"
1292        elif manual:
1293            prop = "MANUAL"
1294        elif never:
1295            prop = "NEVER"
1296        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1297
1298    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1299        no = expression.args.get("no")
1300        no = " NO" if no else ""
1301        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1302        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1303
1304        for_ = ""
1305        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1306            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1307        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1308            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1309        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1310            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1311        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1312
1313    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1314        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1315            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1316        if expression.this:
1317            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1318            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1319            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1320
1321        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1322        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1323        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1324
1325    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1326        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1327
1328        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1329        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1330            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1331        else:
1332            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1333
1334        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1335
1336    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1337        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1338        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1339        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1340        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1341        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1342        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1343        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1344
1345    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1346        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1347        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1348        statistics_sql = ""
1349        if statistics is not None:
1350            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1351        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1352
1353    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1354        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
1355
1356        if expression.this:
1357            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
1358            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
1359
1360            if expression.expression:
1361                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1362                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
1363
1364            sql = f"{sql})"
1365
1366        return f"{sql})"
1367
1368    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1369        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1370
1371        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1372            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1373        else:
1374            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1375
1376        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1377        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1378        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1379
1380        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1381
1382        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1383        partition_sql = (
1384            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1385        )
1386        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1387        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1388        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1389        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1390        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1391        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1392
1393        if self.RETURNING_END:
1394            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1395        else:
1396            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1397
1398        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1399        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1400
1401    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1402        return self.prepend_ctes(
1403            expression,
1404            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1405        )
1406
1407    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1408        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1409
1410    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1411        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1412
1413    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1414        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1415        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1416        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1417        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1418        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1419
1420    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1421        return expression.name
1422
1423    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1424        return expression.name
1425
1426    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1427        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1428        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1429        if constraint:
1430            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1431        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1432        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1433        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1434        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1435        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1436        if expressions:
1437            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1438        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1439
1440    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1441        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1442
1443    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1444        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1445        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1446        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1447        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1448        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1449        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1450        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1451        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1452        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1453        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1454        null = expression.args.get("null")
1455        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1456        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1457
1458    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1459        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1460
1461    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1462        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1463        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1464        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1465        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1466
1467    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1468        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1469        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1470        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1471        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1472
1473    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1474        table = ".".join(
1475            self.sql(part)
1476            for part in (
1477                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1478                expression.args.get("db"),
1479                expression.args.get("this"),
1480            )
1481            if part is not None
1482        )
1483
1484        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1485        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1486        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1487        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1488        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1489        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1490        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1491        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1492        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1493        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1494
1495        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1496        if file_format:
1497            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1498            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1499            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1500
1501        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1502        if ordinality:
1503            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1504            alias = ""
1505
1506        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1507        if when:
1508            table = f"{table} {when}"
1509
1510        return f"{table}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1511
1512    def tablesample_sql(
1513        self,
1514        expression: exp.TableSample,
1515        sep: str = " AS ",
1516        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1517    ) -> str:
1518        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1519            table = expression.this.copy()
1520            table.set("alias", None)
1521            this = self.sql(table)
1522            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1523        else:
1524            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1525            alias = ""
1526
1527        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1528        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1529        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1530        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1531        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1532        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1533        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1534        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1535        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1536
1537        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1538        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1539            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1540
1541        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1542        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1543            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1544
1545        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1546        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1547            expr = f"({expr})"
1548
1549        return (
1550            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1551        )
1552
1553    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1554        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1555
1556        if expression.this:
1557            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1558            if not expressions:
1559                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1560
1561            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1562            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1563            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1564            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1565            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1566
1567        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1568        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1569        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1570        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1571        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1572        if include_nulls is not None:
1573            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1574        else:
1575            nulls = ""
1576        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1577
1578    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1579        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1580        kind = expression.text("kind")
1581        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1582        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1583
1584    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1585        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1586
1587    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1588        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1589        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1590        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1591        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1592        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1593        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1594        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1595        if self.RETURNING_END:
1596            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1597        else:
1598            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1599        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1600        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1601
1602    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1603        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1604        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1605            args = self.expressions(expression)
1606            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1607            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1608            values = (
1609                f"({values})"
1610                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1611                else values
1612            )
1613            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1614
1615        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1616        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1617        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1618
1619        selects: t.List[exp.Subqueryable] = []
1620
1621        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1622            row = tup.expressions
1623
1624            if i == 0 and column_names:
1625                row = [
1626                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1627                ]
1628
1629            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1630
1631        if self.pretty:
1632            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1633            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1634            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1635            subqueryable = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1636            return self.subquery_sql(
1637                subqueryable.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False)
1638            )
1639
1640        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1641        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1642        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1643
1644    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1645        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1646
1647    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1648        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1649        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1650        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1651
1652    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1653        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1654
1655    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1656        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1657
1658        if expression.args.get("all"):
1659            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1660
1661        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1662        grouping_sets = (
1663            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1664        )
1665
1666        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1667        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1668            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1669        else:
1670            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1671            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1672
1673        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1674        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1675            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1676        else:
1677            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1678            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1679
1680        groupings = csv(
1681            grouping_sets,
1682            cube_sql,
1683            rollup_sql,
1684            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1685            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1686        )
1687
1688        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1689            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1690
1691        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1692
1693    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1694        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1695        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1696
1697    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1698        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1699        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1700        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1701        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY {connect}")
1702        return start + connect
1703
1704    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1705        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1706
1707    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1708        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1709            side = None
1710        else:
1711            side = expression.side
1712
1713        op_sql = " ".join(
1714            op
1715            for op in (
1716                expression.method,
1717                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1718                side,
1719                expression.kind,
1720                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1721            )
1722            if op
1723        )
1724        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1725        using = expression.args.get("using")
1726
1727        if not on_sql and using:
1728            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1729
1730        this = expression.this
1731        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1732
1733        if on_sql:
1734            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1735            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1736            if using:
1737                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1738            else:
1739                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1740        elif not op_sql:
1741            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
1742                return f" {this_sql}"
1743
1744            return f", {this_sql}"
1745
1746        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1747        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1748
1749    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1750        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1751        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1752        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1753
1754    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1755        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
1756
1757        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
1758        if cross_apply is True:
1759            op = "INNER JOIN "
1760        elif cross_apply is False:
1761            op = "LEFT JOIN "
1762        else:
1763            op = ""
1764
1765        return f"{op}LATERAL"
1766
1767    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1768        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1769
1770        if expression.args.get("view"):
1771            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1772            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1773            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1774            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1775            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1776            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1777
1778        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1779        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1780        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
1781
1782    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1783        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1784
1785        args = [
1786            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
1787            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1788            if e
1789        ]
1790
1791        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
1792        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if any(top and not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
1793        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}"
1794
1795    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1796        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1797        expression = expression.expression
1798        expression = (
1799            self._simplify_unless_literal(expression) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else expression
1800        )
1801        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression)}"
1802
1803    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1804        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1805        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1806        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1807        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1808        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1809        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1810        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1811        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1812
1813    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1814        expressions = (
1815            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1816        )
1817        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1818        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1819
1820    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1821        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1822
1823    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1824        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1825            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1826            return ""
1827
1828        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1829        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1830        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1831        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1832
1833        if wait is not None:
1834            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1835                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1836            else:
1837                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1838
1839        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1840
1841    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1842        text = expression.this or ""
1843        if expression.is_string:
1844            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1845        return text
1846
1847    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1848        text = text.replace(self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1849        if self.dialect.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES:
1850            text = "".join(self.dialect.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES.get(ch, ch) for ch in text)
1851        elif self.pretty:
1852            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1853        return text
1854
1855    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1856        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1857        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1858        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1859        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1860        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1861        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1862        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1863        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1864        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1865        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1866        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1867
1868    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1869        return "NULL"
1870
1871    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1872        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1873
1874    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1875        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1876        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1877        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
1878        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1879        interpolated_values = [
1880            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
1881            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
1882        ]
1883        interpolate = (
1884            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
1885        )
1886        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
1887
1888    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
1889        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1890        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
1891        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
1892        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
1893        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
1894        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
1895        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
1896
1897    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1898        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1899
1900    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1901        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1902
1903    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1904        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1905
1906    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1907        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1908        asc = not desc
1909
1910        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1911        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1912        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1913        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1914        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1915
1916        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1917
1918        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
1919        nulls_sort_change = ""
1920        if nulls_first and (
1921            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1922        ):
1923            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1924        elif (
1925            nulls_last
1926            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1927            and not nulls_are_last
1928        ):
1929            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1930
1931        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
1932        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1933            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
1934            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
1935                self.unsupported(
1936                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
1937                )
1938                nulls_sort_change = ""
1939            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
1940                if expression.this.is_int:
1941                    self.unsupported(
1942                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
1943                    )
1944                else:
1945                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
1946                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
1947                nulls_sort_change = ""
1948
1949        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
1950        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
1951
1952        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
1953
1954    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1955        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1956        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1957        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1958        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1959        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1960        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1961        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1962        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1963        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1964        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1965        definition_sqls = [
1966            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1967            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1968        ]
1969        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1970        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1971        body = "".join(
1972            (
1973                partition,
1974                order,
1975                measures,
1976                rows,
1977                after,
1978                pattern,
1979                define,
1980            )
1981        )
1982        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1983        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1984        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1985
1986    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1987        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1988
1989        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1990        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1991
1992        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1993            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1994        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1995            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1996
1997        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1998
1999        offset_limit_modifiers = (
2000            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
2001            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
2002            else []
2003        )
2004
2005        return csv(
2006            *sqls,
2007            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2008            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2009            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2010            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2011            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2012            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2013            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2014            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
2015            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2016            *offset_limit_modifiers,
2017            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2018            sep="",
2019        )
2020
2021    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2022        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2023    ) -> t.List[str]:
2024        return [
2025            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2026            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2027        ]
2028
2029    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2030        return [
2031            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
2032            (
2033                self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
2034                if expression.args.get("windows")
2035                else ""
2036            ),
2037            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
2038            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
2039            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
2040        ]
2041
2042    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2043        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2044        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2045        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2046
2047    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2048        into = expression.args.get("into")
2049        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2050            into.pop()
2051
2052        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2053        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2054        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2055        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2056        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2057        top = (
2058            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2059            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
2060            else ""
2061        )
2062
2063        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2064
2065        if kind:
2066            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2067                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2068            else:
2069                if kind == "STRUCT":
2070                    expressions = self.expressions(
2071                        sqls=[
2072                            self.sql(
2073                                exp.Struct(
2074                                    expressions=[
2075                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
2076                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
2077                                        )
2078                                        for e in expression.expressions
2079                                    ]
2080                                )
2081                            )
2082                        ]
2083                    )
2084                kind = ""
2085
2086        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2087        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2088        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2089        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2090        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2091            expression,
2092            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2093            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2094            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2095        )
2096
2097        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2098
2099        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2100            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2101                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2102            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2103                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2104            else:
2105                table_kind = ""
2106            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2107
2108        return sql
2109
2110    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2111        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2112        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2113        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2114
2115    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2116        if expression.expressions:
2117            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2118        return ""
2119
2120    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2121        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2122        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2123        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2124        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2125        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
2126
2127    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2128        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2129        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2130
2131    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2132        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2133        kind = expression.text("kind")
2134        if kind:
2135            kind = f"{kind}."
2136        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2137
2138    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2139        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
2140
2141    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2142        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2143        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2144
2145        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2146        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2147
2148        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2149        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2150
2151    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2152        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2153        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2154
2155    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2156        return self.prepend_ctes(
2157            expression,
2158            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
2159        )
2160
2161    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2162        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2163        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2164        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2165        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2166
2167    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2168        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2169
2170        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2171        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2172
2173        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2174            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2175                alias.append("columns", offset)
2176
2177        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2178            columns = alias.columns
2179            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2180        else:
2181            alias = self.sql(alias)
2182
2183        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2184        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2185            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2186        else:
2187            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2188                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2189            elif offset:
2190                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2191            else:
2192                suffix = alias
2193
2194        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2195
2196    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2197        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2198        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2199
2200    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2201        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2202        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2203        order = expression.args.get("order")
2204        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2205        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2206        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2207        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2208
2209        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2210
2211        first = expression.args.get("first")
2212        if first is None:
2213            first = ""
2214        else:
2215            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2216
2217        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2218            return f"{this} {alias}"
2219
2220        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2221        return f"{this} ({args})"
2222
2223    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2224        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2225        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2226
2227    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2228        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2229        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2230        end = (
2231            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2232            or "CURRENT ROW"
2233        )
2234        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2235
2236    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2237        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2238        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2239        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2240
2241    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2242        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2243        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2244        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2245        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2246
2247    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2248        expressions = apply_index_offset(
2249            expression.this,
2250            expression.expressions,
2251            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2252        )
2253        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2254        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2255
2256    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2257        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2258
2259    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2260        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2261        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
2262            this = self.wrap(this)
2263        return f"ANY {this}"
2264
2265    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2266        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2267
2268    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2269        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2270        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2271
2272        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2273            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2274            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2275
2276        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2277
2278        if default:
2279            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2280
2281        statements.append("END")
2282
2283        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
2284            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2285
2286        return " ".join(statements)
2287
2288    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2289        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2290        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2291        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2292
2293    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2294        order = expression.args.get("order")
2295        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2296        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2297
2298    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2299        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2300        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2301        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2302
2303    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2304        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2305
2306        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2307            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2308        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2309            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2310        else:
2311            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2312
2313    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2314        args = expression.expressions
2315        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2316            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2317
2318        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2319            args = [exp.cast(e, "text") for e in args]
2320
2321        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2322            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2323
2324        return args
2325
2326    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2327        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2328
2329        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2330        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2331            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2332
2333        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2334
2335    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2336        return self.func(
2337            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2338        )
2339
2340    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2341        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2342        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2343
2344    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2345        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2346        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2347        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2348        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2349        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2350        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2351        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2352        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2353
2354    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2355        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2356        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2357        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2358        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2359
2360    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2361        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2362
2363    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2364        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2365        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2366        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2367
2368    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2369        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2370
2371    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2372        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2373
2374    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2375        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2376        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2377
2378        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2379        if unique_keys is not None:
2380            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2381        else:
2382            unique_keys = ""
2383
2384        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2385        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2386        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2387        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2388
2389        return self.func(
2390            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2391            *expression.expressions,
2392            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2393        )
2394
2395    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2396        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2397
2398    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2399        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2400        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2401        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2402        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2403        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2404        return self.func(
2405            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2406        )
2407
2408    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2409        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2410        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2411        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2412        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2413        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2414        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2415        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2416        return self.func(
2417            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2418            this,
2419            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2420        )
2421
2422    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2423        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2424        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2425        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2426
2427        if nested_schema:
2428            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2429
2430        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2431        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2432        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2433        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2434
2435    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2436        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2437
2438    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2439        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2440        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2441        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2442        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2443        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2444        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2445        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2446        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2447        return self.func(
2448            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2449        )
2450
2451    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2452        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2453        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2454        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2455        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2456        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2457        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2458
2459    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2460        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2461        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2462        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2463        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2464        with_ = (
2465            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2466            if expressions
2467            else ""
2468        )
2469        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2470
2471    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2472        query = expression.args.get("query")
2473        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2474        field = expression.args.get("field")
2475        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2476
2477        if query:
2478            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2479        elif unnest:
2480            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2481        elif field:
2482            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2483        else:
2484            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2485
2486        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2487
2488    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2489        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2490
2491    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2492        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2493        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2494            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2495        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2496
2497        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2498            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2499            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2500
2501        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2502        if this:
2503            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2504            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2505
2506        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2507
2508    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2509        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2510
2511    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2512        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2513        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2514        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2515        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2516        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2517        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2518
2519    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2520        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
2521
2522    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2523        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2524            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2525        else:
2526            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2527            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2528
2529        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2530
2531    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2532        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2533        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2534        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2535        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2536
2537    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2538        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2539
2540    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2541        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2542        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2543        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2544
2545    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2546        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2547        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2548
2549        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2550            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2551        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2552            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2553
2554        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2555
2556    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2557        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2558
2559    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2560        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2561        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2562        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2563
2564    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2565        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2566        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2567        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2568
2569    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2570        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2571        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2572        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
2573
2574    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2575        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2576
2577    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2578        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
2579
2580    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2581        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
2582
2583    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2584        if not self.pretty:
2585            return self.binary(expression, op)
2586
2587        sqls = tuple(
2588            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2589            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2590        )
2591
2592        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2593        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
2594
2595    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2596        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2597
2598    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2599        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2600
2601    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2602        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2603
2604    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2605        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2606
2607    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2608        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2609
2610    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2611        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2612
2613    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2614        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2615        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2616        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2617        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2618        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql})"
2619
2620    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2621        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2622        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2623
2624    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2625        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2626            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2627        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2628
2629    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2630        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2631
2632    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2633        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2634        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2635        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2636        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2637        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2638
2639    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2640        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2641        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2642        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2643        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2644        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2645        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2646        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2647        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2648        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2649
2650    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2651        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2652        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2653        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2654        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2655
2656        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2657            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2658
2659        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2660
2661    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2662        return "BEGIN"
2663
2664    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2665        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2666        if chain is not None:
2667            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2668
2669        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2670
2671    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2672        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2673        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2674        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2675
2676    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2677        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2678
2679        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2680        if dtype:
2681            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2682            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2683            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2684            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2685            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2686
2687        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2688        if default:
2689            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2690
2691        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2692        if comment:
2693            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
2694
2695        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2696            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2697
2698        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2699
2700    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2701        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2702            # Remove db from tables
2703            expression = expression.transform(
2704                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2705            )
2706        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2707        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2708
2709    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
2710        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2711        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
2712        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
2713        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
2714
2715    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2716        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2717
2718        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2719            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
2720        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2721            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2722        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2723            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2724        else:
2725            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2726
2727        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2728        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2729        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2730
2731    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2732        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
2733            return self.expressions(
2734                expression,
2735                key="actions",
2736                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
2737            )
2738        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
2739
2740    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2741        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2742        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2743        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2744
2745    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2746        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2747        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2748        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2749
2750        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2751        if enforced is not None:
2752            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2753
2754        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2755
2756    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2757        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2758        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2759
2760        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2761        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2762        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2763
2764    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2765        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2766
2767    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2768        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2769
2770    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2771        return self.sql(
2772            exp.Cast(
2773                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2774                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2775            )
2776        )
2777
2778    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2779        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2780            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2781        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2782
2783    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2784        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
2785
2786        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
2787            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
2788
2789        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
2790            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.FLOAT_TYPES) and not r.is_type(
2791                *exp.DataType.FLOAT_TYPES
2792            ):
2793                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
2794
2795        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
2796            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
2797                return self.sql(
2798                    exp.cast(
2799                        l / r,
2800                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
2801                    )
2802                )
2803
2804        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2805
2806    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2807        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2808
2809    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2810        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2811
2812    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2813        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2814
2815    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2816        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2817
2818    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
2819        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
2820
2821    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2822        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2823
2824    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2825        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2826
2827    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2828        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2829
2830    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2831        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2832
2833    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2834        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2835
2836    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2837        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2838
2839    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2840        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2841            return self.sql(
2842                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2843            )
2844        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2845
2846    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2847        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2848
2849    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2850        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2851
2852    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2853        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2854
2855    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2856        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2857
2858    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2859        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2860
2861    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2862        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2863
2864    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2865        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2866
2867    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2868        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2869
2870    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2871        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2872
2873    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2874        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2875
2876    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2877        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2878
2879    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2880        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2881
2882    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2883        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2884
2885    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2886        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
2887
2888    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
2889        this = expression.this
2890        expr = expression.expression
2891
2892        if not self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST:
2893            this, expr = expr, this
2894
2895        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
2896
2897    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2898        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2899        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2900        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2901        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2902        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2903
2904    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2905        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2906        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2907
2908    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2909        args = []
2910
2911        for key in expression.arg_types:
2912            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2913
2914            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2915                for value in arg_value:
2916                    args.append(value)
2917            elif arg_value is not None:
2918                args.append(arg_value)
2919
2920        if self.normalize_functions:
2921            name = expression.sql_name()
2922        else:
2923            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2924
2925        return self.func(name, *args)
2926
2927    def func(
2928        self,
2929        name: str,
2930        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2931        prefix: str = "(",
2932        suffix: str = ")",
2933    ) -> str:
2934        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2935
2936    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2937        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2938        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2939            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2940        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2941
2942    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2943        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2944
2945    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2946        return format_time(
2947            self.sql(expression, "format"),
2948            self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
2949            self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
2950        )
2951
2952    def expressions(
2953        self,
2954        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2955        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2956        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2957        flat: bool = False,
2958        indent: bool = True,
2959        skip_first: bool = False,
2960        sep: str = ", ",
2961        prefix: str = "",
2962    ) -> str:
2963        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2964
2965        if not expressions:
2966            return ""
2967
2968        if flat:
2969            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2970
2971        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2972
2973        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2974        pad = " " * self.pad
2975        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2976
2977        result_sqls = []
2978        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2979            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2980            if not sql:
2981                continue
2982
2983            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2984
2985            if self.pretty:
2986                if self.leading_comma:
2987                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2988                else:
2989                    result_sqls.append(
2990                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2991                    )
2992            else:
2993                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2994
2995        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2996        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
2997
2998    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2999        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3000        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3001        if flat:
3002            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3003        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3004
3005    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3006        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3007        if not property_name:
3008            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3009        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3010
3011    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Union, op: str) -> str:
3012        this = self.maybe_comment(self.sql(expression, "this"), comments=expression.comments)
3013        op = self.seg(op)
3014        return self.query_modifiers(
3015            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3016        )
3017
3018    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3019        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3020
3021    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3022        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3023
3024    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3025        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3026        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3027        expressions = (
3028            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3029        )
3030        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3031
3032    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3033        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3034        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3035        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3036
3037    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3038        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3039
3040    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3041        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3042        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3043        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3044        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3045
3046        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3047        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3048            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
3049            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
3050                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
3051        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3052            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3053                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3054            else:
3055                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3056        else:
3057            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3058        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3059
3060    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3061        table = expression.this
3062        table_alias = ""
3063
3064        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3065        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3066            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3067            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3068
3069        this = self.sql(table)
3070        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3071        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3072        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
3073
3074        return self.prepend_ctes(
3075            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
3076        )
3077
3078    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3079        if expression.args.get("format"):
3080            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3081
3082        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
3083
3084    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3085        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3086        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3087        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3088        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3089        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3090
3091    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3092        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3093        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3094        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3095        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3096
3097    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3098        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3099
3100    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3101        return ""
3102
3103    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3104        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3105        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3106        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3107        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3108        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3109
3110    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3111        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3112        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3113
3114        if having:
3115            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3116
3117        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3118
3119    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3120        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3121        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3122        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3123        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3124        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3125        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3126        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3127        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3128        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3129        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3130        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3131        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3132        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3133
3134    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3135        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3136        if key_block_size:
3137            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3138
3139        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3140        if using:
3141            return f"USING {using}"
3142
3143        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3144        if parser:
3145            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3146
3147        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3148        if comment:
3149            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3150
3151        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3152        if visible is not None:
3153            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3154
3155        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3156        if engine_attr:
3157            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3158
3159        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3160        if secondary_engine_attr:
3161            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3162
3163        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3164        return ""
3165
3166    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3167        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3168        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3169        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3170        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3171        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3172        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3173        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3174        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
3175        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3176        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3177        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{schema}{options}"
3178
3179    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3180        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3181            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3182
3183        case = exp.Case().when(
3184            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3185            expression.args["true"],
3186            copy=False,
3187        )
3188        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3189        if else_cond:
3190            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3191
3192        return self.sql(case)
3193
3194    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3195        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3196        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3197        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3198        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3199        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3200        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3201
3202    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3203        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3204
3205    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3206        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3207
3208    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3209        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3210        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3211        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3212        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3213        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3214        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3215
3216    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3217        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3218        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3219        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3220
3221    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3222        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3223        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3224        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3225
3226    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3227        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3228
3229    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3230        arg = expression.this
3231        if not arg.type:
3232            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3233
3234            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3235
3236        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3237            return self.sql(arg)
3238
3239        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3240        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.Array(expressions=[arg])))
3241
3242    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3243        this = expression.this
3244        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3245            return self.sql(this)
3246
3247        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "time"))
3248
3249    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3250        this = expression.this
3251        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3252
3253        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3254            return self.sql(
3255                exp.cast(exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]), "date")
3256            )
3257
3258        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3259            return self.sql(this)
3260
3261        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "date"))
3262
3263    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3264        return self.sql(
3265            exp.func(
3266                "DATEDIFF",
3267                expression.this,
3268                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), "date"),
3269                "day",
3270            )
3271        )
3272
3273    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3274        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3275            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3276
3277        unit = expression.text("unit")
3278        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3279            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3280
3281        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3282
3283    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3284        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3285            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3286
3287            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3288
3289        return expression
3290
3291    def _ensure_string_if_null(self, values: t.List[exp.Expression]) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
3292        return [
3293            exp.func("COALESCE", exp.cast(value, "text"), exp.Literal.string(""))
3294            for value in values
3295            if value
3296        ]

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

Arguments:
  • pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
  • identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  • normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
  • pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
  • unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True, dialect: Union[str, sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect, Type[sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect], NoneType] = None)
432    def __init__(
433        self,
434        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
435        identify: str | bool = False,
436        normalize: bool = False,
437        pad: int = 2,
438        indent: int = 2,
439        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
440        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
441        max_unsupported: int = 3,
442        leading_comma: bool = False,
443        max_text_width: int = 80,
444        comments: bool = True,
445        dialect: DialectType = None,
446    ):
447        import sqlglot
448        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
449
450        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
451        self.identify = identify
452        self.normalize = normalize
453        self.pad = pad
454        self._indent = indent
455        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
456        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
457        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
458        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
459        self.comments = comments
460        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
461
462        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
463        self.normalize_functions = (
464            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
465        )
466
467        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
468        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
469            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
470        )
471        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
472            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
473        )
TRANSFORMS = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalSpan'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NonClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: Optional[bool] = True
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXPLICIT_UNION = False
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINT_SEP = ', '
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
RETURNING_END = True
COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = 'TABLESAMPLE'
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = 'SEED'
COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
ENSURE_BOOLS = False
CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ':'
INSERT_OVERWRITE = ' OVERWRITE TABLE'
SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.TINYTEXT: 'TINYTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.TINYBLOB: 'TINYBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET'}
STAR_MAPPING = {'except': 'EXCEPT', 'replace': 'REPLACE'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'MICROSECONDS': 'MICROSECOND', 'SECONDS': 'SECOND', 'MINUTES': 'MINUTE', 'HOURS': 'HOUR', 'DAYS': 'DAY', 'WEEKS': 'WEEK', 'MONTHS': 'MONTH', 'QUARTERS': 'QUARTER', 'YEARS': 'YEAR'}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Binary'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Union'>)
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: Set[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = set()
KEY_VALUE_DEFINITIONS = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Bracket'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EQ'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PropertyEQ'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Slice'>)
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
dialect
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
475    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
476        """
477        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
478
479        Args:
480            expression: The syntax tree.
481            copy: Whether or not to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
482                it is safer to copy.
483
484        Returns:
485            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
486        """
487        if copy:
488            expression = expression.copy()
489
490        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
491
492        self.unsupported_messages = []
493        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
494
495        if self.pretty:
496            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
497
498        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
499            return sql
500
501        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
502            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
503                logger.warning(msg)
504        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
505            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
506
507        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

Arguments:
  • expression: The syntax tree.
  • copy: Whether or not to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so it is safer to copy.
Returns:

The SQL string corresponding to expression.

def preprocess( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> sqlglot.expressions.Expression:
509    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
510        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
511        if (
512            not expression.parent
513            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
514            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
515        ):
516            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
517
518            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
519
520        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
521            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
522
523            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
524
525        return expression

Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
527    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
528        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
529            raise UnsupportedError(message)
530        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
532    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
533        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
535    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
536        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
538    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
539        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
540        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
541        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None) -> str:
543    def maybe_comment(
544        self,
545        sql: str,
546        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
547        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
548    ) -> str:
549        comments = (
550            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
551            if self.comments
552            else None
553        )
554
555        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
556            return sql
557
558        comments_sql = " ".join(
559            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
560        )
561
562        if not comments_sql:
563            return sql
564
565        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
566            return (
567                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
568                if sql[0].isspace()
569                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
570            )
571
572        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
574    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
575        this_sql = self.indent(
576            (
577                self.sql(expression)
578                if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
579                else self.sql(expression, "this")
580            ),
581            level=1,
582            pad=0,
583        )
584        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
586    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
587        original = self.identify
588        self.identify = False
589        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
590        self.identify = original
591        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
593    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
594        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
595            return name.upper()
596        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
597            return name.lower()
598        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
600    def indent(
601        self,
602        sql: str,
603        level: int = 0,
604        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
605        skip_first: bool = False,
606        skip_last: bool = False,
607    ) -> str:
608        if not self.pretty:
609            return sql
610
611        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
612        lines = sql.split("\n")
613
614        return "\n".join(
615            (
616                line
617                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
618                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
619            )
620            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
621        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
623    def sql(
624        self,
625        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
626        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
627        comment: bool = True,
628    ) -> str:
629        if not expression:
630            return ""
631
632        if isinstance(expression, str):
633            return expression
634
635        if key:
636            value = expression.args.get(key)
637            if value:
638                return self.sql(value)
639            return ""
640
641        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
642
643        if callable(transform):
644            sql = transform(self, expression)
645        elif transform:
646            sql = transform
647        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
648            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
649
650            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
651                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
652            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
653                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
654            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
655                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
656            else:
657                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
658        else:
659            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
660
661        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
663    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
664        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
665        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
666        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
668    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
669        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
670        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
671        options = expression.args.get("options")
672        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
673        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
674        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
675        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
676        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
678    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
679        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
680            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
681        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
682        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
684    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
685        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
686
687        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
688            join_mark = ""
689            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
690
691        column = ".".join(
692            self.sql(part)
693            for part in (
694                expression.args.get("catalog"),
695                expression.args.get("db"),
696                expression.args.get("table"),
697                expression.args.get("this"),
698            )
699            if part
700        )
701
702        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
704    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
705        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
706        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
707        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
708        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
710    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
711        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
712        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
713        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
714        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
715        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
716        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
717        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
718        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
719
720        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
721            kind = ""
722
723        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
725    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
726        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
727        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
728        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
730    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
731        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
732        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
733            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
734        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
735            persisted = " PERSISTED"
736        else:
737            persisted = ""
738        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
740    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
741        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
743    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
744        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
745            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
746        else:
747            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
748
749        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
751    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
752        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
753    ) -> str:
754        this = ""
755        if expression.this is not None:
756            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
757            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
758
759        start = expression.args.get("start")
760        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
761        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
762        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
763        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
764        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
765        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
766        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
767        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
768        cycle_sql = ""
769
770        if cycle is not None:
771            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
772            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
773
774        sequence_opts = ""
775        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
776            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
777            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
778
779        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
780        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
781
782        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint) -> str:
784    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
785        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
786    ) -> str:
787        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
788        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
789        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint) -> str:
791    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
792        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
793    ) -> str:
794        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
796    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
797        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
799    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
800        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
802    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
803        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
804        if desc is not None:
805            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
806        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
808    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
809        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
810        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
811        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
812        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
813        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}"
def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: DefaultDict) -> str:
815    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
816        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
818    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
819        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
820        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
821        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
822
823        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
824
825        properties_sql = ""
826        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
827            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
828        ):
829            properties_sql = self.sql(
830                exp.Properties(
831                    expressions=[
832                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
833                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
834                    ]
835                )
836            )
837
838        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
839        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
840
841        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
842        if expression_sql:
843            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
844
845            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
846                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
847                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
848                        exp.Properties(
849                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
850                        ),
851                        wrapped=False,
852                    )
853                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
854                else:
855                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
856
857        postindex_props_sql = ""
858        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
859            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
860                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
861                wrapped=False,
862                prefix=" ",
863            )
864
865        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
866        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
867        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
868
869        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
870        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
871
872        postcreate_props_sql = ""
873        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
874            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
875                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
876                sep=" ",
877                prefix=" ",
878                wrapped=False,
879            )
880
881        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
882
883        postexpression_props_sql = ""
884        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
885            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
886                exp.Properties(
887                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
888                ),
889                sep=" ",
890                prefix=" ",
891                wrapped=False,
892            )
893
894        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
895        no_schema_binding = (
896            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
897        )
898
899        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
900        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
901
902        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
903        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
905    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
906        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
907        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
908        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
909        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
911    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
912        extended = " EXTENDED" if expression.args.get("extended") else ""
913        return f"DESCRIBE{extended} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def heredoc_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Heredoc) -> str:
915    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
916        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
917        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
919    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
920        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
921        if with_:
922            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
923        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
925    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
926        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
927        recursive = (
928            "RECURSIVE "
929            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
930            else ""
931        )
932
933        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
935    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
936        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
937        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
939    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
940        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
941        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
942        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
943
944        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
945            columns = ""
946            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
947
948        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
949            alias = "_t"
950
951        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
953    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
954        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
955        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
956            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
957        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
959    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
960        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
961        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
962            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
963        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
965    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
966        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
967        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
968            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
969        return this
def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnicodeString) -> str:
971    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
972        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
973        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
974
975        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
976            escape = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if escape else ""
977            return f"{self.dialect.UNICODE_START}{this}{self.dialect.UNICODE_END}{escape}"
978
979        if escape:
980            pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
981        else:
982            pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
983
984        this = pattern.sub(r"\\u\1", this)
985        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str:
987    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
988        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
989        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeParam) -> str:
991    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
992        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
993        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
994        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
995        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
 997    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 998        type_value = expression.this
 999
1000        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1001            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1002        else:
1003            type_sql = (
1004                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1005                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1006                else type_value
1007            )
1008
1009        nested = ""
1010        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1011        values = ""
1012
1013        if interior:
1014            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1015                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1016                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1017                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1018                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1019                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1020            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1021                nested = f" {interior}"
1022            else:
1023                nested = f"({interior})"
1024
1025        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1026        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1027            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1028            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1029        ):
1030            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1031
1032        return type_sql
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
1034    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1035        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1036        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1037        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1038        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
1040    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1041        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1042        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1043        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1044        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1045        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1046        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1047        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1048        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1049        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1050        if self.RETURNING_END:
1051            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1052        else:
1053            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1054        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
1056    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1057        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1058        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1059        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1060        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1061        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1062        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1063        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1064        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1065        return (
1066            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1067        )
def except_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1069    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1070        return self.prepend_ctes(
1071            expression,
1072            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
1073        )
def except_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1075    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1076        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
1078    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1079        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1080        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1081        count = expression.args.get("count")
1082        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1083        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1084            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1085        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1086        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
1088    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1089        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1090            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1091            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1092            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1093
1094        agg = expression.this
1095        agg_arg = agg.this
1096        cond = expression.expression.this
1097        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1098        return self.sql(agg)
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
1100    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1101        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1102            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1103            return ""
1104
1105        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
1107    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1108        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1109        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1110        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1111        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1112        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1113        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1114        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1115        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1116        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1117        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1118        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1119        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1120        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1121        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1122        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1123        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1124        if include:
1125            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1126        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{include}{partition_by}{where}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
1128    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1129        text = expression.name
1130        lower = text.lower()
1131        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1132        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1133        if (
1134            expression.quoted
1135            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1136            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1137            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1138        ):
1139            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1140        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1142    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1143        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1144        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1145        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1146        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1147        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str:
1149    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1150        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1151        return f"{prefix}{string}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
1153    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1154        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1156    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1157        root_properties = []
1158        with_properties = []
1159
1160        for p in expression.expressions:
1161            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1162            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1163                with_properties.append(p)
1164            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1165                root_properties.append(p)
1166
1167        return self.root_properties(
1168            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1169        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1171    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1172        if properties.expressions:
1173            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1174        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
1176    def properties(
1177        self,
1178        properties: exp.Properties,
1179        prefix: str = "",
1180        sep: str = ", ",
1181        suffix: str = "",
1182        wrapped: bool = True,
1183    ) -> str:
1184        if properties.expressions:
1185            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1186            if expressions:
1187                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1188                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1189        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1191    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1192        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
def locate_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> DefaultDict:
1194    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1195        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1196        for p in properties.expressions:
1197            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1198            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1199                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1200            else:
1201                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1202
1203        return properties_locs
def property_name( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1205    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1206        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1207            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1208        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
1210    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1211        property_cls = expression.__class__
1212        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1213            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1214
1215        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1216        if not property_name:
1217            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1218
1219        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
1221    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1222        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1223        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1224        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1226    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1227        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1228        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1229        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
1231    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1232        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1233        local = expression.args.get("local")
1234        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1235        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1236        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1237        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1238        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1240    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1241        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1242        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1243        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1245    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1246        if expression.args.get("default"):
1247            property = "DEFAULT"
1248        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1249            property = "ON"
1250        else:
1251            property = "OFF"
1252        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1254    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1255        if expression.args.get("no"):
1256            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1257        if expression.args.get("default"):
1258            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1259
1260        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1261        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1263    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1264        default = expression.args.get("default")
1265        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1266        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1267        if default or minimum or maximum:
1268            if default:
1269                prop = "DEFAULT"
1270            elif minimum:
1271                prop = "MINIMUM"
1272            else:
1273                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1274            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1275        units = expression.args.get("units")
1276        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1277        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1279    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1280        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1281        always = expression.args.get("always")
1282        default = expression.args.get("default")
1283        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1284        never = expression.args.get("never")
1285
1286        if autotemp is not None:
1287            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1288        elif always:
1289            prop = "ALWAYS"
1290        elif default:
1291            prop = "DEFAULT"
1292        elif manual:
1293            prop = "MANUAL"
1294        elif never:
1295            prop = "NEVER"
1296        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1298    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1299        no = expression.args.get("no")
1300        no = " NO" if no else ""
1301        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1302        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1303
1304        for_ = ""
1305        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1306            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1307        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1308            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1309        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1310            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1311        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1313    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1314        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1315            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1316        if expression.this:
1317            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1318            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1319            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1320
1321        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1322        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1323        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1325    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1326        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1327
1328        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1329        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1330            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1331        else:
1332            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1333
1334        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1336    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1337        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1338        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1339        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1340        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1341        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1342        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1343        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1345    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1346        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1347        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1348        statistics_sql = ""
1349        if statistics is not None:
1350            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1351        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def withsystemversioningproperty_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1353    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1354        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
1355
1356        if expression.this:
1357            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
1358            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
1359
1360            if expression.expression:
1361                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1362                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
1363
1364            sql = f"{sql})"
1365
1366        return f"{sql})"
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1368    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1369        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1370
1371        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1372            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1373        else:
1374            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1375
1376        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1377        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1378        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1379
1380        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1381
1382        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1383        partition_sql = (
1384            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1385        )
1386        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1387        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1388        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1389        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1390        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1391        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1392
1393        if self.RETURNING_END:
1394            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1395        else:
1396            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1397
1398        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1399        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def intersect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1401    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1402        return self.prepend_ctes(
1403            expression,
1404            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1405        )
def intersect_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1407    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1408        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1410    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1411        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def kill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kill) -> str:
1413    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1414        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1415        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1416        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1417        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1418        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1420    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1421        return expression.name
def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1423    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1424        return expression.name
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1426    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1427        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1428        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1429        if constraint:
1430            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1431        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1432        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1433        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1434        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1435        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1436        if expressions:
1437            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1438        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1440    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1441        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1443    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1444        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1445        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1446        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1447        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1448        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1449        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1450        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1451        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1452        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1453        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1454        null = expression.args.get("null")
1455        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1456        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint) -> str:
1458    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1459        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1461    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1462        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1463        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1464        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1465        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HistoricalData) -> str:
1467    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1468        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1469        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1470        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1471        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1473    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1474        table = ".".join(
1475            self.sql(part)
1476            for part in (
1477                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1478                expression.args.get("db"),
1479                expression.args.get("this"),
1480            )
1481            if part is not None
1482        )
1483
1484        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1485        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1486        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1487        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1488        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1489        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1490        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1491        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1492        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1493        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1494
1495        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1496        if file_format:
1497            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1498            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1499            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1500
1501        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1502        if ordinality:
1503            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1504            alias = ""
1505
1506        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1507        if when:
1508            table = f"{table} {when}"
1509
1510        return f"{table}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, sep: str = ' AS ', tablesample_keyword: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
1512    def tablesample_sql(
1513        self,
1514        expression: exp.TableSample,
1515        sep: str = " AS ",
1516        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1517    ) -> str:
1518        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1519            table = expression.this.copy()
1520            table.set("alias", None)
1521            this = self.sql(table)
1522            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1523        else:
1524            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1525            alias = ""
1526
1527        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1528        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1529        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1530        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1531        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1532        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1533        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1534        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1535        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1536
1537        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1538        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1539            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1540
1541        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1542        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1543            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1544
1545        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1546        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1547            expr = f"({expr})"
1548
1549        return (
1550            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1551        )
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1553    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1554        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1555
1556        if expression.this:
1557            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1558            if not expressions:
1559                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1560
1561            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1562            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1563            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1564            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1565            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1566
1567        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1568        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1569        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1570        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1571        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1572        if include_nulls is not None:
1573            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1574        else:
1575            nulls = ""
1576        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
def version_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Version) -> str:
1578    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1579        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1580        kind = expression.text("kind")
1581        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1582        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
1584    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1585        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
1587    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1588        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1589        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1590        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1591        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1592        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1593        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1594        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1595        if self.RETURNING_END:
1596            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1597        else:
1598            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1599        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1600        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values) -> str:
1602    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1603        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1604        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1605            args = self.expressions(expression)
1606            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1607            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1608            values = (
1609                f"({values})"
1610                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1611                else values
1612            )
1613            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1614
1615        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1616        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1617        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1618
1619        selects: t.List[exp.Subqueryable] = []
1620
1621        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1622            row = tup.expressions
1623
1624            if i == 0 and column_names:
1625                row = [
1626                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1627                ]
1628
1629            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1630
1631        if self.pretty:
1632            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1633            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1634            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1635            subqueryable = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1636            return self.subquery_sql(
1637                subqueryable.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False)
1638            )
1639
1640        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1641        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1642        return f"({unions}){alias}"
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
1644    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1645        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
1647    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1648        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1649        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1650        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
1652    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1653        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
1655    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1656        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1657
1658        if expression.args.get("all"):
1659            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1660
1661        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1662        grouping_sets = (
1663            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1664        )
1665
1666        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1667        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1668            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1669        else:
1670            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1671            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1672
1673        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1674        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1675            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1676        else:
1677            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1678            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1679
1680        groupings = csv(
1681            grouping_sets,
1682            cube_sql,
1683            rollup_sql,
1684            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1685            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1686        )
1687
1688        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1689            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1690
1691        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
1693    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1694        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1695        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def connect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connect) -> str:
1697    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1698        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1699        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1700        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1701        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY {connect}")
1702        return start + connect
def prior_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Prior) -> str:
1704    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1705        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
1707    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1708        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1709            side = None
1710        else:
1711            side = expression.side
1712
1713        op_sql = " ".join(
1714            op
1715            for op in (
1716                expression.method,
1717                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1718                side,
1719                expression.kind,
1720                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1721            )
1722            if op
1723        )
1724        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1725        using = expression.args.get("using")
1726
1727        if not on_sql and using:
1728            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1729
1730        this = expression.this
1731        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1732
1733        if on_sql:
1734            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1735            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1736            if using:
1737                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1738            else:
1739                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1740        elif not op_sql:
1741            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
1742                return f" {this_sql}"
1743
1744            return f", {this_sql}"
1745
1746        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1747        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
1749    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1750        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1751        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1752        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
1754    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1755        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
1756
1757        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
1758        if cross_apply is True:
1759            op = "INNER JOIN "
1760        elif cross_apply is False:
1761            op = "LEFT JOIN "
1762        else:
1763            op = ""
1764
1765        return f"{op}LATERAL"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
1767    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1768        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1769
1770        if expression.args.get("view"):
1771            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1772            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1773            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1774            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1775            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1776            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1777
1778        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1779        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1780        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1782    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1783        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1784
1785        args = [
1786            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
1787            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1788            if e
1789        ]
1790
1791        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
1792        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if any(top and not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
1793        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
1795    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1796        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1797        expression = expression.expression
1798        expression = (
1799            self._simplify_unless_literal(expression) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else expression
1800        )
1801        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression)}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
1803    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1804        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1805        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1806        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1807        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1808        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1809        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1810        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1811        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
1813    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1814        expressions = (
1815            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1816        )
1817        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1818        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
1820    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1821        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
1823    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1824        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1825            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1826            return ""
1827
1828        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1829        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1830        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1831        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1832
1833        if wait is not None:
1834            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1835                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1836            else:
1837                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1838
1839        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
1841    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1842        text = expression.this or ""
1843        if expression.is_string:
1844            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1845        return text
def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1847    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1848        text = text.replace(self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1849        if self.dialect.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES:
1850            text = "".join(self.dialect.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES.get(ch, ch) for ch in text)
1851        elif self.pretty:
1852            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1853        return text
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
1855    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1856        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1857        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1858        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1859        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1860        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1861        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1862        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1863        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1864        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1865        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1866        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1868    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1869        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
1871    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1872        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1874    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1875        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1876        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1877        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
1878        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1879        interpolated_values = [
1880            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
1881            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
1882        ]
1883        interpolate = (
1884            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
1885        )
1886        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
def withfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithFill) -> str:
1888    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
1889        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1890        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
1891        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
1892        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
1893        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
1894        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
1895        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
1897    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1898        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
1900    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1901        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
1903    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1904        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
1906    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1907        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1908        asc = not desc
1909
1910        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1911        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1912        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1913        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1914        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1915
1916        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1917
1918        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
1919        nulls_sort_change = ""
1920        if nulls_first and (
1921            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1922        ):
1923            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1924        elif (
1925            nulls_last
1926            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1927            and not nulls_are_last
1928        ):
1929            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1930
1931        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
1932        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1933            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
1934            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
1935                self.unsupported(
1936                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
1937                )
1938                nulls_sort_change = ""
1939            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
1940                if expression.this.is_int:
1941                    self.unsupported(
1942                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
1943                    )
1944                else:
1945                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
1946                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
1947                nulls_sort_change = ""
1948
1949        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
1950        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
1951
1952        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1954    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1955        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1956        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1957        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1958        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1959        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1960        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1961        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1962        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1963        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1964        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1965        definition_sqls = [
1966            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1967            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1968        ]
1969        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1970        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1971        body = "".join(
1972            (
1973                partition,
1974                order,
1975                measures,
1976                rows,
1977                after,
1978                pattern,
1979                define,
1980            )
1981        )
1982        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1983        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1984        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1986    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1987        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1988
1989        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1990        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1991
1992        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1993            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1994        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1995            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1996
1997        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1998
1999        offset_limit_modifiers = (
2000            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
2001            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
2002            else []
2003        )
2004
2005        return csv(
2006            *sqls,
2007            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2008            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2009            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2010            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2011            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2012            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2013            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2014            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
2015            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2016            *offset_limit_modifiers,
2017            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2018            sep="",
2019        )
def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]:
2021    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2022        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2023    ) -> t.List[str]:
2024        return [
2025            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2026            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2027        ]
def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
2029    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2030        return [
2031            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
2032            (
2033                self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
2034                if expression.args.get("windows")
2035                else ""
2036            ),
2037            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
2038            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
2039            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
2040        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
2042    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2043        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2044        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2045        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
2047    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2048        into = expression.args.get("into")
2049        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2050            into.pop()
2051
2052        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2053        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2054        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2055        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2056        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2057        top = (
2058            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2059            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
2060            else ""
2061        )
2062
2063        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2064
2065        if kind:
2066            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2067                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2068            else:
2069                if kind == "STRUCT":
2070                    expressions = self.expressions(
2071                        sqls=[
2072                            self.sql(
2073                                exp.Struct(
2074                                    expressions=[
2075                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
2076                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
2077                                        )
2078                                        for e in expression.expressions
2079                                    ]
2080                                )
2081                            )
2082                        ]
2083                    )
2084                kind = ""
2085
2086        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2087        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2088        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2089        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2090        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2091            expression,
2092            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2093            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2094            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2095        )
2096
2097        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2098
2099        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2100            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2101                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2102            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2103                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2104            else:
2105                table_kind = ""
2106            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2107
2108        return sql
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2110    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2111        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2112        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2113        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2115    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2116        if expression.expressions:
2117            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2118        return ""
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
2120    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2121        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2122        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2123        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2124        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2125        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
2127    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2128        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2129        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
2131    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2132        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2133        kind = expression.text("kind")
2134        if kind:
2135            kind = f"{kind}."
2136        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
2138    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2139        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
2141    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2142        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2143        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2144
2145        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2146        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2147
2148        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2149        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
2151    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2152        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2153        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def union_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
2155    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2156        return self.prepend_ctes(
2157            expression,
2158            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
2159        )
def union_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
2161    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2162        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2163        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2164        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2165        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2167    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2168        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2169
2170        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2171        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2172
2173        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2174            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2175                alias.append("columns", offset)
2176
2177        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2178            columns = alias.columns
2179            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2180        else:
2181            alias = self.sql(alias)
2182
2183        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2184        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2185            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2186        else:
2187            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2188                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2189            elif offset:
2190                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2191            else:
2192                suffix = alias
2193
2194        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
2196    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2197        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2198        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
2200    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2201        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2202        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2203        order = expression.args.get("order")
2204        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2205        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2206        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2207        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2208
2209        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2210
2211        first = expression.args.get("first")
2212        if first is None:
2213            first = ""
2214        else:
2215            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2216
2217        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2218            return f"{this} {alias}"
2219
2220        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2221        return f"{this} ({args})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2223    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2224        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2225        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
2227    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2228        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2229        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2230        end = (
2231            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2232            or "CURRENT ROW"
2233        )
2234        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
2236    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2237        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2238        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2239        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
2241    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2242        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2243        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2244        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2245        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
2247    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2248        expressions = apply_index_offset(
2249            expression.this,
2250            expression.expressions,
2251            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2252        )
2253        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2254        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
2256    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2257        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
2259    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2260        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2261        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
2262            this = self.wrap(this)
2263        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
2265    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2266        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
2268    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2269        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2270        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2271
2272        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2273            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2274            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2275
2276        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2277
2278        if default:
2279            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2280
2281        statements.append("END")
2282
2283        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
2284            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2285
2286        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
2288    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2289        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2290        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2291        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
2293    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2294        order = expression.args.get("order")
2295        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2296        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
2298    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2299        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2300        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2301        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
2303    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2304        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2305
2306        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2307            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2308        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2309            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2310        else:
2311            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
def convert_concat_args( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat | sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]:
2313    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2314        args = expression.expressions
2315        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2316            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2317
2318        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2319            args = [exp.cast(e, "text") for e in args]
2320
2321        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2322            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2323
2324        return args
def concat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat) -> str:
2326    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2327        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2328
2329        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2330        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2331            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2332
2333        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
def concatws_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> str:
2335    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2336        return self.func(
2337            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2338        )
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
2340    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2341        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2342        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2344    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2345        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2346        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2347        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2348        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2349        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2350        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2351        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2352        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2354    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2355        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2356        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2357        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2358        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
2360    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2361        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2363    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2364        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2365        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2366        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2368    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2369        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def formatjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FormatJson) -> str:
2371    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2372        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
def jsonobject_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject | sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2374    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2375        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2376        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2377
2378        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2379        if unique_keys is not None:
2380            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2381        else:
2382            unique_keys = ""
2383
2384        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2385        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2386        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2387        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2388
2389        return self.func(
2390            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2391            *expression.expressions,
2392            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2393        )
def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2395    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2396        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArray) -> str:
2398    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2399        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2400        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2401        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2402        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2403        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2404        return self.func(
2405            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2406        )
def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2408    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2409        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2410        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2411        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2412        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2413        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2414        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2415        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2416        return self.func(
2417            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2418            this,
2419            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2420        )
def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2422    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2423        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2424        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2425        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2426
2427        if nested_schema:
2428            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2429
2430        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2431        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2432        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2433        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONSchema) -> str:
2435    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2436        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
def jsontable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONTable) -> str:
2438    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2439        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2440        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2441        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2442        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2443        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2444        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2445        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2446        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2447        return self.func(
2448            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2449        )
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2451    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2452        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2453        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2454        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2455        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2456        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2457        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
2459    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2460        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2461        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2462        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2463        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2464        with_ = (
2465            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2466            if expressions
2467            else ""
2468        )
2469        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
2471    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2472        query = expression.args.get("query")
2473        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2474        field = expression.args.get("field")
2475        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2476
2477        if query:
2478            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2479        elif unnest:
2480            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2481        elif field:
2482            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2483        else:
2484            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2485
2486        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2488    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2489        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
2491    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2492        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2493        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2494            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2495        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2496
2497        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2498            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2499            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2500
2501        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2502        if this:
2503            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2504            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2505
2506        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
2508    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2509        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
2511    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2512        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2513        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2514        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2515        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2516        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2517        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
2519    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2520        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
2522    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2523        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2524            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2525        else:
2526            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2527            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2528
2529        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
2531    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2532        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2533        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2534        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2535        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
2537    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2538        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
2540    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2541        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2542        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2543        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PivotAlias) -> str:
2545    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2546        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2547        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2548
2549        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2550            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2551        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2552            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2553
2554        return self.alias_sql(expression)
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
2556    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2557        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def atindex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2559    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2560        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2561        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2562        return f"{this} AT {index}"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2564    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2565        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2566        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2567        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2569    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2570        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2571        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2572        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
2574    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2575        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And) -> str:
2577    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2578        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
def xor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Xor) -> str:
2580    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2581        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
def connector_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2583    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2584        if not self.pretty:
2585            return self.binary(expression, op)
2586
2587        sqls = tuple(
2588            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2589            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2590        )
2591
2592        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2593        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2595    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2596        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2598    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2599        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2601    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2602        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2604    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2605        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2607    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2608        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2610    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2611        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2613    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2614        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2615        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2616        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2617        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2618        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
2620    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2621        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2622        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
2624    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2625        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2626            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2627        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
2629    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2630        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
2632    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2633        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2634        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2635        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2636        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2637        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2639    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2640        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2641        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2642        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2643        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2644        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2645        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2646        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2647        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2648        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2650    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2651        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2652        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2653        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2654        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2655
2656        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2657            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2658
2659        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
2661    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2662        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
2664    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2665        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2666        if chain is not None:
2667            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2668
2669        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
2671    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2672        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2673        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2674        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
2676    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2677        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2678
2679        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2680        if dtype:
2681            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2682            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2683            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2684            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2685            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2686
2687        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2688        if default:
2689            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2690
2691        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2692        if comment:
2693            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
2694
2695        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2696            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2697
2698        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str:
2700    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2701        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2702            # Remove db from tables
2703            expression = expression.transform(
2704                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2705            )
2706        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2707        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameColumn) -> str:
2709    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
2710        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2711        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
2712        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
2713        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
def altertable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
2715    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2716        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2717
2718        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2719            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
2720        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2721            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2722        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2723            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2724        else:
2725            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2726
2727        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2728        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2729        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
def add_column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
2731    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2732        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
2733            return self.expressions(
2734                expression,
2735                key="actions",
2736                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
2737            )
2738        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
2740    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2741        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2742        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2743        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
2745    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2746        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2747        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2748        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2749
2750        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2751        if enforced is not None:
2752            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2753
2754        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
2756    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2757        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2758        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2759
2760        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2761        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2762        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2764    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2765        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
2767    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2768        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
2770    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2771        return self.sql(
2772            exp.Cast(
2773                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2774                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2775            )
2776        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
2778    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2779        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2780            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2781        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
2783    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2784        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
2785
2786        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
2787            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
2788
2789        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
2790            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.FLOAT_TYPES) and not r.is_type(
2791                *exp.DataType.FLOAT_TYPES
2792            ):
2793                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
2794
2795        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
2796            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
2797                return self.sql(
2798                    exp.cast(
2799                        l / r,
2800                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
2801                    )
2802                )
2803
2804        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
2806    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2807        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
2809    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2810        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
2812    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2813        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
2815    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2816        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PropertyEQ) -> str:
2818    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
2819        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
2821    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2822        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
2824    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2825        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
2827    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2828        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
2830    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2831        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
2833    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2834        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
2836    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2837        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
2839    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2840        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2841            return self.sql(
2842                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2843            )
2844        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
2846    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2847        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
2849    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2850        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
2852    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2853        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
2855    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2856        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
2858    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2859        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
2861    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2862        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
2864    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2865        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
2867    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2868        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2870    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2871        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2873    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2874        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def or_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or) -> str:
2876    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2877        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
2879    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2880        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
2882    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2883        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
2885    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2886        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
def log_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Log) -> str:
2888    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
2889        this = expression.this
2890        expr = expression.expression
2891
2892        if not self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST:
2893            this, expr = expr, this
2894
2895        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
2897    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2898        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2899        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2900        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2901        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2902        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2904    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2905        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2906        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
2908    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2909        args = []
2910
2911        for key in expression.arg_types:
2912            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2913
2914            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2915                for value in arg_value:
2916                    args.append(value)
2917            elif arg_value is not None:
2918                args.append(arg_value)
2919
2920        if self.normalize_functions:
2921            name = expression.sql_name()
2922        else:
2923            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2924
2925        return self.func(name, *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')') -> str:
2927    def func(
2928        self,
2929        name: str,
2930        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2931        prefix: str = "(",
2932        suffix: str = ")",
2933    ) -> str:
2934        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
2936    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2937        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2938        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2939            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2940        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
def text_width(self, args: Iterable) -> int:
2942    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2943        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
def format_time(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> Optional[str]:
2945    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2946        return format_time(
2947            self.sql(expression, "format"),
2948            self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
2949            self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
2950        )
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[Collection[Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression]]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, skip_first: bool = False, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '') -> str:
2952    def expressions(
2953        self,
2954        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2955        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2956        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2957        flat: bool = False,
2958        indent: bool = True,
2959        skip_first: bool = False,
2960        sep: str = ", ",
2961        prefix: str = "",
2962    ) -> str:
2963        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2964
2965        if not expressions:
2966            return ""
2967
2968        if flat:
2969            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2970
2971        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2972
2973        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2974        pad = " " * self.pad
2975        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2976
2977        result_sqls = []
2978        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2979            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2980            if not sql:
2981                continue
2982
2983            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2984
2985            if self.pretty:
2986                if self.leading_comma:
2987                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2988                else:
2989                    result_sqls.append(
2990                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2991                    )
2992            else:
2993                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2994
2995        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2996        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2998    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2999        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3000        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3001        if flat:
3002            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3003        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
3005    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3006        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3007        if not property_name:
3008            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3009        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def set_operation(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union, op: str) -> str:
3011    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Union, op: str) -> str:
3012        this = self.maybe_comment(self.sql(expression, "this"), comments=expression.comments)
3013        op = self.seg(op)
3014        return self.query_modifiers(
3015            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3016        )
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
3018    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3019        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
3021    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3022        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3024    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3025        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3026        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3027        expressions = (
3028            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3029        )
3030        return f"{this}{expressions}"
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
3032    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3033        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3034        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3035        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
3037    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3038        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
3040    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3041        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3042        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3043        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3044        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3045
3046        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3047        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3048            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
3049            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
3050                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
3051        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3052            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3053                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3054            else:
3055                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3056        else:
3057            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3058        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
3060    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3061        table = expression.this
3062        table_alias = ""
3063
3064        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3065        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3066            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3067            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3068
3069        this = self.sql(table)
3070        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3071        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3072        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
3073
3074        return self.prepend_ctes(
3075            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
3076        )
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
3078    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3079        if expression.args.get("format"):
3080            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3081
3082        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str:
3084    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3085        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3086        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3087        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3088        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3089        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str:
3091    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3092        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3093        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3094        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3095        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3097    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3098        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str:
3100    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3101        return ""
def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3103    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3104        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3105        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3106        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3107        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3108        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue) -> str:
3110    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3111        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3112        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3113
3114        if having:
3115            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3116
3117        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
def querytransform_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryTransform) -> str:
3119    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3120        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3121        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3122        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3123        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3124        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3125        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3126        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3127        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3128        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3129        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3130        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3131        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3132        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3134    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3135        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3136        if key_block_size:
3137            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3138
3139        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3140        if using:
3141            return f"USING {using}"
3142
3143        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3144        if parser:
3145            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3146
3147        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3148        if comment:
3149            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3150
3151        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3152        if visible is not None:
3153            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3154
3155        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3156        if engine_attr:
3157            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3158
3159        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3160        if secondary_engine_attr:
3161            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3162
3163        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3164        return ""
def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3166    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3167        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3168        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3169        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3170        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3171        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3172        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3173        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3174        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
3175        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3176        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3177        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{schema}{options}"
def nvl2_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Nvl2) -> str:
3179    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3180        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3181            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3182
3183        case = exp.Case().when(
3184            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3185            expression.args["true"],
3186            copy=False,
3187        )
3188        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3189        if else_cond:
3190            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3191
3192        return self.sql(case)
def comprehension_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comprehension) -> str:
3194    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3195        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3196        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3197        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3198        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3199        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3200        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3202    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3203        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def opclass_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Opclass) -> str:
3205    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3206        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def predict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Predict) -> str:
3208    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3209        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3210        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3211        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3212        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3213        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3214        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
def forin_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForIn) -> str:
3216    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3217        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3218        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3219        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
def refresh_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Refresh) -> str:
3221    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3222        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3223        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3224        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
def operator_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Operator) -> str:
3226    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3227        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
def toarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToArray) -> str:
3229    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3230        arg = expression.this
3231        if not arg.type:
3232            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3233
3234            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3235
3236        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3237            return self.sql(arg)
3238
3239        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3240        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.Array(expressions=[arg])))
def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3242    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3243        this = expression.this
3244        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3245            return self.sql(this)
3246
3247        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "time"))
def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3249    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3250        this = expression.this
3251        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3252
3253        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3254            return self.sql(
3255                exp.cast(exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]), "date")
3256            )
3257
3258        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3259            return self.sql(this)
3260
3261        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, "date"))
def unixdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnixDate) -> str:
3263    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3264        return self.sql(
3265            exp.func(
3266                "DATEDIFF",
3267                expression.this,
3268                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), "date"),
3269                "day",
3270            )
3271        )
def lastday_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LastDay) -> str:
3273    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3274        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3275            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3276
3277        unit = expression.text("unit")
3278        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3279            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3280
3281        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)