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sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import typing as t
   5from collections import defaultdict
   6from functools import reduce
   7
   8from sqlglot import exp
   9from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  10from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, seq_get
  11from sqlglot.time import format_time
  12from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  13
  14if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  15    from sqlglot._typing import E
  16    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  17
  18logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  19
  20
  21class Generator:
  22    """
  23    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  24
  25    Args:
  26        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  27            Default: False.
  28        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  29            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  30            True or 'always': Always quote.
  31            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  32        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  33            Default: False.
  34        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  35            Default: 2.
  36        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  37            Default: 2.
  38        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  39            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  40            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  41            False: Disables function name normalization.
  42        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  43            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  44        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  45            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  46            Default: 3
  47        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  48            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  49            Default: False
  50        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  51            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  52            line length.
  53            Default: 80
  54        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  55            Default: True
  56    """
  57
  58    TRANSFORMS = {
  59        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  60            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  61        ),
  62        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  63        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  64        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  65        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  66        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  67        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  68        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  69        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  70        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  71        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  72        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  73        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  74        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  75        exp.HeapProperty: lambda self, e: "HEAP",
  76        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  77        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  78        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
  79        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  80        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  81        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  82        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  83        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  84        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  85        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
  86        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  87        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  88        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  89        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  92        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  93        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  95        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  96        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
  97        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
  98        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
  99        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 100        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
 101        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 102        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 103        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
 104        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 105        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
 106        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 107    }
 108
 109    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
 110    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
 111
 112    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 113    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 114
 115    # Always do union distinct or union all
 116    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 117
 118    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 119    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 120
 121    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 122    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 123
 124    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 125    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 126
 127    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 128    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 129
 130    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 131    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 132
 133    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 134    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 135
 136    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 137    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 138
 139    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 140    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 141
 142    # Whether or not limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 143    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 144
 145    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 146    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 147
 148    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 149    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 150
 151    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 152    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 153
 154    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 155    JOIN_HINTS = True
 156
 157    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 158    TABLE_HINTS = True
 159
 160    # Whether or not query hints should be generated
 161    QUERY_HINTS = True
 162
 163    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 164    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 165
 166    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 167    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 168
 169    # Whether or not to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 170    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 171
 172    # Whether or not to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 173    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 174
 175    # Whether or not to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 176    RETURNING_END = True
 177
 178    # Whether or not to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 179    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 180
 181    # Whether or not to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 182    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 183
 184    # Whether or not TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 185    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 186
 187    # Whether or not the NVL2 function is supported
 188    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 189
 190    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 191    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 192
 193    # Whether or not VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 194    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 195    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 196    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 197
 198    # Whether or not the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 199    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 200
 201    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 202    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 203
 204    # Whether or not FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 205    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 206
 207    # Whether or not JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 208    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 209
 210    # Whether or not to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 211    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 212
 213    # Whether or not CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 214    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 215
 216    # Whether or not parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 217    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 218
 219    # Whether or not COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 220    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 221
 222    # Whether or not data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 223    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 224
 225    # Whether or not conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 226    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 227
 228    # Whether or not the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 229    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 230
 231    # Whether or not CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 232    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 233
 234    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 235        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 236        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 237        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 238        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 239        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 240        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 241        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 242        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 243        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 244    }
 245
 246    STAR_MAPPING = {
 247        "except": "EXCEPT",
 248        "replace": "REPLACE",
 249    }
 250
 251    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 252        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 253        "seconds": "second",
 254        "minutes": "minute",
 255        "hours": "hour",
 256        "days": "day",
 257        "weeks": "week",
 258        "months": "month",
 259        "quarters": "quarter",
 260        "years": "year",
 261    }
 262
 263    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 264
 265    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 266
 267    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 268
 269    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 270        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 271        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 272        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 273        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 274        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 275        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 276        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 277        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 278        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 279        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 280        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 281        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 282        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 283        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 284        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 285        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 286        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 287        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 288        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 289        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 290        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 291        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 292        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 293        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 294        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 295        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 296        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 297        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 298        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 299        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 300        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 301        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 302        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 303        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 304        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 305        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 306        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 307        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 308        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 309        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 310        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 311        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 312        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 313        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 314        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 315        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 316        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 317        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 318        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 319        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 320        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 321        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 322        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 323        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 324        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 325        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 326        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 327        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 328        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 329        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 330        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 331        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 332        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 333        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 334    }
 335
 336    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 337    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 338
 339    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 340    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 341        exp.Create,
 342        exp.Delete,
 343        exp.Drop,
 344        exp.From,
 345        exp.Insert,
 346        exp.Join,
 347        exp.Select,
 348        exp.Update,
 349        exp.Where,
 350        exp.With,
 351    )
 352
 353    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 354    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 355        exp.Binary,
 356        exp.Union,
 357    )
 358
 359    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 360    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 361        exp.Column,
 362        exp.Literal,
 363        exp.Neg,
 364        exp.Paren,
 365    )
 366
 367    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 368    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 369
 370    KEY_VALUE_DEFINITONS = (exp.Bracket, exp.EQ, exp.PropertyEQ, exp.Slice)
 371
 372    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 373
 374    __slots__ = (
 375        "pretty",
 376        "identify",
 377        "normalize",
 378        "pad",
 379        "_indent",
 380        "normalize_functions",
 381        "unsupported_level",
 382        "max_unsupported",
 383        "leading_comma",
 384        "max_text_width",
 385        "comments",
 386        "dialect",
 387        "unsupported_messages",
 388        "_escaped_quote_end",
 389        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 390    )
 391
 392    def __init__(
 393        self,
 394        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 395        identify: str | bool = False,
 396        normalize: bool = False,
 397        pad: int = 2,
 398        indent: int = 2,
 399        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 400        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 401        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 402        leading_comma: bool = False,
 403        max_text_width: int = 80,
 404        comments: bool = True,
 405        dialect: DialectType = None,
 406    ):
 407        import sqlglot
 408        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 409
 410        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 411        self.identify = identify
 412        self.normalize = normalize
 413        self.pad = pad
 414        self._indent = indent
 415        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 416        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 417        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 418        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 419        self.comments = comments
 420        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 421
 422        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 423        self.normalize_functions = (
 424            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 425        )
 426
 427        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 428        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 429            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 430        )
 431        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 432            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 433        )
 434
 435    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 436        """
 437        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 438
 439        Args:
 440            expression: The syntax tree.
 441            copy: Whether or not to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 442                it is safer to copy.
 443
 444        Returns:
 445            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 446        """
 447        if copy:
 448            expression = expression.copy()
 449
 450        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 451
 452        self.unsupported_messages = []
 453        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 454
 455        if self.pretty:
 456            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 457
 458        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 459            return sql
 460
 461        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 462            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 463                logger.warning(msg)
 464        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 465            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 466
 467        return sql
 468
 469    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 470        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 471        if (
 472            not expression.parent
 473            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 474            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 475        ):
 476            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 477
 478            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 479
 480        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 481            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 482
 483            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 484
 485        return expression
 486
 487    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 488        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 489            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 490        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 491
 492    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 493        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 494
 495    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 496        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 497
 498    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 499        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 500        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 501        return comment
 502
 503    def maybe_comment(
 504        self,
 505        sql: str,
 506        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 507        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 508    ) -> str:
 509        comments = (
 510            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 511            if self.comments
 512            else None
 513        )
 514
 515        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 516            return sql
 517
 518        comments_sql = " ".join(
 519            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 520        )
 521
 522        if not comments_sql:
 523            return sql
 524
 525        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 526            return (
 527                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 528                if sql[0].isspace()
 529                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 530            )
 531
 532        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 533
 534    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 535        this_sql = self.indent(
 536            self.sql(expression)
 537            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 538            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 539            level=1,
 540            pad=0,
 541        )
 542        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 543
 544    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 545        original = self.identify
 546        self.identify = False
 547        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 548        self.identify = original
 549        return result
 550
 551    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 552        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 553            return name.upper()
 554        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 555            return name.lower()
 556        return name
 557
 558    def indent(
 559        self,
 560        sql: str,
 561        level: int = 0,
 562        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 563        skip_first: bool = False,
 564        skip_last: bool = False,
 565    ) -> str:
 566        if not self.pretty:
 567            return sql
 568
 569        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 570        lines = sql.split("\n")
 571
 572        return "\n".join(
 573            line
 574            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 575            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 576            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 577        )
 578
 579    def sql(
 580        self,
 581        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 582        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 583        comment: bool = True,
 584    ) -> str:
 585        if not expression:
 586            return ""
 587
 588        if isinstance(expression, str):
 589            return expression
 590
 591        if key:
 592            value = expression.args.get(key)
 593            if value:
 594                return self.sql(value)
 595            return ""
 596
 597        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 598
 599        if callable(transform):
 600            sql = transform(self, expression)
 601        elif transform:
 602            sql = transform
 603        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 604            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 605
 606            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 607                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 608            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 609                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 610            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 611                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 612            else:
 613                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 614        else:
 615            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 616
 617        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 618
 619    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 620        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 621        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 622        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 623
 624    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 625        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 626        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 627        options = expression.args.get("options")
 628        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 629        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 630        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 631        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 632        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 633
 634    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 635        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 636            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 637        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 638        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 639
 640    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 641        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 642
 643        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 644            join_mark = ""
 645            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 646
 647        column = ".".join(
 648            self.sql(part)
 649            for part in (
 650                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 651                expression.args.get("db"),
 652                expression.args.get("table"),
 653                expression.args.get("this"),
 654            )
 655            if part
 656        )
 657
 658        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 659
 660    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 661        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 662        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 663        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 664        return f"{position}{this}"
 665
 666    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 667        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 668        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 669        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 670        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 671        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 672        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 673        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 674        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 675
 676        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 677            kind = ""
 678
 679        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 680
 681    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 682        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 683        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 684        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 685
 686    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 687        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 688        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 689            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 690        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 691            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 692        else:
 693            persisted = ""
 694        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 695
 696    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 697        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 698
 699    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 700        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 701            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 702        else:
 703            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 704
 705        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 706
 707    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 708        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 709    ) -> str:
 710        this = ""
 711        if expression.this is not None:
 712            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 713            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 714
 715        start = expression.args.get("start")
 716        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 717        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 718        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 719        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 720        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 721        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 722        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 723        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 724        cycle_sql = ""
 725
 726        if cycle is not None:
 727            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 728            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 729
 730        sequence_opts = ""
 731        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 732            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 733            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 734
 735        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 736        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 737
 738        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 739
 740    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 741        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 742    ) -> str:
 743        start = "START" if expression.args["start"] else "END"
 744        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 745        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 746
 747    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 748        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 749    ) -> str:
 750        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 751
 752    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 753        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 754
 755    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 756        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 757
 758    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 759        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 760        if desc is not None:
 761            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 762        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 763
 764    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 765        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 766        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 767        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 768        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 769        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}"
 770
 771    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 772        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 773
 774    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 775        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 776        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 777        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 778
 779        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 780
 781        properties_sql = ""
 782        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 783            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 784        ):
 785            properties_sql = self.sql(
 786                exp.Properties(
 787                    expressions=[
 788                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 789                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 790                    ]
 791                )
 792            )
 793
 794        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 795        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 796
 797        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 798        if expression_sql:
 799            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 800
 801            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 802                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 803                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 804                        exp.Properties(
 805                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 806                        ),
 807                        wrapped=False,
 808                    )
 809                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 810                else:
 811                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 812
 813        postindex_props_sql = ""
 814        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 815            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 816                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 817                wrapped=False,
 818                prefix=" ",
 819            )
 820
 821        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 822        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 823        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 824
 825        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 826        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 827
 828        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 829        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 830            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 831                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 832                sep=" ",
 833                prefix=" ",
 834                wrapped=False,
 835            )
 836
 837        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 838
 839        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 840        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 841            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 842                exp.Properties(
 843                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 844                ),
 845                sep=" ",
 846                prefix=" ",
 847                wrapped=False,
 848            )
 849
 850        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 851        no_schema_binding = (
 852            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 853        )
 854
 855        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 856        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 857
 858        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 859        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 860
 861    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 862        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 863        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
 864        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
 865        this = f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
 866        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 867
 868        if when:
 869            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 870            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 871            return f"{this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 872
 873        return this
 874
 875    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 876        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 877
 878    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 879        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 880        if with_:
 881            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 882        return sql
 883
 884    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 885        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 886        recursive = (
 887            "RECURSIVE "
 888            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
 889            else ""
 890        )
 891
 892        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 893
 894    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 895        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 896        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 897
 898    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 899        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 900        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 901        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 902
 903        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
 904            alias = "_t"
 905
 906        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 907
 908    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 909        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 910        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
 911            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
 912        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 913
 914    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 915        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 916        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
 917            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
 918        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 919
 920    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 921        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 922        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
 923            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
 924        return this
 925
 926    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 927        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
 928        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
 929
 930    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
 931        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 932        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 933        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
 934        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 935
 936    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 937        type_value = expression.this
 938
 939        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
 940            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 941        else:
 942            type_sql = (
 943                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 944                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
 945                else type_value
 946            )
 947
 948        nested = ""
 949        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 950        values = ""
 951
 952        if interior:
 953            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 954                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 955                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 956                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 957                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 958                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 959            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
 960                nested = f" {interior}"
 961            else:
 962                nested = f"({interior})"
 963
 964        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 965        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
 966            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
 967            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
 968        ):
 969            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
 970
 971        return type_sql
 972
 973    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 974        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 975        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 976        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 977        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
 978
 979    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 980        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 981        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 982        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 983        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
 984        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
 985        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
 986        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
 987        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
 988        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
 989        if self.RETURNING_END:
 990            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
 991        else:
 992            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
 993        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
 994
 995    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
 996        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 997        kind = expression.args["kind"]
 998        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
 999        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1000        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1001        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1002        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1003        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1004        return (
1005            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1006        )
1007
1008    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1009        return self.prepend_ctes(
1010            expression,
1011            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
1012        )
1013
1014    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1015        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1016
1017    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1018        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1019        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
1020        count = expression.args.get("count")
1021        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1022        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1023            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1024        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1025        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1026
1027    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1028        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1029            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1030            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1031            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1032
1033        agg = expression.this
1034        agg_arg = agg.this
1035        cond = expression.expression.this
1036        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1037        return self.sql(agg)
1038
1039    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1040        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1041            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1042            return ""
1043
1044        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1045
1046    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1047        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1048        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1049        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1050        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1051        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1052        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1053        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1054        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1055        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1056        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1057        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1058        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1059        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1060        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1061        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1062        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}{where}"
1063
1064    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1065        text = expression.name
1066        lower = text.lower()
1067        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1068        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1069        if (
1070            expression.quoted
1071            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1072            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1073            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1074        ):
1075            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1076        return text
1077
1078    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1079        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1080        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1081        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1082        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1083        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1084
1085    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1086        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1087        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1088
1089    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1090        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1091
1092    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1093        root_properties = []
1094        with_properties = []
1095
1096        for p in expression.expressions:
1097            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1098            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1099                with_properties.append(p)
1100            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1101                root_properties.append(p)
1102
1103        return self.root_properties(
1104            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1105        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1106
1107    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1108        if properties.expressions:
1109            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1110        return ""
1111
1112    def properties(
1113        self,
1114        properties: exp.Properties,
1115        prefix: str = "",
1116        sep: str = ", ",
1117        suffix: str = "",
1118        wrapped: bool = True,
1119    ) -> str:
1120        if properties.expressions:
1121            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1122            if expressions:
1123                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1124                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1125        return ""
1126
1127    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1128        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1129
1130    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1131        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1132        for p in properties.expressions:
1133            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1134            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1135                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1136            else:
1137                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1138
1139        return properties_locs
1140
1141    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1142        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1143            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1144        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1145
1146    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1147        property_cls = expression.__class__
1148        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1149            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1150
1151        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1152        if not property_name:
1153            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1154
1155        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1156
1157    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1158        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1159        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1160        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1161
1162    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1163        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1164        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1165        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1166
1167    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1168        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1169        local = expression.args.get("local")
1170        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1171        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1172        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1173        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1174        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1175
1176    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1177        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1178        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1179        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1180
1181    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1182        if expression.args.get("default"):
1183            property = "DEFAULT"
1184        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1185            property = "ON"
1186        else:
1187            property = "OFF"
1188        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1189
1190    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1191        if expression.args.get("no"):
1192            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1193        if expression.args.get("default"):
1194            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1195
1196        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1197        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1198
1199    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1200        default = expression.args.get("default")
1201        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1202        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1203        if default or minimum or maximum:
1204            if default:
1205                prop = "DEFAULT"
1206            elif minimum:
1207                prop = "MINIMUM"
1208            else:
1209                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1210            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1211        units = expression.args.get("units")
1212        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1213        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1214
1215    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1216        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1217        always = expression.args.get("always")
1218        default = expression.args.get("default")
1219        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1220        never = expression.args.get("never")
1221
1222        if autotemp is not None:
1223            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1224        elif always:
1225            prop = "ALWAYS"
1226        elif default:
1227            prop = "DEFAULT"
1228        elif manual:
1229            prop = "MANUAL"
1230        elif never:
1231            prop = "NEVER"
1232        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1233
1234    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1235        no = expression.args.get("no")
1236        no = " NO" if no else ""
1237        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1238        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1239
1240        for_ = ""
1241        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1242            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1243        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1244            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1245        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1246            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1247        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1248
1249    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1250        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1251            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1252        if expression.this:
1253            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1254            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1255            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1256
1257        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1258        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1259        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1260
1261    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1262        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1263
1264        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1265        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1266            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1267        else:
1268            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1269
1270        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1271
1272    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1273        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1274        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1275        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1276        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1277        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1278        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1279        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1280
1281    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1282        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1283        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1284        statistics_sql = ""
1285        if statistics is not None:
1286            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1287        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1288
1289    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1290        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
1291
1292        if expression.this:
1293            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
1294            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
1295
1296            if expression.expression:
1297                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1298                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
1299
1300            sql = f"{sql})"
1301
1302        return f"{sql})"
1303
1304    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1305        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1306
1307        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1308            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1309        else:
1310            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1311
1312        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1313        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1314        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1315
1316        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1317
1318        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1319        partition_sql = (
1320            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1321        )
1322        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1323        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1324        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1325        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1326        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1327        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1328
1329        if self.RETURNING_END:
1330            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1331        else:
1332            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1333
1334        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1335        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1336
1337    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1338        return self.prepend_ctes(
1339            expression,
1340            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1341        )
1342
1343    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1344        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1345
1346    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1347        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1348
1349    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1350        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1351        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1352        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1353        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1354        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1355
1356    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1357        return expression.name.upper()
1358
1359    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1360        return expression.name.upper()
1361
1362    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1363        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1364        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1365        if constraint:
1366            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1367        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1368        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1369        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1370        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1371        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1372        if expressions:
1373            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1374        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1375
1376    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1377        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1378
1379    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1380        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1381        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1382        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1383        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1384        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1385        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1386        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1387        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1388        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1389        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1390        null = expression.args.get("null")
1391        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1392        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1393
1394    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1395        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1396
1397    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1398        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1399        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1400        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1401        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1402
1403    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1404        table = ".".join(
1405            self.sql(part)
1406            for part in (
1407                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1408                expression.args.get("db"),
1409                expression.args.get("this"),
1410            )
1411            if part is not None
1412        )
1413
1414        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1415        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1416        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1417        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1418        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1419        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1420        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1421        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1422        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1423        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1424
1425        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1426        if file_format:
1427            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1428            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1429            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1430
1431        index = self.sql(expression, "index")
1432        index = f" AT {index}" if index else ""
1433
1434        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1435        if ordinality:
1436            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1437            alias = ""
1438
1439        return f"{table}{version}{file_format}{alias}{index}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1440
1441    def tablesample_sql(
1442        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1443    ) -> str:
1444        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1445            table = expression.this.copy()
1446            table.set("alias", None)
1447            this = self.sql(table)
1448            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1449        else:
1450            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1451            alias = ""
1452
1453        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1454        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1455        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1456        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1457        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1458        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1459        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1460        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1461        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1462        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1463        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1464
1465        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1466        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1467            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1468
1469        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1470        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1471        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1472
1473        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}"
1474        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1475            expr = f"({expr})"
1476
1477        return f"{this} {kind} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1478
1479    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1480        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1481
1482        if expression.this:
1483            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1484            if not expressions:
1485                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1486
1487            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1488            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1489            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1490            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1491            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1492
1493        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1494        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1495        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1496        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1497        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1498        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1499        if include_nulls is not None:
1500            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1501        else:
1502            nulls = ""
1503        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1504
1505    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1506        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1507        kind = expression.text("kind")
1508        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1509        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1510
1511    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1512        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1513
1514    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1515        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1516        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1517        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1518        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1519        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1520        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1521        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1522        if self.RETURNING_END:
1523            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1524        else:
1525            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1526        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1527        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1528
1529    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1530        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1531        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1532            args = self.expressions(expression)
1533            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1534            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1535            values = (
1536                f"({values})"
1537                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1538                else values
1539            )
1540            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1541
1542        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1543        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1544        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1545
1546        selects: t.List[exp.Subqueryable] = []
1547
1548        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1549            row = tup.expressions
1550
1551            if i == 0 and column_names:
1552                row = [
1553                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1554                ]
1555
1556            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1557
1558        if self.pretty:
1559            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1560            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1561            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1562            subqueryable = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1563            return self.subquery_sql(
1564                subqueryable.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False)
1565            )
1566
1567        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1568        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1569        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1570
1571    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1572        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1573
1574    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1575        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1576        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1577        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1578
1579    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1580        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1581
1582    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1583        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1584
1585        if expression.args.get("all"):
1586            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1587
1588        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1589        grouping_sets = (
1590            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1591        )
1592
1593        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1594        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1595            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1596        else:
1597            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1598            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1599
1600        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1601        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1602            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1603        else:
1604            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1605            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1606
1607        groupings = csv(
1608            grouping_sets,
1609            cube_sql,
1610            rollup_sql,
1611            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1612            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1613        )
1614
1615        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1616            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1617
1618        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1619
1620    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1621        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1622        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1623
1624    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1625        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1626        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1627        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1628        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY {connect}")
1629        return start + connect
1630
1631    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1632        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1633
1634    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1635        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1636            side = None
1637        else:
1638            side = expression.side
1639
1640        op_sql = " ".join(
1641            op
1642            for op in (
1643                expression.method,
1644                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1645                side,
1646                expression.kind,
1647                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1648            )
1649            if op
1650        )
1651        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1652        using = expression.args.get("using")
1653
1654        if not on_sql and using:
1655            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1656
1657        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1658
1659        if on_sql:
1660            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1661            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1662            if using:
1663                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1664            else:
1665                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1666        elif not op_sql:
1667            return f", {this_sql}"
1668
1669        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1670        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1671
1672    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1673        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1674        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1675        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1676
1677    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1678        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1679
1680        if expression.args.get("view"):
1681            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1682            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1683            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1684            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1685            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1686            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1687
1688        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1689        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1690        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1691
1692    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1693        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1694
1695        args = [
1696            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
1697            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1698            if e
1699        ]
1700
1701        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
1702        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if any(top and not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
1703        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}"
1704
1705    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1706        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1707        expression = expression.expression
1708        expression = (
1709            self._simplify_unless_literal(expression) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else expression
1710        )
1711        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression)}"
1712
1713    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1714        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1715        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1716        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1717        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1718        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1719        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1720        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1721        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1722
1723    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1724        expressions = (
1725            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1726        )
1727        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1728        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1729
1730    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1731        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1732
1733    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1734        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1735            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1736            return ""
1737
1738        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1739        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1740        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1741        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1742
1743        if wait is not None:
1744            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1745                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1746            else:
1747                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1748
1749        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1750
1751    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1752        text = expression.this or ""
1753        if expression.is_string:
1754            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1755        return text
1756
1757    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1758        text = text.replace(self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1759        if self.dialect.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES:
1760            text = "".join(self.dialect.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES.get(ch, ch) for ch in text)
1761        elif self.pretty:
1762            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1763        return text
1764
1765    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1766        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1767        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1768        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1769        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1770        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1771        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1772        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1773        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1774        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1775        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1776        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1777
1778    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1779        return "NULL"
1780
1781    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1782        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1783
1784    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1785        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1786        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1787        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1788
1789    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1790        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1791
1792    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1793        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1794
1795    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1796        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1797
1798    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1799        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1800        asc = not desc
1801
1802        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1803        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1804        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1805        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1806        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1807
1808        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1809
1810        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
1811        nulls_sort_change = ""
1812        if nulls_first and (
1813            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1814        ):
1815            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1816        elif (
1817            nulls_last
1818            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1819            and not nulls_are_last
1820        ):
1821            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1822
1823        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
1824        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1825            null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
1826            this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
1827            nulls_sort_change = ""
1828
1829        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1830
1831    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1832        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1833        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1834        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1835        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1836        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1837        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1838        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1839        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1840        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1841        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1842        definition_sqls = [
1843            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1844            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1845        ]
1846        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1847        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1848        body = "".join(
1849            (
1850                partition,
1851                order,
1852                measures,
1853                rows,
1854                after,
1855                pattern,
1856                define,
1857            )
1858        )
1859        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1860        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1861        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1862
1863    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1864        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1865
1866        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1867        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1868
1869        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1870            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1871        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1872            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1873
1874        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1875
1876        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1877            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1878            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1879            else []
1880        )
1881
1882        return csv(
1883            *sqls,
1884            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1885            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
1886            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1887            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1888            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1889            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1890            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1891            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1892            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1893            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1894            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1895            sep="",
1896        )
1897
1898    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1899        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1900    ) -> t.List[str]:
1901        return [
1902            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1903            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1904        ]
1905
1906    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1907        return [
1908            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1909            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1910            if expression.args.get("windows")
1911            else "",
1912            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1913            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1914            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1915        ]
1916
1917    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1918        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1919        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1920        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1921
1922    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1923        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1924        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1925        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1926        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1927        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1928        top = (
1929            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1930            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1931            else ""
1932        )
1933
1934        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1935
1936        if kind:
1937            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1938                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1939            else:
1940                if kind == "STRUCT":
1941                    expressions = self.expressions(
1942                        sqls=[
1943                            self.sql(
1944                                exp.Struct(
1945                                    expressions=[
1946                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1947                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1948                                        )
1949                                        for e in expression.expressions
1950                                    ]
1951                                )
1952                            )
1953                        ]
1954                    )
1955                kind = ""
1956
1957        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
1958        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
1959        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
1960        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1961        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1962            expression,
1963            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1964            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1965            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1966        )
1967        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1968
1969    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1970        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1971        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1972        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
1973
1974    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1975        if expression.expressions:
1976            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1977        return ""
1978
1979    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1980        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1981        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1982        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1983        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1984        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
1985
1986    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1987        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1988        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
1989
1990    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1991        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1992        kind = expression.text("kind")
1993        if kind:
1994            kind = f"{kind}."
1995        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
1996
1997    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1998        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
1999
2000    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2001        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2002        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2003
2004        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2005        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2006
2007        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2008        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2009
2010    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2011        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2012        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2013
2014    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2015        return self.prepend_ctes(
2016            expression,
2017            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
2018        )
2019
2020    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2021        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2022        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2023        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2024        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2025
2026    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2027        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2028
2029        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2030        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2031
2032        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2033            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2034                alias.append("columns", offset)
2035
2036        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2037            columns = alias.columns
2038            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2039        else:
2040            alias = self.sql(alias)
2041
2042        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2043        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2044            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2045        else:
2046            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2047                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2048            elif offset:
2049                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2050            else:
2051                suffix = alias
2052
2053        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2054
2055    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2056        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2057        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2058
2059    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2060        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2061        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2062        order = expression.args.get("order")
2063        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2064        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2065        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2066        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2067
2068        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2069
2070        first = expression.args.get("first")
2071        if first is None:
2072            first = ""
2073        else:
2074            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2075
2076        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2077            return f"{this} {alias}"
2078
2079        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2080        return f"{this} ({args})"
2081
2082    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2083        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2084        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2085
2086    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2087        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2088        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2089        end = (
2090            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2091            or "CURRENT ROW"
2092        )
2093        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2094
2095    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2096        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2097        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2098        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2099
2100    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2101        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2102        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2103        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2104        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2105
2106    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2107        expressions = apply_index_offset(
2108            expression.this,
2109            expression.expressions,
2110            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2111        )
2112        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2113        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2114
2115    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2116        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2117
2118    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2119        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2120        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
2121            this = self.wrap(this)
2122        return f"ANY {this}"
2123
2124    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2125        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2126
2127    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2128        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2129        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2130
2131        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2132            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2133            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2134
2135        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2136
2137        if default:
2138            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2139
2140        statements.append("END")
2141
2142        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
2143            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2144
2145        return " ".join(statements)
2146
2147    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2148        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2149        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2150        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2151
2152    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2153        order = expression.args.get("order")
2154        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2155        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2156
2157    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2158        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2159        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2160        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2161
2162    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2163        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2164
2165        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2166            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2167        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2168            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2169        else:
2170            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2171
2172    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2173        args = expression.expressions
2174        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2175            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2176
2177        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2178            args = [exp.cast(e, "text") for e in args]
2179
2180        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2181            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2182
2183        return args
2184
2185    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2186        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2187
2188        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2189        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2190            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2191
2192        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2193
2194    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2195        return self.func(
2196            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2197        )
2198
2199    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2200        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2201        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2202
2203    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2204        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2205        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2206        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2207        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2208        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2209        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2210        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2211        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2212
2213    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2214        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2215        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2216        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2217        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2218
2219    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2220        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2221
2222    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2223        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2224        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2225        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2226
2227    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2228        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2229
2230    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2231        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2232
2233    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
2234        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2235        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2236        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2237        if unique_keys is not None:
2238            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2239        else:
2240            unique_keys = ""
2241        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2242        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2243        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2244        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2245        return self.func(
2246            "JSON_OBJECT",
2247            *expression.expressions,
2248            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2249        )
2250
2251    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2252        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2253        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2254        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2255        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2256        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2257        return self.func(
2258            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2259        )
2260
2261    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2262        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2263        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2264        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2265        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2266        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2267        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2268        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2269        return self.func(
2270            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2271            this,
2272            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2273        )
2274
2275    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2276        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2277        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2278        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2279
2280        if nested_schema:
2281            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2282
2283        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2284        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2285        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2286        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2287
2288    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2289        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2290
2291    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2292        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2293        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2294        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2295        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2296        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2297        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2298        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2299        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2300        return self.func(
2301            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2302        )
2303
2304    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2305        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2306        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2307        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2308        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2309        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2310        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2311
2312    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2313        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2314        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2315        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2316        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2317        with_ = (
2318            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2319            if expressions
2320            else ""
2321        )
2322        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2323
2324    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2325        query = expression.args.get("query")
2326        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2327        field = expression.args.get("field")
2328        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2329
2330        if query:
2331            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2332        elif unnest:
2333            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2334        elif field:
2335            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2336        else:
2337            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2338
2339        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2340
2341    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2342        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2343
2344    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2345        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2346        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2347            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
2348        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2349
2350        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2351            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2352            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2353
2354        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2355        if this:
2356            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2357            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2358
2359        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2360
2361    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2362        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2363
2364    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2365        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2366        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2367        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2368        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2369        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2370        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2371
2372    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2373        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
2374
2375    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2376        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2377            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2378        else:
2379            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2380            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2381
2382        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2383
2384    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2385        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2386        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2387        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2388        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2389
2390    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2391        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2392
2393    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2394        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2395        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2396        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2397
2398    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2399        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2400
2401    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2402        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2403        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2404        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2405
2406    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2407        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2408
2409    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2410        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
2411
2412    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2413        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
2414
2415    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2416        if not self.pretty:
2417            return self.binary(expression, op)
2418
2419        sqls = tuple(
2420            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2421            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2422        )
2423
2424        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2425        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
2426
2427    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2428        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2429
2430    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2431        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2432
2433    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2434        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2435
2436    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2437        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2438
2439    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2440        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2441
2442    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2443        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2444
2445    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2446        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2447        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2448        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2449        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2450        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql})"
2451
2452    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2453        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2454        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2455
2456    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2457        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2458            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2459        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2460
2461    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2462        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2463
2464    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2465        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2466        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2467        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2468        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2469        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2470
2471    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2472        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2473        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2474        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2475        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2476        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2477        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2478        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2479        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2480        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2481
2482    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2483        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2484        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2485        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2486        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2487
2488        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2489            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2490
2491        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2492
2493    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2494        return "BEGIN"
2495
2496    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2497        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2498        if chain is not None:
2499            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2500
2501        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2502
2503    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2504        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2505        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2506        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2507
2508    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2509        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2510
2511        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2512        if dtype:
2513            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2514            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2515            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2516            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2517            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2518
2519        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2520        if default:
2521            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2522
2523        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2524            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2525
2526        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2527
2528    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2529        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2530            # Remove db from tables
2531            expression = expression.transform(
2532                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2533            )
2534        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2535        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2536
2537    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2538        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2539
2540        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2541            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
2542        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2543            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2544        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2545            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2546        else:
2547            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2548
2549        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2550        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2551        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2552
2553    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2554        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
2555            return self.expressions(
2556                expression,
2557                key="actions",
2558                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
2559            )
2560        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
2561
2562    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2563        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2564        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2565        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2566
2567    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2568        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2569        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2570        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2571
2572        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2573        if enforced is not None:
2574            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2575
2576        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2577
2578    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2579        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2580        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2581
2582        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2583        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2584        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2585
2586    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2587        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2588
2589    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2590        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2591
2592    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2593        return self.sql(
2594            exp.Cast(
2595                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2596                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2597            )
2598        )
2599
2600    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2601        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2602            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2603        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2604
2605    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2606        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
2607
2608        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
2609            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
2610
2611        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
2612            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.FLOAT_TYPES) and not r.is_type(
2613                *exp.DataType.FLOAT_TYPES
2614            ):
2615                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
2616
2617        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
2618            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
2619                return self.sql(
2620                    exp.cast(
2621                        l / r,
2622                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
2623                    )
2624                )
2625
2626        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2627
2628    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2629        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2630
2631    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2632        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2633
2634    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2635        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2636
2637    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2638        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2639
2640    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
2641        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
2642
2643    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2644        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2645
2646    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2647        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2648
2649    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2650        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2651
2652    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2653        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2654
2655    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2656        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2657
2658    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2659        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2660
2661    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2662        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2663            return self.sql(
2664                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2665            )
2666        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2667
2668    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2669        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2670
2671    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2672        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2673
2674    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2675        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2676
2677    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2678        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2679
2680    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2681        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2682
2683    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2684        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2685
2686    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2687        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2688
2689    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2690        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2691
2692    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2693        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2694
2695    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2696        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2697
2698    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2699        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2700
2701    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2702        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2703
2704    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2705        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2706
2707    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2708        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
2709
2710    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
2711        this = expression.this
2712        expr = expression.expression
2713
2714        if not self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST:
2715            this, expr = expr, this
2716
2717        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
2718
2719    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2720        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2721        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2722        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2723        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2724        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2725
2726    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2727        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2728        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2729
2730    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2731        args = []
2732
2733        for key in expression.arg_types:
2734            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2735
2736            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2737                for value in arg_value:
2738                    args.append(value)
2739            elif arg_value is not None:
2740                args.append(arg_value)
2741
2742        if self.normalize_functions:
2743            name = expression.sql_name()
2744        else:
2745            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2746
2747        return self.func(name, *args)
2748
2749    def func(
2750        self,
2751        name: str,
2752        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2753        prefix: str = "(",
2754        suffix: str = ")",
2755    ) -> str:
2756        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2757
2758    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2759        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2760        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2761            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2762        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2763
2764    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2765        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2766
2767    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2768        return format_time(
2769            self.sql(expression, "format"),
2770            self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
2771            self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
2772        )
2773
2774    def expressions(
2775        self,
2776        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2777        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2778        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2779        flat: bool = False,
2780        indent: bool = True,
2781        skip_first: bool = False,
2782        sep: str = ", ",
2783        prefix: str = "",
2784    ) -> str:
2785        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2786
2787        if not expressions:
2788            return ""
2789
2790        if flat:
2791            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2792
2793        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2794
2795        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2796        pad = " " * self.pad
2797        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2798
2799        result_sqls = []
2800        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2801            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2802            if not sql:
2803                continue
2804
2805            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2806
2807            if self.pretty:
2808                if self.leading_comma:
2809                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2810                else:
2811                    result_sqls.append(
2812                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2813                    )
2814            else:
2815                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2816
2817        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2818        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
2819
2820    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2821        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2822        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2823        if flat:
2824            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2825        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2826
2827    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2828        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2829        if not property_name:
2830            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2831        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2832
2833    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Union, op: str) -> str:
2834        this = self.maybe_comment(self.sql(expression, "this"), comments=expression.comments)
2835        op = self.seg(op)
2836        return self.query_modifiers(
2837            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2838        )
2839
2840    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2841        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2842
2843    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2844        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2845
2846    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2847        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2848        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2849        expressions = (
2850            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2851        )
2852        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2853
2854    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2855        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2856        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2857        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2858
2859    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2860        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2861
2862    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2863        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2864        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2865        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2866        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2867
2868        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2869        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2870            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2871            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2872                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2873        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2874            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2875                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2876            else:
2877                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2878        else:
2879            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2880        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2881
2882    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2883        table = expression.this
2884        table_alias = ""
2885
2886        hints = table.args.get("hints")
2887        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
2888            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
2889            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
2890
2891        this = self.sql(table)
2892        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2893        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2894        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
2895
2896        return self.prepend_ctes(
2897            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
2898        )
2899
2900    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2901        if expression.args.get("format"):
2902            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2903
2904        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2905
2906    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2907        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2908        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2909        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2910        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2911        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2912
2913    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2914        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2915        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2916        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2917        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2918
2919    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2920        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
2921
2922    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2923        return ""
2924
2925    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2926        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2927        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2928        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2929        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2930        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
2931
2932    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2933        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2934        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2935
2936        if having:
2937            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2938
2939        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
2940
2941    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2942        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2943        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2944        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2945        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2946        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2947        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2948        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2949        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2950        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2951        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2952        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2953        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
2954        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
2955
2956    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2957        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
2958        if key_block_size:
2959            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
2960
2961        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2962        if using:
2963            return f"USING {using}"
2964
2965        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
2966        if parser:
2967            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
2968
2969        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2970        if comment:
2971            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
2972
2973        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
2974        if visible is not None:
2975            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
2976
2977        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
2978        if engine_attr:
2979            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
2980
2981        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
2982        if secondary_engine_attr:
2983            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
2984
2985        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
2986        return ""
2987
2988    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2989        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2990        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
2991        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2992        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2993        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
2994        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
2995        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2996        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
2997        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
2998        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2999        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{schema}{options}"
3000
3001    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3002        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3003            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3004
3005        case = exp.Case().when(
3006            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3007            expression.args["true"],
3008            copy=False,
3009        )
3010        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3011        if else_cond:
3012            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3013
3014        return self.sql(case)
3015
3016    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3017        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3018        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3019        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3020        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3021        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3022        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3023
3024    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3025        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3026
3027    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3028        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3029
3030    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3031        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3032        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3033        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3034        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3035        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3036        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3037
3038    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3039        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3040        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3041        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3042
3043    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3044        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3045        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3046        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3047
3048    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3049        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3050
3051    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3052        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3053            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3054
3055            expression = simplify(expression)
3056
3057        return expression
3058
3059    def _ensure_string_if_null(self, values: t.List[exp.Expression]) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
3060        return [
3061            exp.func("COALESCE", exp.cast(value, "text"), exp.Literal.string(""))
3062            for value in values
3063            if value
3064        ]
logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
class Generator:
  22class Generator:
  23    """
  24    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  25
  26    Args:
  27        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  28            Default: False.
  29        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  30            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  31            True or 'always': Always quote.
  32            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  33        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  34            Default: False.
  35        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  36            Default: 2.
  37        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  38            Default: 2.
  39        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  40            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  41            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  42            False: Disables function name normalization.
  43        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  44            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  45        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  46            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  47            Default: 3
  48        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  49            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  50            Default: False
  51        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  52            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  53            line length.
  54            Default: 80
  55        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  56            Default: True
  57    """
  58
  59    TRANSFORMS = {
  60        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  61            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  62        ),
  63        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  64        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  65        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  66        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  67        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  68        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  69        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  70        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  71        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  72        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  73        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  74        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  75        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  76        exp.HeapProperty: lambda self, e: "HEAP",
  77        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  78        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  79        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
  80        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  81        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  82        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  83        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  84        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  85        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  86        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
  87        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  88        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  89        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  92        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  94        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  95        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  96        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  97        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
  98        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
  99        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
 100        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 101        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
 102        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 103        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 104        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
 105        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 106        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
 107        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 108    }
 109
 110    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
 111    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
 112
 113    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 114    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 115
 116    # Always do union distinct or union all
 117    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 118
 119    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 120    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 121
 122    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 123    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 124
 125    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 126    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 127
 128    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 129    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 130
 131    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 132    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 133
 134    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 135    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 136
 137    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 138    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 139
 140    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 141    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 142
 143    # Whether or not limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 144    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 145
 146    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 147    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 148
 149    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 150    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 151
 152    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 153    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 154
 155    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 156    JOIN_HINTS = True
 157
 158    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 159    TABLE_HINTS = True
 160
 161    # Whether or not query hints should be generated
 162    QUERY_HINTS = True
 163
 164    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 165    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 166
 167    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 168    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 169
 170    # Whether or not to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 171    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 172
 173    # Whether or not to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 174    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 175
 176    # Whether or not to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 177    RETURNING_END = True
 178
 179    # Whether or not to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 180    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 181
 182    # Whether or not to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 183    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 184
 185    # Whether or not TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 186    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 187
 188    # Whether or not the NVL2 function is supported
 189    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 190
 191    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 192    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 193
 194    # Whether or not VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 195    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 196    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 197    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 198
 199    # Whether or not the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 200    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 201
 202    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 203    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 204
 205    # Whether or not FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 206    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 207
 208    # Whether or not JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 209    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 210
 211    # Whether or not to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 212    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 213
 214    # Whether or not CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 215    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 216
 217    # Whether or not parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 218    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 219
 220    # Whether or not COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 221    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 222
 223    # Whether or not data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 224    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 225
 226    # Whether or not conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 227    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 228
 229    # Whether or not the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 230    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 231
 232    # Whether or not CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 233    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 234
 235    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 236        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 237        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 238        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 239        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 240        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 241        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 242        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 243        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 244        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 245    }
 246
 247    STAR_MAPPING = {
 248        "except": "EXCEPT",
 249        "replace": "REPLACE",
 250    }
 251
 252    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 253        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 254        "seconds": "second",
 255        "minutes": "minute",
 256        "hours": "hour",
 257        "days": "day",
 258        "weeks": "week",
 259        "months": "month",
 260        "quarters": "quarter",
 261        "years": "year",
 262    }
 263
 264    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 265
 266    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 267
 268    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 269
 270    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 271        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 272        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 273        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 274        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 275        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 276        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 277        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 278        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 279        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 280        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 281        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 282        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 283        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 284        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 285        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 286        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 287        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 288        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 289        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 290        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 291        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 292        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 293        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 294        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 295        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 296        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 297        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 298        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 299        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 300        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 301        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 302        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 303        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 304        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 305        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 306        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 307        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 308        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 309        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 310        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 311        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 312        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 313        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 314        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 315        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 316        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 317        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 318        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 319        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 320        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 321        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 322        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 323        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 324        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 325        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 326        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 327        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 328        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 329        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 330        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 331        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 332        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 333        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 334        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 335    }
 336
 337    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 338    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 339
 340    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 341    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 342        exp.Create,
 343        exp.Delete,
 344        exp.Drop,
 345        exp.From,
 346        exp.Insert,
 347        exp.Join,
 348        exp.Select,
 349        exp.Update,
 350        exp.Where,
 351        exp.With,
 352    )
 353
 354    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 355    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 356        exp.Binary,
 357        exp.Union,
 358    )
 359
 360    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 361    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 362        exp.Column,
 363        exp.Literal,
 364        exp.Neg,
 365        exp.Paren,
 366    )
 367
 368    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 369    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 370
 371    KEY_VALUE_DEFINITONS = (exp.Bracket, exp.EQ, exp.PropertyEQ, exp.Slice)
 372
 373    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 374
 375    __slots__ = (
 376        "pretty",
 377        "identify",
 378        "normalize",
 379        "pad",
 380        "_indent",
 381        "normalize_functions",
 382        "unsupported_level",
 383        "max_unsupported",
 384        "leading_comma",
 385        "max_text_width",
 386        "comments",
 387        "dialect",
 388        "unsupported_messages",
 389        "_escaped_quote_end",
 390        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 391    )
 392
 393    def __init__(
 394        self,
 395        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 396        identify: str | bool = False,
 397        normalize: bool = False,
 398        pad: int = 2,
 399        indent: int = 2,
 400        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 401        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 402        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 403        leading_comma: bool = False,
 404        max_text_width: int = 80,
 405        comments: bool = True,
 406        dialect: DialectType = None,
 407    ):
 408        import sqlglot
 409        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 410
 411        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 412        self.identify = identify
 413        self.normalize = normalize
 414        self.pad = pad
 415        self._indent = indent
 416        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 417        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 418        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 419        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 420        self.comments = comments
 421        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 422
 423        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 424        self.normalize_functions = (
 425            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 426        )
 427
 428        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 429        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 430            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 431        )
 432        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 433            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 434        )
 435
 436    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 437        """
 438        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 439
 440        Args:
 441            expression: The syntax tree.
 442            copy: Whether or not to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 443                it is safer to copy.
 444
 445        Returns:
 446            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 447        """
 448        if copy:
 449            expression = expression.copy()
 450
 451        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 452
 453        self.unsupported_messages = []
 454        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 455
 456        if self.pretty:
 457            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 458
 459        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 460            return sql
 461
 462        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 463            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 464                logger.warning(msg)
 465        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 466            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 467
 468        return sql
 469
 470    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 471        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 472        if (
 473            not expression.parent
 474            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 475            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 476        ):
 477            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 478
 479            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 480
 481        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 482            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 483
 484            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 485
 486        return expression
 487
 488    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 489        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 490            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 491        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 492
 493    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 494        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 495
 496    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 497        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 498
 499    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 500        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 501        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 502        return comment
 503
 504    def maybe_comment(
 505        self,
 506        sql: str,
 507        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 508        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 509    ) -> str:
 510        comments = (
 511            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 512            if self.comments
 513            else None
 514        )
 515
 516        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 517            return sql
 518
 519        comments_sql = " ".join(
 520            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 521        )
 522
 523        if not comments_sql:
 524            return sql
 525
 526        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 527            return (
 528                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 529                if sql[0].isspace()
 530                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 531            )
 532
 533        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 534
 535    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 536        this_sql = self.indent(
 537            self.sql(expression)
 538            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 539            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 540            level=1,
 541            pad=0,
 542        )
 543        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 544
 545    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 546        original = self.identify
 547        self.identify = False
 548        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 549        self.identify = original
 550        return result
 551
 552    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 553        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 554            return name.upper()
 555        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 556            return name.lower()
 557        return name
 558
 559    def indent(
 560        self,
 561        sql: str,
 562        level: int = 0,
 563        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 564        skip_first: bool = False,
 565        skip_last: bool = False,
 566    ) -> str:
 567        if not self.pretty:
 568            return sql
 569
 570        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 571        lines = sql.split("\n")
 572
 573        return "\n".join(
 574            line
 575            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 576            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 577            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 578        )
 579
 580    def sql(
 581        self,
 582        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 583        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 584        comment: bool = True,
 585    ) -> str:
 586        if not expression:
 587            return ""
 588
 589        if isinstance(expression, str):
 590            return expression
 591
 592        if key:
 593            value = expression.args.get(key)
 594            if value:
 595                return self.sql(value)
 596            return ""
 597
 598        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 599
 600        if callable(transform):
 601            sql = transform(self, expression)
 602        elif transform:
 603            sql = transform
 604        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 605            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 606
 607            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 608                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 609            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 610                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 611            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 612                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 613            else:
 614                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 615        else:
 616            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 617
 618        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 619
 620    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 621        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 622        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 623        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 624
 625    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 626        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 627        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 628        options = expression.args.get("options")
 629        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 630        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 631        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 632        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 633        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 634
 635    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 636        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 637            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 638        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 639        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 640
 641    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 642        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 643
 644        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 645            join_mark = ""
 646            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 647
 648        column = ".".join(
 649            self.sql(part)
 650            for part in (
 651                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 652                expression.args.get("db"),
 653                expression.args.get("table"),
 654                expression.args.get("this"),
 655            )
 656            if part
 657        )
 658
 659        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 660
 661    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 662        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 663        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 664        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 665        return f"{position}{this}"
 666
 667    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 668        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 669        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 670        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 671        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 672        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 673        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 674        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 675        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 676
 677        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 678            kind = ""
 679
 680        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 681
 682    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 683        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 684        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 685        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 686
 687    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 688        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 689        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 690            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 691        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 692            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 693        else:
 694            persisted = ""
 695        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 696
 697    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 698        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 699
 700    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 701        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 702            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 703        else:
 704            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 705
 706        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 707
 708    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 709        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 710    ) -> str:
 711        this = ""
 712        if expression.this is not None:
 713            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 714            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 715
 716        start = expression.args.get("start")
 717        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 718        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 719        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 720        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 721        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 722        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 723        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 724        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 725        cycle_sql = ""
 726
 727        if cycle is not None:
 728            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 729            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 730
 731        sequence_opts = ""
 732        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 733            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 734            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 735
 736        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 737        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 738
 739        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 740
 741    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 742        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 743    ) -> str:
 744        start = "START" if expression.args["start"] else "END"
 745        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 746        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 747
 748    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 749        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 750    ) -> str:
 751        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 752
 753    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 754        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 755
 756    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 757        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 758
 759    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 760        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 761        if desc is not None:
 762            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 763        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 764
 765    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 766        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 767        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 768        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 769        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 770        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}"
 771
 772    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 773        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 774
 775    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 776        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 777        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 778        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 779
 780        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 781
 782        properties_sql = ""
 783        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 784            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 785        ):
 786            properties_sql = self.sql(
 787                exp.Properties(
 788                    expressions=[
 789                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 790                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 791                    ]
 792                )
 793            )
 794
 795        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 796        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 797
 798        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 799        if expression_sql:
 800            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 801
 802            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 803                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 804                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 805                        exp.Properties(
 806                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 807                        ),
 808                        wrapped=False,
 809                    )
 810                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 811                else:
 812                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 813
 814        postindex_props_sql = ""
 815        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 816            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 817                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 818                wrapped=False,
 819                prefix=" ",
 820            )
 821
 822        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 823        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 824        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 825
 826        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 827        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 828
 829        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 830        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 831            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 832                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 833                sep=" ",
 834                prefix=" ",
 835                wrapped=False,
 836            )
 837
 838        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 839
 840        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 841        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 842            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 843                exp.Properties(
 844                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 845                ),
 846                sep=" ",
 847                prefix=" ",
 848                wrapped=False,
 849            )
 850
 851        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 852        no_schema_binding = (
 853            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 854        )
 855
 856        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 857        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 858
 859        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 860        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 861
 862    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 863        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 864        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
 865        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
 866        this = f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
 867        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 868
 869        if when:
 870            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 871            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 872            return f"{this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 873
 874        return this
 875
 876    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 877        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 878
 879    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 880        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 881        if with_:
 882            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 883        return sql
 884
 885    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 886        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 887        recursive = (
 888            "RECURSIVE "
 889            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
 890            else ""
 891        )
 892
 893        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 894
 895    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 896        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 897        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 898
 899    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 900        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 901        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 902        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 903
 904        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
 905            alias = "_t"
 906
 907        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 908
 909    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 910        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 911        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
 912            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
 913        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 914
 915    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 916        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 917        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
 918            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
 919        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 920
 921    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 922        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 923        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
 924            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
 925        return this
 926
 927    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 928        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
 929        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
 930
 931    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
 932        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 933        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 934        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
 935        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 936
 937    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 938        type_value = expression.this
 939
 940        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
 941            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 942        else:
 943            type_sql = (
 944                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 945                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
 946                else type_value
 947            )
 948
 949        nested = ""
 950        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 951        values = ""
 952
 953        if interior:
 954            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 955                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 956                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 957                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 958                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 959                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 960            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
 961                nested = f" {interior}"
 962            else:
 963                nested = f"({interior})"
 964
 965        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 966        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
 967            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
 968            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
 969        ):
 970            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
 971
 972        return type_sql
 973
 974    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 975        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 976        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 977        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 978        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
 979
 980    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 981        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 982        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 983        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 984        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
 985        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
 986        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
 987        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
 988        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
 989        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
 990        if self.RETURNING_END:
 991            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
 992        else:
 993            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
 994        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
 995
 996    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
 997        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 998        kind = expression.args["kind"]
 999        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1000        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1001        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1002        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1003        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1004        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1005        return (
1006            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1007        )
1008
1009    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1010        return self.prepend_ctes(
1011            expression,
1012            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
1013        )
1014
1015    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1016        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1017
1018    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1019        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1020        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
1021        count = expression.args.get("count")
1022        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1023        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1024            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1025        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1026        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1027
1028    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1029        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1030            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1031            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1032            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1033
1034        agg = expression.this
1035        agg_arg = agg.this
1036        cond = expression.expression.this
1037        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1038        return self.sql(agg)
1039
1040    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1041        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1042            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1043            return ""
1044
1045        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1046
1047    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1048        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1049        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1050        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1051        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1052        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1053        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1054        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1055        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1056        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1057        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1058        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1059        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1060        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1061        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1062        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1063        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}{where}"
1064
1065    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1066        text = expression.name
1067        lower = text.lower()
1068        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1069        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1070        if (
1071            expression.quoted
1072            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1073            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1074            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1075        ):
1076            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1077        return text
1078
1079    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1080        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1081        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1082        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1083        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1084        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1085
1086    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1087        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1088        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1089
1090    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1091        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1092
1093    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1094        root_properties = []
1095        with_properties = []
1096
1097        for p in expression.expressions:
1098            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1099            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1100                with_properties.append(p)
1101            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1102                root_properties.append(p)
1103
1104        return self.root_properties(
1105            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1106        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1107
1108    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1109        if properties.expressions:
1110            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1111        return ""
1112
1113    def properties(
1114        self,
1115        properties: exp.Properties,
1116        prefix: str = "",
1117        sep: str = ", ",
1118        suffix: str = "",
1119        wrapped: bool = True,
1120    ) -> str:
1121        if properties.expressions:
1122            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1123            if expressions:
1124                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1125                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1126        return ""
1127
1128    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1129        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1130
1131    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1132        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1133        for p in properties.expressions:
1134            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1135            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1136                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1137            else:
1138                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1139
1140        return properties_locs
1141
1142    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1143        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1144            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1145        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1146
1147    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1148        property_cls = expression.__class__
1149        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1150            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1151
1152        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1153        if not property_name:
1154            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1155
1156        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1157
1158    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1159        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1160        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1161        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1162
1163    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1164        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1165        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1166        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1167
1168    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1169        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1170        local = expression.args.get("local")
1171        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1172        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1173        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1174        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1175        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1176
1177    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1178        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1179        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1180        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1181
1182    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1183        if expression.args.get("default"):
1184            property = "DEFAULT"
1185        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1186            property = "ON"
1187        else:
1188            property = "OFF"
1189        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1190
1191    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1192        if expression.args.get("no"):
1193            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1194        if expression.args.get("default"):
1195            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1196
1197        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1198        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1199
1200    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1201        default = expression.args.get("default")
1202        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1203        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1204        if default or minimum or maximum:
1205            if default:
1206                prop = "DEFAULT"
1207            elif minimum:
1208                prop = "MINIMUM"
1209            else:
1210                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1211            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1212        units = expression.args.get("units")
1213        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1214        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1215
1216    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1217        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1218        always = expression.args.get("always")
1219        default = expression.args.get("default")
1220        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1221        never = expression.args.get("never")
1222
1223        if autotemp is not None:
1224            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1225        elif always:
1226            prop = "ALWAYS"
1227        elif default:
1228            prop = "DEFAULT"
1229        elif manual:
1230            prop = "MANUAL"
1231        elif never:
1232            prop = "NEVER"
1233        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1234
1235    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1236        no = expression.args.get("no")
1237        no = " NO" if no else ""
1238        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1239        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1240
1241        for_ = ""
1242        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1243            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1244        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1245            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1246        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1247            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1248        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1249
1250    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1251        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1252            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1253        if expression.this:
1254            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1255            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1256            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1257
1258        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1259        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1260        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1261
1262    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1263        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1264
1265        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1266        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1267            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1268        else:
1269            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1270
1271        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1272
1273    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1274        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1275        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1276        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1277        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1278        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1279        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1280        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1281
1282    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1283        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1284        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1285        statistics_sql = ""
1286        if statistics is not None:
1287            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1288        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1289
1290    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1291        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
1292
1293        if expression.this:
1294            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
1295            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
1296
1297            if expression.expression:
1298                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1299                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
1300
1301            sql = f"{sql})"
1302
1303        return f"{sql})"
1304
1305    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1306        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1307
1308        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1309            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1310        else:
1311            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1312
1313        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1314        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1315        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1316
1317        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1318
1319        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1320        partition_sql = (
1321            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1322        )
1323        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1324        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1325        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1326        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1327        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1328        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1329
1330        if self.RETURNING_END:
1331            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1332        else:
1333            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1334
1335        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1336        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1337
1338    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1339        return self.prepend_ctes(
1340            expression,
1341            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1342        )
1343
1344    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1345        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1346
1347    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1348        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1349
1350    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1351        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1352        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1353        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1354        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1355        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1356
1357    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1358        return expression.name.upper()
1359
1360    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1361        return expression.name.upper()
1362
1363    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1364        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1365        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1366        if constraint:
1367            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1368        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1369        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1370        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1371        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1372        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1373        if expressions:
1374            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1375        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1376
1377    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1378        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1379
1380    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1381        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1382        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1383        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1384        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1385        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1386        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1387        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1388        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1389        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1390        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1391        null = expression.args.get("null")
1392        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1393        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1394
1395    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1396        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1397
1398    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1399        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1400        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1401        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1402        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1403
1404    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1405        table = ".".join(
1406            self.sql(part)
1407            for part in (
1408                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1409                expression.args.get("db"),
1410                expression.args.get("this"),
1411            )
1412            if part is not None
1413        )
1414
1415        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1416        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1417        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1418        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1419        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1420        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1421        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1422        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1423        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1424        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1425
1426        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1427        if file_format:
1428            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1429            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1430            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1431
1432        index = self.sql(expression, "index")
1433        index = f" AT {index}" if index else ""
1434
1435        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1436        if ordinality:
1437            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1438            alias = ""
1439
1440        return f"{table}{version}{file_format}{alias}{index}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1441
1442    def tablesample_sql(
1443        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1444    ) -> str:
1445        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1446            table = expression.this.copy()
1447            table.set("alias", None)
1448            this = self.sql(table)
1449            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1450        else:
1451            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1452            alias = ""
1453
1454        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1455        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1456        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1457        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1458        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1459        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1460        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1461        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1462        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1463        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1464        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1465
1466        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1467        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1468            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1469
1470        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1471        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1472        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1473
1474        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}"
1475        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1476            expr = f"({expr})"
1477
1478        return f"{this} {kind} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1479
1480    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1481        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1482
1483        if expression.this:
1484            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1485            if not expressions:
1486                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1487
1488            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1489            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1490            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1491            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1492            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1493
1494        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1495        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1496        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1497        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1498        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1499        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1500        if include_nulls is not None:
1501            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1502        else:
1503            nulls = ""
1504        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1505
1506    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1507        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1508        kind = expression.text("kind")
1509        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1510        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1511
1512    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1513        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1514
1515    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1516        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1517        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1518        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1519        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1520        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1521        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1522        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1523        if self.RETURNING_END:
1524            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1525        else:
1526            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1527        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1528        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1529
1530    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1531        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1532        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1533            args = self.expressions(expression)
1534            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1535            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1536            values = (
1537                f"({values})"
1538                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1539                else values
1540            )
1541            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1542
1543        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1544        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1545        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1546
1547        selects: t.List[exp.Subqueryable] = []
1548
1549        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1550            row = tup.expressions
1551
1552            if i == 0 and column_names:
1553                row = [
1554                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1555                ]
1556
1557            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1558
1559        if self.pretty:
1560            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1561            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1562            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1563            subqueryable = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1564            return self.subquery_sql(
1565                subqueryable.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False)
1566            )
1567
1568        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1569        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1570        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1571
1572    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1573        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1574
1575    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1576        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1577        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1578        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1579
1580    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1581        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1582
1583    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1584        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1585
1586        if expression.args.get("all"):
1587            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1588
1589        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1590        grouping_sets = (
1591            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1592        )
1593
1594        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1595        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1596            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1597        else:
1598            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1599            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1600
1601        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1602        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1603            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1604        else:
1605            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1606            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1607
1608        groupings = csv(
1609            grouping_sets,
1610            cube_sql,
1611            rollup_sql,
1612            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1613            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1614        )
1615
1616        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1617            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1618
1619        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1620
1621    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1622        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1623        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1624
1625    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1626        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1627        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1628        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1629        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY {connect}")
1630        return start + connect
1631
1632    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1633        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1634
1635    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1636        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1637            side = None
1638        else:
1639            side = expression.side
1640
1641        op_sql = " ".join(
1642            op
1643            for op in (
1644                expression.method,
1645                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1646                side,
1647                expression.kind,
1648                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1649            )
1650            if op
1651        )
1652        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1653        using = expression.args.get("using")
1654
1655        if not on_sql and using:
1656            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1657
1658        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1659
1660        if on_sql:
1661            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1662            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1663            if using:
1664                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1665            else:
1666                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1667        elif not op_sql:
1668            return f", {this_sql}"
1669
1670        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1671        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1672
1673    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1674        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1675        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1676        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1677
1678    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1679        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1680
1681        if expression.args.get("view"):
1682            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1683            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1684            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1685            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1686            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1687            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1688
1689        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1690        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1691        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1692
1693    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1694        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1695
1696        args = [
1697            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
1698            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1699            if e
1700        ]
1701
1702        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
1703        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if any(top and not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
1704        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}"
1705
1706    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1707        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1708        expression = expression.expression
1709        expression = (
1710            self._simplify_unless_literal(expression) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else expression
1711        )
1712        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression)}"
1713
1714    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1715        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1716        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1717        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1718        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1719        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1720        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1721        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1722        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1723
1724    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1725        expressions = (
1726            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1727        )
1728        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1729        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1730
1731    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1732        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1733
1734    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1735        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1736            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1737            return ""
1738
1739        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1740        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1741        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1742        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1743
1744        if wait is not None:
1745            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1746                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1747            else:
1748                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1749
1750        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1751
1752    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1753        text = expression.this or ""
1754        if expression.is_string:
1755            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1756        return text
1757
1758    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1759        text = text.replace(self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1760        if self.dialect.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES:
1761            text = "".join(self.dialect.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES.get(ch, ch) for ch in text)
1762        elif self.pretty:
1763            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1764        return text
1765
1766    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1767        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1768        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1769        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1770        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1771        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1772        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1773        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1774        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1775        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1776        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1777        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1778
1779    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1780        return "NULL"
1781
1782    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1783        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1784
1785    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1786        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1787        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1788        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1789
1790    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1791        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1792
1793    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1794        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1795
1796    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1797        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1798
1799    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1800        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1801        asc = not desc
1802
1803        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1804        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1805        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1806        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1807        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1808
1809        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1810
1811        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
1812        nulls_sort_change = ""
1813        if nulls_first and (
1814            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1815        ):
1816            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1817        elif (
1818            nulls_last
1819            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1820            and not nulls_are_last
1821        ):
1822            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1823
1824        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
1825        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1826            null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
1827            this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
1828            nulls_sort_change = ""
1829
1830        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1831
1832    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1833        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1834        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1835        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1836        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1837        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1838        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1839        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1840        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1841        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1842        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1843        definition_sqls = [
1844            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1845            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1846        ]
1847        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1848        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1849        body = "".join(
1850            (
1851                partition,
1852                order,
1853                measures,
1854                rows,
1855                after,
1856                pattern,
1857                define,
1858            )
1859        )
1860        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1861        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1862        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1863
1864    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1865        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1866
1867        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1868        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1869
1870        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1871            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1872        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1873            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1874
1875        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1876
1877        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1878            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1879            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1880            else []
1881        )
1882
1883        return csv(
1884            *sqls,
1885            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1886            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
1887            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1888            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1889            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1890            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1891            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1892            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1893            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1894            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1895            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1896            sep="",
1897        )
1898
1899    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1900        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1901    ) -> t.List[str]:
1902        return [
1903            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1904            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1905        ]
1906
1907    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1908        return [
1909            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1910            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1911            if expression.args.get("windows")
1912            else "",
1913            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1914            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1915            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1916        ]
1917
1918    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1919        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1920        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1921        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1922
1923    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1924        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1925        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1926        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1927        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1928        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1929        top = (
1930            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1931            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1932            else ""
1933        )
1934
1935        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1936
1937        if kind:
1938            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1939                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1940            else:
1941                if kind == "STRUCT":
1942                    expressions = self.expressions(
1943                        sqls=[
1944                            self.sql(
1945                                exp.Struct(
1946                                    expressions=[
1947                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1948                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1949                                        )
1950                                        for e in expression.expressions
1951                                    ]
1952                                )
1953                            )
1954                        ]
1955                    )
1956                kind = ""
1957
1958        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
1959        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
1960        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
1961        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1962        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1963            expression,
1964            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1965            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1966            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1967        )
1968        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1969
1970    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1971        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1972        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1973        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
1974
1975    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1976        if expression.expressions:
1977            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1978        return ""
1979
1980    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1981        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1982        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1983        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1984        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1985        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
1986
1987    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1988        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1989        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
1990
1991    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1992        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1993        kind = expression.text("kind")
1994        if kind:
1995            kind = f"{kind}."
1996        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
1997
1998    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1999        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
2000
2001    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2002        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2003        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2004
2005        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2006        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2007
2008        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2009        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2010
2011    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2012        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2013        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2014
2015    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2016        return self.prepend_ctes(
2017            expression,
2018            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
2019        )
2020
2021    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2022        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2023        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2024        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2025        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2026
2027    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2028        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2029
2030        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2031        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2032
2033        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2034            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2035                alias.append("columns", offset)
2036
2037        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2038            columns = alias.columns
2039            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2040        else:
2041            alias = self.sql(alias)
2042
2043        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2044        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2045            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2046        else:
2047            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2048                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2049            elif offset:
2050                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2051            else:
2052                suffix = alias
2053
2054        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2055
2056    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2057        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2058        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2059
2060    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2061        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2062        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2063        order = expression.args.get("order")
2064        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2065        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2066        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2067        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2068
2069        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2070
2071        first = expression.args.get("first")
2072        if first is None:
2073            first = ""
2074        else:
2075            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2076
2077        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2078            return f"{this} {alias}"
2079
2080        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2081        return f"{this} ({args})"
2082
2083    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2084        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2085        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2086
2087    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2088        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2089        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2090        end = (
2091            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2092            or "CURRENT ROW"
2093        )
2094        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2095
2096    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2097        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2098        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2099        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2100
2101    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2102        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2103        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2104        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2105        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2106
2107    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2108        expressions = apply_index_offset(
2109            expression.this,
2110            expression.expressions,
2111            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2112        )
2113        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2114        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2115
2116    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2117        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2118
2119    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2120        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2121        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
2122            this = self.wrap(this)
2123        return f"ANY {this}"
2124
2125    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2126        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2127
2128    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2129        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2130        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2131
2132        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2133            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2134            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2135
2136        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2137
2138        if default:
2139            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2140
2141        statements.append("END")
2142
2143        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
2144            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2145
2146        return " ".join(statements)
2147
2148    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2149        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2150        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2151        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2152
2153    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2154        order = expression.args.get("order")
2155        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2156        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2157
2158    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2159        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2160        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2161        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2162
2163    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2164        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2165
2166        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2167            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2168        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2169            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2170        else:
2171            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2172
2173    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2174        args = expression.expressions
2175        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2176            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2177
2178        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2179            args = [exp.cast(e, "text") for e in args]
2180
2181        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2182            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2183
2184        return args
2185
2186    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2187        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2188
2189        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2190        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2191            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2192
2193        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2194
2195    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2196        return self.func(
2197            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2198        )
2199
2200    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2201        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2202        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2203
2204    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2205        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2206        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2207        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2208        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2209        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2210        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2211        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2212        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2213
2214    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2215        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2216        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2217        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2218        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2219
2220    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2221        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2222
2223    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2224        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2225        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2226        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2227
2228    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2229        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2230
2231    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2232        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2233
2234    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
2235        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2236        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2237        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2238        if unique_keys is not None:
2239            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2240        else:
2241            unique_keys = ""
2242        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2243        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2244        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2245        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2246        return self.func(
2247            "JSON_OBJECT",
2248            *expression.expressions,
2249            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2250        )
2251
2252    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2253        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2254        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2255        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2256        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2257        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2258        return self.func(
2259            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2260        )
2261
2262    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2263        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2264        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2265        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2266        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2267        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2268        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2269        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2270        return self.func(
2271            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2272            this,
2273            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2274        )
2275
2276    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2277        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2278        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2279        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2280
2281        if nested_schema:
2282            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2283
2284        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2285        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2286        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2287        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2288
2289    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2290        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2291
2292    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2293        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2294        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2295        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2296        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2297        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2298        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2299        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2300        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2301        return self.func(
2302            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2303        )
2304
2305    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2306        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2307        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2308        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2309        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2310        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2311        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2312
2313    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2314        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2315        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2316        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2317        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2318        with_ = (
2319            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2320            if expressions
2321            else ""
2322        )
2323        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2324
2325    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2326        query = expression.args.get("query")
2327        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2328        field = expression.args.get("field")
2329        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2330
2331        if query:
2332            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2333        elif unnest:
2334            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2335        elif field:
2336            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2337        else:
2338            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2339
2340        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2341
2342    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2343        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2344
2345    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2346        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2347        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2348            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
2349        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2350
2351        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2352            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2353            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2354
2355        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2356        if this:
2357            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2358            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2359
2360        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2361
2362    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2363        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2364
2365    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2366        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2367        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2368        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2369        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2370        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2371        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2372
2373    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2374        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
2375
2376    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2377        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2378            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2379        else:
2380            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2381            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2382
2383        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2384
2385    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2386        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2387        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2388        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2389        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2390
2391    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2392        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2393
2394    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2395        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2396        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2397        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2398
2399    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2400        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2401
2402    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2403        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2404        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2405        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2406
2407    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2408        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2409
2410    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2411        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
2412
2413    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2414        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
2415
2416    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2417        if not self.pretty:
2418            return self.binary(expression, op)
2419
2420        sqls = tuple(
2421            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2422            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2423        )
2424
2425        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2426        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
2427
2428    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2429        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2430
2431    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2432        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2433
2434    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2435        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2436
2437    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2438        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2439
2440    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2441        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2442
2443    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2444        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2445
2446    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2447        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2448        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2449        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2450        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2451        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql})"
2452
2453    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2454        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2455        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2456
2457    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2458        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2459            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2460        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2461
2462    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2463        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2464
2465    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2466        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2467        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2468        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2469        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2470        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2471
2472    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2473        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2474        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2475        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2476        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2477        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2478        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2479        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2480        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2481        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2482
2483    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2484        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2485        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2486        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2487        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2488
2489        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2490            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2491
2492        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2493
2494    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2495        return "BEGIN"
2496
2497    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2498        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2499        if chain is not None:
2500            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2501
2502        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2503
2504    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2505        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2506        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2507        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2508
2509    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2510        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2511
2512        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2513        if dtype:
2514            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2515            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2516            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2517            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2518            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2519
2520        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2521        if default:
2522            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2523
2524        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2525            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2526
2527        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2528
2529    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2530        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2531            # Remove db from tables
2532            expression = expression.transform(
2533                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2534            )
2535        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2536        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2537
2538    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2539        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2540
2541        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2542            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
2543        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2544            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2545        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2546            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2547        else:
2548            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2549
2550        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2551        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2552        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2553
2554    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2555        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
2556            return self.expressions(
2557                expression,
2558                key="actions",
2559                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
2560            )
2561        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
2562
2563    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2564        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2565        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2566        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2567
2568    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2569        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2570        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2571        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2572
2573        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2574        if enforced is not None:
2575            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2576
2577        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2578
2579    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2580        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2581        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2582
2583        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2584        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2585        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2586
2587    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2588        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2589
2590    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2591        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2592
2593    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2594        return self.sql(
2595            exp.Cast(
2596                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2597                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2598            )
2599        )
2600
2601    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2602        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2603            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2604        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2605
2606    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2607        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
2608
2609        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
2610            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
2611
2612        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
2613            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.FLOAT_TYPES) and not r.is_type(
2614                *exp.DataType.FLOAT_TYPES
2615            ):
2616                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
2617
2618        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
2619            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
2620                return self.sql(
2621                    exp.cast(
2622                        l / r,
2623                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
2624                    )
2625                )
2626
2627        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2628
2629    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2630        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2631
2632    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2633        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2634
2635    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2636        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2637
2638    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2639        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2640
2641    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
2642        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
2643
2644    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2645        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2646
2647    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2648        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2649
2650    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2651        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2652
2653    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2654        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2655
2656    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2657        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2658
2659    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2660        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2661
2662    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2663        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2664            return self.sql(
2665                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2666            )
2667        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2668
2669    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2670        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2671
2672    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2673        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2674
2675    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2676        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2677
2678    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2679        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2680
2681    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2682        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2683
2684    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2685        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2686
2687    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2688        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2689
2690    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2691        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2692
2693    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2694        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2695
2696    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2697        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2698
2699    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2700        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2701
2702    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2703        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2704
2705    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2706        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2707
2708    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2709        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
2710
2711    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
2712        this = expression.this
2713        expr = expression.expression
2714
2715        if not self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST:
2716            this, expr = expr, this
2717
2718        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
2719
2720    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2721        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2722        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2723        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2724        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2725        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2726
2727    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2728        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2729        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2730
2731    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2732        args = []
2733
2734        for key in expression.arg_types:
2735            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2736
2737            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2738                for value in arg_value:
2739                    args.append(value)
2740            elif arg_value is not None:
2741                args.append(arg_value)
2742
2743        if self.normalize_functions:
2744            name = expression.sql_name()
2745        else:
2746            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2747
2748        return self.func(name, *args)
2749
2750    def func(
2751        self,
2752        name: str,
2753        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2754        prefix: str = "(",
2755        suffix: str = ")",
2756    ) -> str:
2757        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2758
2759    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2760        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2761        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2762            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2763        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2764
2765    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2766        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2767
2768    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2769        return format_time(
2770            self.sql(expression, "format"),
2771            self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
2772            self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
2773        )
2774
2775    def expressions(
2776        self,
2777        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2778        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2779        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2780        flat: bool = False,
2781        indent: bool = True,
2782        skip_first: bool = False,
2783        sep: str = ", ",
2784        prefix: str = "",
2785    ) -> str:
2786        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2787
2788        if not expressions:
2789            return ""
2790
2791        if flat:
2792            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2793
2794        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2795
2796        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2797        pad = " " * self.pad
2798        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2799
2800        result_sqls = []
2801        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2802            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2803            if not sql:
2804                continue
2805
2806            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2807
2808            if self.pretty:
2809                if self.leading_comma:
2810                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2811                else:
2812                    result_sqls.append(
2813                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2814                    )
2815            else:
2816                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2817
2818        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2819        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
2820
2821    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2822        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2823        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2824        if flat:
2825            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2826        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2827
2828    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2829        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2830        if not property_name:
2831            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2832        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2833
2834    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Union, op: str) -> str:
2835        this = self.maybe_comment(self.sql(expression, "this"), comments=expression.comments)
2836        op = self.seg(op)
2837        return self.query_modifiers(
2838            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2839        )
2840
2841    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2842        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2843
2844    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2845        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2846
2847    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2848        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2849        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2850        expressions = (
2851            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2852        )
2853        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2854
2855    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2856        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2857        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2858        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2859
2860    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2861        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2862
2863    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2864        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2865        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2866        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2867        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2868
2869        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2870        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2871            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2872            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2873                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2874        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2875            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2876                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2877            else:
2878                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2879        else:
2880            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2881        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2882
2883    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2884        table = expression.this
2885        table_alias = ""
2886
2887        hints = table.args.get("hints")
2888        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
2889            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
2890            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
2891
2892        this = self.sql(table)
2893        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2894        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2895        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
2896
2897        return self.prepend_ctes(
2898            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
2899        )
2900
2901    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2902        if expression.args.get("format"):
2903            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2904
2905        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2906
2907    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2908        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2909        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2910        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2911        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2912        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2913
2914    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2915        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2916        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2917        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2918        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2919
2920    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2921        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
2922
2923    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2924        return ""
2925
2926    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2927        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2928        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2929        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2930        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2931        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
2932
2933    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2934        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2935        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2936
2937        if having:
2938            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2939
2940        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
2941
2942    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2943        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2944        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2945        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2946        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2947        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2948        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2949        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2950        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2951        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2952        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2953        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2954        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
2955        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
2956
2957    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2958        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
2959        if key_block_size:
2960            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
2961
2962        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2963        if using:
2964            return f"USING {using}"
2965
2966        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
2967        if parser:
2968            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
2969
2970        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2971        if comment:
2972            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
2973
2974        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
2975        if visible is not None:
2976            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
2977
2978        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
2979        if engine_attr:
2980            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
2981
2982        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
2983        if secondary_engine_attr:
2984            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
2985
2986        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
2987        return ""
2988
2989    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2990        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2991        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
2992        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2993        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2994        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
2995        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
2996        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2997        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
2998        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
2999        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3000        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{schema}{options}"
3001
3002    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3003        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3004            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3005
3006        case = exp.Case().when(
3007            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3008            expression.args["true"],
3009            copy=False,
3010        )
3011        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3012        if else_cond:
3013            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3014
3015        return self.sql(case)
3016
3017    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3018        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3019        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3020        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3021        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3022        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3023        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3024
3025    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3026        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3027
3028    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3029        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3030
3031    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3032        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3033        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3034        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3035        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3036        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3037        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3038
3039    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3040        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3041        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3042        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3043
3044    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3045        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3046        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3047        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3048
3049    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3050        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3051
3052    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3053        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3054            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3055
3056            expression = simplify(expression)
3057
3058        return expression
3059
3060    def _ensure_string_if_null(self, values: t.List[exp.Expression]) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
3061        return [
3062            exp.func("COALESCE", exp.cast(value, "text"), exp.Literal.string(""))
3063            for value in values
3064            if value
3065        ]

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

Arguments:
  • pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
  • identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  • normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
  • pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
  • unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True, dialect: Union[str, sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect, Type[sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect], NoneType] = None)
393    def __init__(
394        self,
395        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
396        identify: str | bool = False,
397        normalize: bool = False,
398        pad: int = 2,
399        indent: int = 2,
400        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
401        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
402        max_unsupported: int = 3,
403        leading_comma: bool = False,
404        max_text_width: int = 80,
405        comments: bool = True,
406        dialect: DialectType = None,
407    ):
408        import sqlglot
409        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
410
411        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
412        self.identify = identify
413        self.normalize = normalize
414        self.pad = pad
415        self._indent = indent
416        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
417        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
418        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
419        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
420        self.comments = comments
421        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
422
423        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
424        self.normalize_functions = (
425            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
426        )
427
428        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
429        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
430            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
431        )
432        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
433            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
434        )
TRANSFORMS = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalSpan'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NonClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXPLICIT_UNION = False
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINT_SEP = ', '
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
RETURNING_END = True
COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
ENSURE_BOOLS = False
CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.TINYTEXT: 'TINYTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.TINYBLOB: 'TINYBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET'}
STAR_MAPPING = {'except': 'EXCEPT', 'replace': 'REPLACE'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'microseconds': 'microsecond', 'seconds': 'second', 'minutes': 'minute', 'hours': 'hour', 'days': 'day', 'weeks': 'week', 'months': 'month', 'quarters': 'quarter', 'years': 'year'}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Binary'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Union'>)
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: Set[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = set()
KEY_VALUE_DEFINITONS = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Bracket'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EQ'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PropertyEQ'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Slice'>)
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
dialect
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
436    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
437        """
438        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
439
440        Args:
441            expression: The syntax tree.
442            copy: Whether or not to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
443                it is safer to copy.
444
445        Returns:
446            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
447        """
448        if copy:
449            expression = expression.copy()
450
451        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
452
453        self.unsupported_messages = []
454        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
455
456        if self.pretty:
457            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
458
459        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
460            return sql
461
462        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
463            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
464                logger.warning(msg)
465        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
466            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
467
468        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

Arguments:
  • expression: The syntax tree.
  • copy: Whether or not to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so it is safer to copy.
Returns:

The SQL string corresponding to expression.

def preprocess( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> sqlglot.expressions.Expression:
470    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
471        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
472        if (
473            not expression.parent
474            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
475            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
476        ):
477            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
478
479            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
480
481        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
482            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
483
484            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
485
486        return expression

Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
488    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
489        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
490            raise UnsupportedError(message)
491        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
493    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
494        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
496    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
497        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
499    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
500        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
501        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
502        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None) -> str:
504    def maybe_comment(
505        self,
506        sql: str,
507        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
508        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
509    ) -> str:
510        comments = (
511            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
512            if self.comments
513            else None
514        )
515
516        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
517            return sql
518
519        comments_sql = " ".join(
520            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
521        )
522
523        if not comments_sql:
524            return sql
525
526        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
527            return (
528                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
529                if sql[0].isspace()
530                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
531            )
532
533        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
535    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
536        this_sql = self.indent(
537            self.sql(expression)
538            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
539            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
540            level=1,
541            pad=0,
542        )
543        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
545    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
546        original = self.identify
547        self.identify = False
548        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
549        self.identify = original
550        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
552    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
553        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
554            return name.upper()
555        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
556            return name.lower()
557        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
559    def indent(
560        self,
561        sql: str,
562        level: int = 0,
563        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
564        skip_first: bool = False,
565        skip_last: bool = False,
566    ) -> str:
567        if not self.pretty:
568            return sql
569
570        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
571        lines = sql.split("\n")
572
573        return "\n".join(
574            line
575            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
576            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
577            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
578        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
580    def sql(
581        self,
582        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
583        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
584        comment: bool = True,
585    ) -> str:
586        if not expression:
587            return ""
588
589        if isinstance(expression, str):
590            return expression
591
592        if key:
593            value = expression.args.get(key)
594            if value:
595                return self.sql(value)
596            return ""
597
598        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
599
600        if callable(transform):
601            sql = transform(self, expression)
602        elif transform:
603            sql = transform
604        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
605            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
606
607            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
608                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
609            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
610                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
611            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
612                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
613            else:
614                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
615        else:
616            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
617
618        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
620    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
621        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
622        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
623        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
625    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
626        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
627        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
628        options = expression.args.get("options")
629        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
630        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
631        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
632        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
633        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
635    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
636        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
637            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
638        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
639        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
641    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
642        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
643
644        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
645            join_mark = ""
646            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
647
648        column = ".".join(
649            self.sql(part)
650            for part in (
651                expression.args.get("catalog"),
652                expression.args.get("db"),
653                expression.args.get("table"),
654                expression.args.get("this"),
655            )
656            if part
657        )
658
659        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
661    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
662        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
663        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
664        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
665        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
667    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
668        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
669        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
670        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
671        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
672        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
673        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
674        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
675        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
676
677        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
678            kind = ""
679
680        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
682    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
683        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
684        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
685        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
687    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
688        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
689        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
690            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
691        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
692            persisted = " PERSISTED"
693        else:
694            persisted = ""
695        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
697    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
698        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
700    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
701        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
702            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
703        else:
704            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
705
706        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
708    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
709        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
710    ) -> str:
711        this = ""
712        if expression.this is not None:
713            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
714            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
715
716        start = expression.args.get("start")
717        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
718        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
719        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
720        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
721        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
722        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
723        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
724        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
725        cycle_sql = ""
726
727        if cycle is not None:
728            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
729            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
730
731        sequence_opts = ""
732        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
733            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
734            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
735
736        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
737        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
738
739        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint) -> str:
741    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
742        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
743    ) -> str:
744        start = "START" if expression.args["start"] else "END"
745        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
746        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint) -> str:
748    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
749        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
750    ) -> str:
751        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
753    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
754        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
756    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
757        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
759    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
760        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
761        if desc is not None:
762            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
763        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
765    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
766        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
767        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
768        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
769        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
770        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}"
def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: DefaultDict) -> str:
772    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
773        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
775    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
776        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
777        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
778        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
779
780        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
781
782        properties_sql = ""
783        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
784            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
785        ):
786            properties_sql = self.sql(
787                exp.Properties(
788                    expressions=[
789                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
790                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
791                    ]
792                )
793            )
794
795        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
796        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
797
798        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
799        if expression_sql:
800            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
801
802            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
803                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
804                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
805                        exp.Properties(
806                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
807                        ),
808                        wrapped=False,
809                    )
810                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
811                else:
812                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
813
814        postindex_props_sql = ""
815        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
816            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
817                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
818                wrapped=False,
819                prefix=" ",
820            )
821
822        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
823        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
824        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
825
826        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
827        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
828
829        postcreate_props_sql = ""
830        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
831            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
832                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
833                sep=" ",
834                prefix=" ",
835                wrapped=False,
836            )
837
838        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
839
840        postexpression_props_sql = ""
841        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
842            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
843                exp.Properties(
844                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
845                ),
846                sep=" ",
847                prefix=" ",
848                wrapped=False,
849            )
850
851        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
852        no_schema_binding = (
853            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
854        )
855
856        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
857        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
858
859        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
860        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
862    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
863        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
864        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
865        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
866        this = f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
867        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
868
869        if when:
870            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
871            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
872            return f"{this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
873
874        return this
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
876    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
877        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
879    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
880        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
881        if with_:
882            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
883        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
885    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
886        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
887        recursive = (
888            "RECURSIVE "
889            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
890            else ""
891        )
892
893        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
895    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
896        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
897        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
899    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
900        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
901        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
902        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
903
904        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
905            alias = "_t"
906
907        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
909    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
910        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
911        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
912            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
913        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
915    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
916        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
917        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
918            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
919        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
921    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
922        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
923        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
924            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
925        return this
def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str:
927    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
928        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
929        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeParam) -> str:
931    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
932        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
933        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
934        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
935        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
937    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
938        type_value = expression.this
939
940        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
941            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
942        else:
943            type_sql = (
944                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
945                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
946                else type_value
947            )
948
949        nested = ""
950        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
951        values = ""
952
953        if interior:
954            if expression.args.get("nested"):
955                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
956                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
957                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
958                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
959                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
960            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
961                nested = f" {interior}"
962            else:
963                nested = f"({interior})"
964
965        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
966        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
967            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
968            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
969        ):
970            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
971
972        return type_sql
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
974    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
975        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
976        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
977        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
978        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
980    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
981        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
982        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
983        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
984        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
985        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
986        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
987        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
988        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
989        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
990        if self.RETURNING_END:
991            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
992        else:
993            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
994        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
 996    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
 997        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 998        kind = expression.args["kind"]
 999        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1000        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1001        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1002        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1003        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1004        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1005        return (
1006            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1007        )
def except_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1009    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1010        return self.prepend_ctes(
1011            expression,
1012            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
1013        )
def except_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1015    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1016        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
1018    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1019        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1020        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
1021        count = expression.args.get("count")
1022        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1023        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1024            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1025        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1026        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
1028    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1029        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1030            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1031            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1032            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1033
1034        agg = expression.this
1035        agg_arg = agg.this
1036        cond = expression.expression.this
1037        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1038        return self.sql(agg)
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
1040    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1041        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1042            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1043            return ""
1044
1045        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
1047    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1048        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1049        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1050        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1051        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1052        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1053        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1054        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1055        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1056        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1057        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1058        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1059        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1060        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1061        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1062        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1063        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}{where}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
1065    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1066        text = expression.name
1067        lower = text.lower()
1068        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1069        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1070        if (
1071            expression.quoted
1072            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1073            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1074            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1075        ):
1076            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1077        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1079    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1080        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1081        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1082        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1083        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1084        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str:
1086    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1087        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1088        return f"{prefix}{string}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
1090    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1091        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1093    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1094        root_properties = []
1095        with_properties = []
1096
1097        for p in expression.expressions:
1098            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1099            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1100                with_properties.append(p)
1101            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1102                root_properties.append(p)
1103
1104        return self.root_properties(
1105            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1106        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1108    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1109        if properties.expressions:
1110            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1111        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
1113    def properties(
1114        self,
1115        properties: exp.Properties,
1116        prefix: str = "",
1117        sep: str = ", ",
1118        suffix: str = "",
1119        wrapped: bool = True,
1120    ) -> str:
1121        if properties.expressions:
1122            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1123            if expressions:
1124                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1125                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1126        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1128    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1129        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
def locate_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> DefaultDict:
1131    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1132        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1133        for p in properties.expressions:
1134            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1135            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1136                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1137            else:
1138                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1139
1140        return properties_locs
def property_name( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1142    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1143        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1144            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1145        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
1147    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1148        property_cls = expression.__class__
1149        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1150            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1151
1152        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1153        if not property_name:
1154            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1155
1156        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
1158    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1159        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1160        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1161        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1163    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1164        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1165        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1166        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
1168    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1169        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1170        local = expression.args.get("local")
1171        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1172        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1173        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1174        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1175        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1177    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1178        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1179        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1180        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1182    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1183        if expression.args.get("default"):
1184            property = "DEFAULT"
1185        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1186            property = "ON"
1187        else:
1188            property = "OFF"
1189        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1191    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1192        if expression.args.get("no"):
1193            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1194        if expression.args.get("default"):
1195            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1196
1197        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1198        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1200    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1201        default = expression.args.get("default")
1202        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1203        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1204        if default or minimum or maximum:
1205            if default:
1206                prop = "DEFAULT"
1207            elif minimum:
1208                prop = "MINIMUM"
1209            else:
1210                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1211            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1212        units = expression.args.get("units")
1213        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1214        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1216    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1217        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1218        always = expression.args.get("always")
1219        default = expression.args.get("default")
1220        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1221        never = expression.args.get("never")
1222
1223        if autotemp is not None:
1224            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1225        elif always:
1226            prop = "ALWAYS"
1227        elif default:
1228            prop = "DEFAULT"
1229        elif manual:
1230            prop = "MANUAL"
1231        elif never:
1232            prop = "NEVER"
1233        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1235    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1236        no = expression.args.get("no")
1237        no = " NO" if no else ""
1238        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1239        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1240
1241        for_ = ""
1242        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1243            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1244        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1245            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1246        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1247            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1248        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1250    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1251        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1252            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1253        if expression.this:
1254            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1255            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1256            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1257
1258        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1259        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1260        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1262    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1263        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1264
1265        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1266        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1267            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1268        else:
1269            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1270
1271        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1273    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1274        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1275        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1276        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1277        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1278        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1279        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1280        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1282    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1283        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1284        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1285        statistics_sql = ""
1286        if statistics is not None:
1287            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1288        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def withsystemversioningproperty_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1290    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1291        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
1292
1293        if expression.this:
1294            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
1295            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
1296
1297            if expression.expression:
1298                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1299                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
1300
1301            sql = f"{sql})"
1302
1303        return f"{sql})"
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1305    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1306        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1307
1308        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1309            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1310        else:
1311            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1312
1313        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1314        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1315        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1316
1317        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1318
1319        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1320        partition_sql = (
1321            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1322        )
1323        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1324        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1325        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1326        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1327        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1328        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1329
1330        if self.RETURNING_END:
1331            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1332        else:
1333            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1334
1335        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1336        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def intersect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1338    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1339        return self.prepend_ctes(
1340            expression,
1341            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1342        )
def intersect_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1344    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1345        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1347    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1348        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def kill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kill) -> str:
1350    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1351        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1352        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1353        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1354        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1355        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1357    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1358        return expression.name.upper()
def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1360    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1361        return expression.name.upper()
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1363    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1364        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1365        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1366        if constraint:
1367            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1368        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1369        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1370        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1371        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1372        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1373        if expressions:
1374            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1375        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1377    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1378        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1380    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1381        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1382        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1383        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1384        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1385        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1386        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1387        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1388        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1389        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1390        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1391        null = expression.args.get("null")
1392        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1393        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint) -> str:
1395    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1396        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1398    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1399        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1400        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1401        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1402        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1404    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1405        table = ".".join(
1406            self.sql(part)
1407            for part in (
1408                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1409                expression.args.get("db"),
1410                expression.args.get("this"),
1411            )
1412            if part is not None
1413        )
1414
1415        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1416        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1417        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1418        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1419        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1420        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1421        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1422        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1423        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1424        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1425
1426        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1427        if file_format:
1428            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1429            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1430            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1431
1432        index = self.sql(expression, "index")
1433        index = f" AT {index}" if index else ""
1434
1435        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1436        if ordinality:
1437            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1438            alias = ""
1439
1440        return f"{table}{version}{file_format}{alias}{index}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = 'SEED', sep=' AS ') -> str:
1442    def tablesample_sql(
1443        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1444    ) -> str:
1445        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1446            table = expression.this.copy()
1447            table.set("alias", None)
1448            this = self.sql(table)
1449            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1450        else:
1451            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1452            alias = ""
1453
1454        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1455        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1456        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1457        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1458        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1459        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1460        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1461        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1462        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1463        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1464        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1465
1466        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1467        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1468            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1469
1470        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1471        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1472        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1473
1474        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}"
1475        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1476            expr = f"({expr})"
1477
1478        return f"{this} {kind} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1480    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1481        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1482
1483        if expression.this:
1484            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1485            if not expressions:
1486                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1487
1488            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1489            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1490            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1491            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1492            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1493
1494        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1495        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1496        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1497        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1498        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1499        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1500        if include_nulls is not None:
1501            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1502        else:
1503            nulls = ""
1504        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
def version_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Version) -> str:
1506    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1507        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1508        kind = expression.text("kind")
1509        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1510        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
1512    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1513        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
1515    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1516        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1517        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1518        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1519        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1520        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1521        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1522        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1523        if self.RETURNING_END:
1524            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1525        else:
1526            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1527        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1528        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values) -> str:
1530    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1531        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1532        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1533            args = self.expressions(expression)
1534            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1535            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1536            values = (
1537                f"({values})"
1538                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1539                else values
1540            )
1541            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1542
1543        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1544        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1545        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1546
1547        selects: t.List[exp.Subqueryable] = []
1548
1549        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1550            row = tup.expressions
1551
1552            if i == 0 and column_names:
1553                row = [
1554                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1555                ]
1556
1557            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1558
1559        if self.pretty:
1560            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1561            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1562            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1563            subqueryable = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1564            return self.subquery_sql(
1565                subqueryable.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False)
1566            )
1567
1568        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1569        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1570        return f"({unions}){alias}"
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
1572    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1573        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
1575    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1576        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1577        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1578        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
1580    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1581        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
1583    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1584        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1585
1586        if expression.args.get("all"):
1587            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1588
1589        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1590        grouping_sets = (
1591            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1592        )
1593
1594        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1595        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1596            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1597        else:
1598            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1599            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1600
1601        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1602        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1603            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1604        else:
1605            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1606            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1607
1608        groupings = csv(
1609            grouping_sets,
1610            cube_sql,
1611            rollup_sql,
1612            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1613            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1614        )
1615
1616        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1617            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1618
1619        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
1621    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1622        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1623        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def connect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connect) -> str:
1625    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1626        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1627        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1628        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1629        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY {connect}")
1630        return start + connect
def prior_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Prior) -> str:
1632    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1633        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
1635    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1636        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1637            side = None
1638        else:
1639            side = expression.side
1640
1641        op_sql = " ".join(
1642            op
1643            for op in (
1644                expression.method,
1645                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1646                side,
1647                expression.kind,
1648                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1649            )
1650            if op
1651        )
1652        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1653        using = expression.args.get("using")
1654
1655        if not on_sql and using:
1656            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1657
1658        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1659
1660        if on_sql:
1661            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1662            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1663            if using:
1664                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1665            else:
1666                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1667        elif not op_sql:
1668            return f", {this_sql}"
1669
1670        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1671        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
1673    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1674        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1675        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1676        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
1678    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1679        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1680
1681        if expression.args.get("view"):
1682            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1683            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1684            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1685            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1686            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1687            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1688
1689        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1690        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1691        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1693    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1694        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1695
1696        args = [
1697            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
1698            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1699            if e
1700        ]
1701
1702        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
1703        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if any(top and not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
1704        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
1706    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1707        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1708        expression = expression.expression
1709        expression = (
1710            self._simplify_unless_literal(expression) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else expression
1711        )
1712        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression)}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
1714    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1715        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1716        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1717        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1718        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1719        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1720        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1721        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1722        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
1724    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1725        expressions = (
1726            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1727        )
1728        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1729        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
1731    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1732        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
1734    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1735        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1736            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1737            return ""
1738
1739        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1740        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1741        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1742        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1743
1744        if wait is not None:
1745            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1746                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1747            else:
1748                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1749
1750        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
1752    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1753        text = expression.this or ""
1754        if expression.is_string:
1755            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1756        return text
def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1758    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1759        text = text.replace(self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1760        if self.dialect.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES:
1761            text = "".join(self.dialect.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES.get(ch, ch) for ch in text)
1762        elif self.pretty:
1763            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1764        return text
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
1766    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1767        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1768        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1769        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1770        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1771        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1772        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1773        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1774        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1775        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1776        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1777        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1779    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1780        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
1782    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1783        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1785    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1786        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1787        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1788        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
1790    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1791        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
1793    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1794        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
1796    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1797        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
1799    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1800        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1801        asc = not desc
1802
1803        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1804        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1805        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1806        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1807        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1808
1809        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1810
1811        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
1812        nulls_sort_change = ""
1813        if nulls_first and (
1814            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1815        ):
1816            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1817        elif (
1818            nulls_last
1819            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1820            and not nulls_are_last
1821        ):
1822            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1823
1824        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
1825        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1826            null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
1827            this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
1828            nulls_sort_change = ""
1829
1830        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1832    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1833        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1834        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1835        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1836        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1837        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1838        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1839        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1840        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1841        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1842        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1843        definition_sqls = [
1844            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1845            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1846        ]
1847        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1848        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1849        body = "".join(
1850            (
1851                partition,
1852                order,
1853                measures,
1854                rows,
1855                after,
1856                pattern,
1857                define,
1858            )
1859        )
1860        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1861        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1862        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1864    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1865        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1866
1867        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1868        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1869
1870        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1871            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1872        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1873            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1874
1875        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1876
1877        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1878            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1879            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1880            else []
1881        )
1882
1883        return csv(
1884            *sqls,
1885            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1886            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
1887            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1888            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1889            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1890            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1891            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1892            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1893            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1894            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1895            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1896            sep="",
1897        )
def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]:
1899    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1900        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1901    ) -> t.List[str]:
1902        return [
1903            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1904            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1905        ]
def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
1907    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1908        return [
1909            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1910            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1911            if expression.args.get("windows")
1912            else "",
1913            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1914            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1915            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1916        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
1918    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1919        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1920        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1921        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
1923    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1924        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1925        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1926        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1927        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1928        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1929        top = (
1930            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1931            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1932            else ""
1933        )
1934
1935        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1936
1937        if kind:
1938            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1939                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1940            else:
1941                if kind == "STRUCT":
1942                    expressions = self.expressions(
1943                        sqls=[
1944                            self.sql(
1945                                exp.Struct(
1946                                    expressions=[
1947                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1948                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1949                                        )
1950                                        for e in expression.expressions
1951                                    ]
1952                                )
1953                            )
1954                        ]
1955                    )
1956                kind = ""
1957
1958        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
1959        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
1960        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
1961        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1962        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1963            expression,
1964            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1965            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1966            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1967        )
1968        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
1970    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1971        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1972        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1973        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
1975    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1976        if expression.expressions:
1977            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1978        return ""
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
1980    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1981        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1982        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1983        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1984        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1985        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
1987    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1988        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1989        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
1991    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1992        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1993        kind = expression.text("kind")
1994        if kind:
1995            kind = f"{kind}."
1996        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
1998    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1999        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
2001    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2002        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2003        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2004
2005        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2006        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2007
2008        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2009        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
2011    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2012        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2013        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def union_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
2015    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2016        return self.prepend_ctes(
2017            expression,
2018            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
2019        )
def union_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
2021    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2022        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2023        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2024        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2025        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2027    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2028        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2029
2030        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2031        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2032
2033        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2034            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2035                alias.append("columns", offset)
2036
2037        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2038            columns = alias.columns
2039            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2040        else:
2041            alias = self.sql(alias)
2042
2043        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2044        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2045            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2046        else:
2047            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2048                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2049            elif offset:
2050                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2051            else:
2052                suffix = alias
2053
2054        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
2056    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2057        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2058        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
2060    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2061        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2062        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2063        order = expression.args.get("order")
2064        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2065        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2066        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2067        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2068
2069        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2070
2071        first = expression.args.get("first")
2072        if first is None:
2073            first = ""
2074        else:
2075            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2076
2077        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2078            return f"{this} {alias}"
2079
2080        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2081        return f"{this} ({args})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2083    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2084        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2085        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
2087    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2088        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2089        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2090        end = (
2091            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2092            or "CURRENT ROW"
2093        )
2094        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
2096    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2097        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2098        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2099        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
2101    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2102        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2103        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2104        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2105        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
2107    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2108        expressions = apply_index_offset(
2109            expression.this,
2110            expression.expressions,
2111            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2112        )
2113        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2114        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
2116    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2117        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
2119    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2120        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2121        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
2122            this = self.wrap(this)
2123        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
2125    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2126        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
2128    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2129        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2130        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2131
2132        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2133            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2134            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2135
2136        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2137
2138        if default:
2139            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2140
2141        statements.append("END")
2142
2143        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
2144            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2145
2146        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
2148    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2149        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2150        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2151        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
2153    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2154        order = expression.args.get("order")
2155        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2156        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
2158    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2159        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2160        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2161        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
2163    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2164        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2165
2166        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2167            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2168        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2169            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2170        else:
2171            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
def convert_concat_args( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat | sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]:
2173    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2174        args = expression.expressions
2175        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2176            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2177
2178        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2179            args = [exp.cast(e, "text") for e in args]
2180
2181        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2182            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2183
2184        return args
def concat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat) -> str:
2186    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2187        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2188
2189        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2190        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2191            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2192
2193        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
def concatws_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> str:
2195    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2196        return self.func(
2197            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2198        )
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
2200    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2201        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2202        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2204    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2205        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2206        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2207        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2208        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2209        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2210        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2211        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2212        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2214    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2215        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2216        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2217        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2218        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
2220    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2221        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2223    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2224        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2225        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2226        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2228    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2229        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def formatjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FormatJson) -> str:
2231    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2232        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject) -> str:
2234    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
2235        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2236        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2237        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2238        if unique_keys is not None:
2239            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2240        else:
2241            unique_keys = ""
2242        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2243        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2244        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2245        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2246        return self.func(
2247            "JSON_OBJECT",
2248            *expression.expressions,
2249            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2250        )
def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArray) -> str:
2252    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2253        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2254        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2255        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2256        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2257        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2258        return self.func(
2259            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2260        )
def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2262    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2263        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2264        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2265        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2266        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2267        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2268        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2269        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2270        return self.func(
2271            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2272            this,
2273            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2274        )
def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2276    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2277        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2278        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2279        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2280
2281        if nested_schema:
2282            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2283
2284        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2285        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2286        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2287        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONSchema) -> str:
2289    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2290        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
def jsontable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONTable) -> str:
2292    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2293        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2294        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2295        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2296        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2297        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2298        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2299        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2300        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2301        return self.func(
2302            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2303        )
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2305    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2306        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2307        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2308        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2309        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2310        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2311        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
2313    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2314        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2315        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2316        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2317        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2318        with_ = (
2319            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2320            if expressions
2321            else ""
2322        )
2323        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
2325    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2326        query = expression.args.get("query")
2327        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2328        field = expression.args.get("field")
2329        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2330
2331        if query:
2332            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2333        elif unnest:
2334            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2335        elif field:
2336            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2337        else:
2338            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2339
2340        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2342    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2343        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
2345    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2346        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2347        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2348            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
2349        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2350
2351        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2352            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2353            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2354
2355        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2356        if this:
2357            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2358            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2359
2360        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
2362    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2363        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
2365    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2366        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2367        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2368        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2369        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2370        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2371        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
2373    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2374        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
2376    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2377        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2378            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2379        else:
2380            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2381            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2382
2383        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
2385    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2386        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2387        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2388        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2389        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
2391    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2392        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
2394    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2395        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2396        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2397        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
2399    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2400        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2402    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2403        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2404        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2405        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
2407    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2408        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And) -> str:
2410    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2411        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
def xor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Xor) -> str:
2413    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2414        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
def connector_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2416    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2417        if not self.pretty:
2418            return self.binary(expression, op)
2419
2420        sqls = tuple(
2421            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2422            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2423        )
2424
2425        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2426        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2428    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2429        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2431    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2432        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2434    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2435        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2437    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2438        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2440    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2441        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2443    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2444        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2446    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2447        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2448        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2449        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2450        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2451        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
2453    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2454        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2455        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
2457    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2458        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2459            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2460        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
2462    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2463        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
2465    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2466        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2467        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2468        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2469        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2470        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2472    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2473        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2474        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2475        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2476        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2477        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2478        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2479        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2480        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2481        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2483    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2484        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2485        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2486        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2487        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2488
2489        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2490            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2491
2492        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
2494    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2495        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
2497    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2498        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2499        if chain is not None:
2500            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2501
2502        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
2504    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2505        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2506        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2507        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
2509    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2510        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2511
2512        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2513        if dtype:
2514            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2515            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2516            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2517            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2518            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2519
2520        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2521        if default:
2522            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2523
2524        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2525            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2526
2527        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str:
2529    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2530        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2531            # Remove db from tables
2532            expression = expression.transform(
2533                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2534            )
2535        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2536        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def altertable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
2538    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2539        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2540
2541        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2542            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
2543        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2544            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2545        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2546            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2547        else:
2548            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2549
2550        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2551        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2552        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
def add_column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
2554    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2555        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
2556            return self.expressions(
2557                expression,
2558                key="actions",
2559                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
2560            )
2561        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
2563    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2564        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2565        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2566        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
2568    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2569        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2570        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2571        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2572
2573        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2574        if enforced is not None:
2575            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2576
2577        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
2579    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2580        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2581        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2582
2583        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2584        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2585        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2587    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2588        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
2590    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2591        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
2593    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2594        return self.sql(
2595            exp.Cast(
2596                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2597                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2598            )
2599        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
2601    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2602        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2603            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2604        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
2606    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2607        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
2608
2609        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
2610            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
2611
2612        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
2613            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.FLOAT_TYPES) and not r.is_type(
2614                *exp.DataType.FLOAT_TYPES
2615            ):
2616                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
2617
2618        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
2619            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
2620                return self.sql(
2621                    exp.cast(
2622                        l / r,
2623                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
2624                    )
2625                )
2626
2627        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
2629    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2630        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
2632    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2633        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
2635    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2636        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
2638    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2639        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PropertyEQ) -> str:
2641    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
2642        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
2644    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2645        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
2647    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2648        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
2650    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2651        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
2653    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2654        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
2656    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2657        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
2659    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2660        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
2662    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2663        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2664            return self.sql(
2665                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2666            )
2667        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
2669    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2670        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
2672    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2673        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
2675    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2676        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
2678    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2679        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
2681    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2682        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
2684    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2685        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
2687    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2688        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
2690    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2691        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2693    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2694        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2696    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2697        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def or_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or) -> str:
2699    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2700        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
2702    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2703        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
2705    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2706        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
2708    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2709        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
def log_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Log) -> str:
2711    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
2712        this = expression.this
2713        expr = expression.expression
2714
2715        if not self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST:
2716            this, expr = expr, this
2717
2718        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
2720    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2721        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2722        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2723        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2724        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2725        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2727    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2728        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2729        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
2731    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2732        args = []
2733
2734        for key in expression.arg_types:
2735            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2736
2737            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2738                for value in arg_value:
2739                    args.append(value)
2740            elif arg_value is not None:
2741                args.append(arg_value)
2742
2743        if self.normalize_functions:
2744            name = expression.sql_name()
2745        else:
2746            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2747
2748        return self.func(name, *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')') -> str:
2750    def func(
2751        self,
2752        name: str,
2753        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2754        prefix: str = "(",
2755        suffix: str = ")",
2756    ) -> str:
2757        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
2759    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2760        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2761        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2762            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2763        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
def text_width(self, args: Iterable) -> int:
2765    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2766        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
def format_time(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> Optional[str]:
2768    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2769        return format_time(
2770            self.sql(expression, "format"),
2771            self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
2772            self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
2773        )
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[Collection[Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression]]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, skip_first: bool = False, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '') -> str:
2775    def expressions(
2776        self,
2777        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2778        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2779        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2780        flat: bool = False,
2781        indent: bool = True,
2782        skip_first: bool = False,
2783        sep: str = ", ",
2784        prefix: str = "",
2785    ) -> str:
2786        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2787
2788        if not expressions:
2789            return ""
2790
2791        if flat:
2792            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2793
2794        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2795
2796        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2797        pad = " " * self.pad
2798        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2799
2800        result_sqls = []
2801        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2802            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2803            if not sql:
2804                continue
2805
2806            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2807
2808            if self.pretty:
2809                if self.leading_comma:
2810                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2811                else:
2812                    result_sqls.append(
2813                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2814                    )
2815            else:
2816                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2817
2818        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2819        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2821    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2822        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2823        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2824        if flat:
2825            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2826        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
2828    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2829        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2830        if not property_name:
2831            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2832        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def set_operation(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union, op: str) -> str:
2834    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Union, op: str) -> str:
2835        this = self.maybe_comment(self.sql(expression, "this"), comments=expression.comments)
2836        op = self.seg(op)
2837        return self.query_modifiers(
2838            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2839        )
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
2841    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2842        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
2844    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2845        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2847    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2848        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2849        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2850        expressions = (
2851            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2852        )
2853        return f"{this}{expressions}"
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
2855    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2856        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2857        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2858        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
2860    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2861        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
2863    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2864        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2865        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2866        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2867        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2868
2869        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2870        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2871            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2872            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2873                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2874        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2875            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2876                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2877            else:
2878                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2879        else:
2880            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2881        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
2883    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2884        table = expression.this
2885        table_alias = ""
2886
2887        hints = table.args.get("hints")
2888        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
2889            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
2890            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
2891
2892        this = self.sql(table)
2893        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2894        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2895        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
2896
2897        return self.prepend_ctes(
2898            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
2899        )
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
2901    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2902        if expression.args.get("format"):
2903            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2904
2905        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str:
2907    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2908        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2909        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2910        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2911        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2912        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str:
2914    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2915        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2916        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2917        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2918        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2920    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2921        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str:
2923    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2924        return ""
def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2926    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2927        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2928        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2929        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2930        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2931        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue) -> str:
2933    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2934        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2935        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2936
2937        if having:
2938            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2939
2940        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
def querytransform_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryTransform) -> str:
2942    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2943        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2944        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2945        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2946        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2947        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2948        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2949        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2950        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2951        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2952        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2953        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2954        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
2955        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2957    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2958        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
2959        if key_block_size:
2960            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
2961
2962        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2963        if using:
2964            return f"USING {using}"
2965
2966        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
2967        if parser:
2968            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
2969
2970        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2971        if comment:
2972            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
2973
2974        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
2975        if visible is not None:
2976            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
2977
2978        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
2979        if engine_attr:
2980            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
2981
2982        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
2983        if secondary_engine_attr:
2984            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
2985
2986        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
2987        return ""
def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2989    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2990        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2991        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
2992        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2993        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2994        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
2995        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
2996        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2997        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
2998        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
2999        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3000        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{schema}{options}"
def nvl2_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Nvl2) -> str:
3002    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3003        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3004            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3005
3006        case = exp.Case().when(
3007            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3008            expression.args["true"],
3009            copy=False,
3010        )
3011        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3012        if else_cond:
3013            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3014
3015        return self.sql(case)
def comprehension_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comprehension) -> str:
3017    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3018        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3019        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3020        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3021        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3022        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3023        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3025    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3026        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def opclass_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Opclass) -> str:
3028    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3029        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def predict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Predict) -> str:
3031    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3032        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3033        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3034        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3035        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3036        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3037        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
def forin_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForIn) -> str:
3039    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3040        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3041        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3042        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
def refresh_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Refresh) -> str:
3044    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3045        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3046        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3047        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
def operator_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Operator) -> str:
3049    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3050        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")