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sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import typing as t
   5
   6from sqlglot import exp
   7from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
   8from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, seq_get
   9from sqlglot.time import format_time
  10from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  11
  12logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  13
  14
  15class Generator:
  16    """
  17    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  18
  19    Args:
  20        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  21            Default: False.
  22        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  23            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  24            True or 'always': Always quote.
  25            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  26        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  27            Default: False.
  28        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  29            Default: 2.
  30        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  31            Default: 2.
  32        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  33            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  34            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  35            False: Disables function name normalization.
  36        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  37            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  38        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  39            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  40            Default: 3
  41        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  42            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  43            Default: False
  44        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  45            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  46            line length.
  47            Default: 80
  48        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  49            Default: True
  50    """
  51
  52    TRANSFORMS = {
  53        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  54            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  55        ),
  56        exp.TsOrDsAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  57            "TS_OR_DS_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  58        ),
  59        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  60        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  61        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  62        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  63        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  64        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  65        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  66        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  67        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  68        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  69        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  70        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  71        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  72        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  73        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  74        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  75        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  76        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  77        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  78        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  79        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  80        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  81        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  82        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  83        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
  84        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
  85        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
  86        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
  87        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
  88        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  89        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
  90        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
  91        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
  92        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93    }
  94
  95    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
  96    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
  97
  98    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
  99    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 100
 101    # Always do union distinct or union all
 102    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 103
 104    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 105    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 106
 107    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 108    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 109
 110    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 111    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 112
 113    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 114    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 115
 116    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 117    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 118
 119    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 120    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 121
 122    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 123    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 124
 125    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 126    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 127
 128    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 129    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 130
 131    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 132    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 133
 134    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 135    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 136
 137    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 138    JOIN_HINTS = True
 139
 140    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 141    TABLE_HINTS = True
 142
 143    # Whether or not query hints should be generated
 144    QUERY_HINTS = True
 145
 146    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 147    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 148
 149    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 150    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 151
 152    # Whether or not to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 153    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 154
 155    # Whether or not to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 156    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 157
 158    # Whether or not to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 159    RETURNING_END = True
 160
 161    # Whether or not to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 162    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 163
 164    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 165    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 166
 167    # Whether or not VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 168    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 169    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 170    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 171
 172    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 173        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 174        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 175        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 176        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 177        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 178        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 179        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 180    }
 181
 182    STAR_MAPPING = {
 183        "except": "EXCEPT",
 184        "replace": "REPLACE",
 185    }
 186
 187    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 188        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 189        "seconds": "second",
 190        "minutes": "minute",
 191        "hours": "hour",
 192        "days": "day",
 193        "weeks": "week",
 194        "months": "month",
 195        "quarters": "quarter",
 196        "years": "year",
 197    }
 198
 199    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 200
 201    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 202
 203    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 204
 205    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 206        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 207        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 208        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 209        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 210        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 211        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 212        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 213        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 214        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 215        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 216        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 217        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 218        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 219        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 220        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 221        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 222        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 223        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 224        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 225        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 226        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 227        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 228        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 229        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 230        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 231        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 232        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 233        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 234        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 235        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 236        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 237        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 238        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 239        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 240        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 241        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 242        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 243        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 244        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 245        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 246        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 247        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 248        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 249        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 250        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 251        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 252        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 253        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 254        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 255        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 256        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 257        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 258        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 259        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 260        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 261    }
 262
 263    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 264    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 265
 266    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 267    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 268        exp.Drop,
 269        exp.From,
 270        exp.Select,
 271        exp.Where,
 272        exp.With,
 273    )
 274
 275    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 276    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 277        exp.Column,
 278        exp.Literal,
 279        exp.Neg,
 280        exp.Paren,
 281    )
 282
 283    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 284
 285    # Autofilled
 286    INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 287    INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: t.Dict = {}
 288    INDEX_OFFSET = 0
 289    UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
 290    ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
 291    IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
 292    STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
 293    NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = "upper"
 294    NULL_ORDERING = "nulls_are_small"
 295    ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK = False
 296
 297    can_identify: t.Callable[[str, str | bool], bool]
 298
 299    # Delimiters for quotes, identifiers and the corresponding escape characters
 300    QUOTE_START = "'"
 301    QUOTE_END = "'"
 302    IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
 303    IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
 304    STRING_ESCAPE = "'"
 305    IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE = '"'
 306
 307    # Delimiters for bit, hex, byte and raw literals
 308    BIT_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 309    BIT_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 310    HEX_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 311    HEX_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 312    BYTE_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 313    BYTE_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 314
 315    __slots__ = (
 316        "pretty",
 317        "identify",
 318        "normalize",
 319        "pad",
 320        "_indent",
 321        "normalize_functions",
 322        "unsupported_level",
 323        "max_unsupported",
 324        "leading_comma",
 325        "max_text_width",
 326        "comments",
 327        "unsupported_messages",
 328        "_escaped_quote_end",
 329        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 330        "_cache",
 331    )
 332
 333    def __init__(
 334        self,
 335        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 336        identify: str | bool = False,
 337        normalize: bool = False,
 338        pad: int = 2,
 339        indent: int = 2,
 340        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 341        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 342        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 343        leading_comma: bool = False,
 344        max_text_width: int = 80,
 345        comments: bool = True,
 346    ):
 347        import sqlglot
 348
 349        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 350        self.identify = identify
 351        self.normalize = normalize
 352        self.pad = pad
 353        self._indent = indent
 354        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 355        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 356        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 357        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 358        self.comments = comments
 359
 360        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 361        self.normalize_functions = (
 362            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 363        )
 364
 365        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 366        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.STRING_ESCAPE + self.QUOTE_END
 367        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = self.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE + self.IDENTIFIER_END
 368        self._cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
 369
 370    def generate(
 371        self,
 372        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
 373        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
 374    ) -> str:
 375        """
 376        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 377
 378        Args:
 379            expression: The syntax tree.
 380            cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression
 381                which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
 382
 383        Returns:
 384            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 385        """
 386        if cache is not None:
 387            self._cache = cache
 388
 389        self.unsupported_messages = []
 390        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 391        self._cache = None
 392
 393        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 394            return sql
 395
 396        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 397            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 398                logger.warning(msg)
 399        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 400            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 401
 402        if self.pretty:
 403            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 404        return sql
 405
 406    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 407        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 408            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 409        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 410
 411    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 412        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 413
 414    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 415        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 416
 417    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 418        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 419        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 420        return comment
 421
 422    def maybe_comment(
 423        self,
 424        sql: str,
 425        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 426        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 427    ) -> str:
 428        comments = (
 429            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 430            if self.comments
 431            else None
 432        )
 433
 434        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
 435            return sql
 436
 437        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
 438        comments_sql = sep.join(
 439            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 440        )
 441
 442        if not comments_sql:
 443            return sql
 444
 445        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 446            return (
 447                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 448                if sql[0].isspace()
 449                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 450            )
 451
 452        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 453
 454    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 455        this_sql = self.indent(
 456            self.sql(expression)
 457            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 458            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 459            level=1,
 460            pad=0,
 461        )
 462        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 463
 464    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 465        original = self.identify
 466        self.identify = False
 467        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 468        self.identify = original
 469        return result
 470
 471    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 472        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 473            return name.upper()
 474        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 475            return name.lower()
 476        return name
 477
 478    def indent(
 479        self,
 480        sql: str,
 481        level: int = 0,
 482        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 483        skip_first: bool = False,
 484        skip_last: bool = False,
 485    ) -> str:
 486        if not self.pretty:
 487            return sql
 488
 489        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 490        lines = sql.split("\n")
 491
 492        return "\n".join(
 493            line
 494            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 495            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 496            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 497        )
 498
 499    def sql(
 500        self,
 501        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 502        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 503        comment: bool = True,
 504    ) -> str:
 505        if not expression:
 506            return ""
 507
 508        if isinstance(expression, str):
 509            return expression
 510
 511        if key:
 512            value = expression.args.get(key)
 513            if value:
 514                return self.sql(value)
 515            return ""
 516
 517        if self._cache is not None:
 518            expression_id = hash(expression)
 519
 520            if expression_id in self._cache:
 521                return self._cache[expression_id]
 522
 523        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 524
 525        if callable(transform):
 526            sql = transform(self, expression)
 527        elif transform:
 528            sql = transform
 529        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 530            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 531
 532            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 533                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 534            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 535                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 536            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 537                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 538            else:
 539                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 540        else:
 541            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 542
 543        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 544
 545        if self._cache is not None:
 546            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
 547        return sql
 548
 549    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 550        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 551        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 552        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 553
 554    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 555        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 556        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 557        options = expression.args.get("options")
 558        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 559        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 560        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 561        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 562        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 563
 564    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 565        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 566            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 567        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 568        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 569
 570    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 571        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 572
 573        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 574            join_mark = ""
 575            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 576
 577        column = ".".join(
 578            self.sql(part)
 579            for part in (
 580                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 581                expression.args.get("db"),
 582                expression.args.get("table"),
 583                expression.args.get("this"),
 584            )
 585            if part
 586        )
 587
 588        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 589
 590    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 591        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 592        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 593        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 594        return f"{position}{this}"
 595
 596    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 597        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 598        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 599        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 600        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 601        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 602        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 603        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 604        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 605
 606        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 607
 608    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 609        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 610        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 611        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 612
 613    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 614        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 615
 616    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 617        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 618            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 619        else:
 620            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 621
 622        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 623
 624    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 625        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 626    ) -> str:
 627        this = ""
 628        if expression.this is not None:
 629            on_null = "ON NULL " if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 630            this = " ALWAYS " if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT {on_null}"
 631
 632        start = expression.args.get("start")
 633        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 634        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 635        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 636        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 637        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 638        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 639        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 640        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 641        cycle_sql = ""
 642
 643        if cycle is not None:
 644            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 645            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 646
 647        sequence_opts = ""
 648        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 649            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 650            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 651
 652        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 653        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 654
 655        return f"GENERATED{this}AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 656
 657    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 658        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 659
 660    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 661        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 662        if desc is not None:
 663            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 664        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 665
 666    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 667        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 668        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 669        return f"UNIQUE{this}"
 670
 671    def createable_sql(
 672        self, expression: exp.Create, locations: dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]
 673    ) -> str:
 674        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 675
 676    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 677        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 678        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 679        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else {}
 680
 681        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 682
 683        properties_sql = ""
 684        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 685            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 686        ):
 687            properties_sql = self.sql(
 688                exp.Properties(
 689                    expressions=[
 690                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 691                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 692                    ]
 693                )
 694            )
 695
 696        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 697        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 698        if expression_sql:
 699            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
 700
 701            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 702                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 703                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 704                        exp.Properties(
 705                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 706                        ),
 707                        wrapped=False,
 708                    )
 709                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 710                else:
 711                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 712
 713        postindex_props_sql = ""
 714        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 715            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 716                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 717                wrapped=False,
 718                prefix=" ",
 719            )
 720
 721        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 722        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 723        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 724
 725        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 726        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 727
 728        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 729        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 730            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 731                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 732                sep=" ",
 733                prefix=" ",
 734                wrapped=False,
 735            )
 736
 737        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 738
 739        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 740        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 741            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 742                exp.Properties(
 743                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 744                ),
 745                sep=" ",
 746                prefix=" ",
 747                wrapped=False,
 748            )
 749
 750        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 751        no_schema_binding = (
 752            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 753        )
 754
 755        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 756        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 757
 758        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 759        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 760
 761    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 762        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 763        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 764
 765        if when:
 766            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 767            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 768            return f"CLONE {this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 769
 770        return f"CLONE {this}"
 771
 772    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 773        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 774
 775    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 776        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 777        if with_:
 778            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 779        return sql
 780
 781    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 782        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 783        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
 784
 785        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 786
 787    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 788        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 789        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 790
 791    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 792        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 793        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 794        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 795        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 796
 797    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 798        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 799        if self.BIT_START:
 800            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
 801        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 802
 803    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 804        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 805        if self.HEX_START:
 806            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
 807        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 808
 809    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 810        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 811        if self.BYTE_START:
 812            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
 813        return this
 814
 815    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 816        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
 817        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
 818
 819    def datatypesize_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeSize) -> str:
 820        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 821        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 822        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
 823        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 824
 825    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 826        type_value = expression.this
 827        type_sql = (
 828            self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 829            if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
 830            else type_value
 831        )
 832        nested = ""
 833        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 834        values = ""
 835        if interior:
 836            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 837                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 838                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 839                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 840                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 841                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 842            else:
 843                nested = f"({interior})"
 844
 845        return f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 846
 847    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 848        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 849        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 850        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 851        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
 852
 853    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 854        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 855        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 856        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 857        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
 858        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
 859        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
 860        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
 861        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
 862        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
 863        if self.RETURNING_END:
 864            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
 865        else:
 866            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
 867        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
 868
 869    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
 870        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 871        kind = expression.args["kind"]
 872        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
 873        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
 874        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
 875        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
 876        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
 877        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
 878        return (
 879            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
 880        )
 881
 882    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 883        return self.prepend_ctes(
 884            expression,
 885            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
 886        )
 887
 888    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 889        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
 890
 891    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
 892        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
 893        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
 894        count = expression.args.get("count")
 895        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
 896        if expression.args.get("percent"):
 897            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
 898        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
 899        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
 900
 901    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
 902        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 903        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
 904        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
 905
 906    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
 907        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
 908            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
 909            return ""
 910
 911        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
 912
 913    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
 914        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 915        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
 916        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
 917        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
 918        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
 919        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
 920        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table} " if table else ""
 921        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 922        using = f"USING {using} " if using else ""
 923        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
 924        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 925        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 926        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
 927        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
 928        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}"
 929
 930    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
 931        text = expression.name
 932        lower = text.lower()
 933        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
 934        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
 935        if (
 936            expression.quoted
 937            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
 938            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
 939            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
 940        ):
 941            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
 942        return text
 943
 944    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
 945        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
 946        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
 947        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
 948        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
 949        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
 950
 951    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
 952        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
 953        return f"{prefix}{string}"
 954
 955    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
 956        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
 957
 958    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
 959        root_properties = []
 960        with_properties = []
 961
 962        for p in expression.expressions:
 963            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
 964            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
 965                with_properties.append(p)
 966            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
 967                root_properties.append(p)
 968
 969        return self.root_properties(
 970            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
 971        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
 972
 973    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
 974        if properties.expressions:
 975            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
 976        return ""
 977
 978    def properties(
 979        self,
 980        properties: exp.Properties,
 981        prefix: str = "",
 982        sep: str = ", ",
 983        suffix: str = "",
 984        wrapped: bool = True,
 985    ) -> str:
 986        if properties.expressions:
 987            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
 988            expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
 989            return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
 990        return ""
 991
 992    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
 993        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
 994
 995    def locate_properties(
 996        self, properties: exp.Properties
 997    ) -> t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]:
 998        properties_locs: t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]] = {
 999            key: [] for key in exp.Properties.Location
1000        }
1001
1002        for p in properties.expressions:
1003            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1004            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME:
1005                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME].append(p)
1006            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX:
1007                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX].append(p)
1008            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1009                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA].append(p)
1010            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1011                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH].append(p)
1012            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE:
1013                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE].append(p)
1014            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS:
1015                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS].append(p)
1016            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION:
1017                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION].append(p)
1018            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1019                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1020
1021        return properties_locs
1022
1023    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1024        property_cls = expression.__class__
1025        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1026            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1027
1028        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1029        if not property_name:
1030            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1031
1032        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1033
1034    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1035        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1036        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1037        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1038
1039    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1040        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1041        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1042        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1043
1044    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1045        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1046        local = expression.args.get("local")
1047        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1048        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1049        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1050        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1051        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1052
1053    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1054        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1055        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1056        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1057
1058    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1059        if expression.args.get("default"):
1060            property = "DEFAULT"
1061        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1062            property = "ON"
1063        else:
1064            property = "OFF"
1065        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1066
1067    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1068        if expression.args.get("no"):
1069            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1070        if expression.args.get("default"):
1071            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1072
1073        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1074        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1075
1076    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1077        default = expression.args.get("default")
1078        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1079        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1080        if default or minimum or maximum:
1081            if default:
1082                prop = "DEFAULT"
1083            elif minimum:
1084                prop = "MINIMUM"
1085            else:
1086                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1087            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1088        units = expression.args.get("units")
1089        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1090        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1091
1092    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1093        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1094        always = expression.args.get("always")
1095        default = expression.args.get("default")
1096        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1097        never = expression.args.get("never")
1098
1099        if autotemp is not None:
1100            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1101        elif always:
1102            prop = "ALWAYS"
1103        elif default:
1104            prop = "DEFAULT"
1105        elif manual:
1106            prop = "MANUAL"
1107        elif never:
1108            prop = "NEVER"
1109        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1110
1111    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1112        no = expression.args.get("no")
1113        no = " NO" if no else ""
1114        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1115        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1116
1117        for_ = ""
1118        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1119            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1120        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1121            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1122        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1123            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1124        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1125
1126    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1127        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1128        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1129        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1130        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1131        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1132        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1133
1134    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1135        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1136        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1137        statistics_sql = ""
1138        if statistics is not None:
1139            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1140        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1141
1142    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1143        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1144
1145        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1146            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1147        else:
1148            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1149
1150        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1151        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1152        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1153
1154        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1155
1156        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1157        partition_sql = (
1158            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1159        )
1160        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1161        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1162        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1163        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1164        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1165
1166        if self.RETURNING_END:
1167            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1168        else:
1169            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1170
1171        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1172        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1173
1174    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1175        return self.prepend_ctes(
1176            expression,
1177            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1178        )
1179
1180    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1181        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1182
1183    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1184        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1185
1186    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1187        return expression.name.upper()
1188
1189    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1190        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1191        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1192        if constraint:
1193            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1194        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1195        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1196        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1197        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1198        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1199        if expressions:
1200            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1201        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1202
1203    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1204        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1205
1206    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1207        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1208        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1209        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1210        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1211        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1212        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1213        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1214        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1215        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1216        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1217        null = expression.args.get("null")
1218        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1219        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1220
1221    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1222        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1223
1224    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1225        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1226        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1227        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1228        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1229
1230    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1231        table = ".".join(
1232            part
1233            for part in [
1234                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1235                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1236                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1237            ]
1238            if part
1239        )
1240
1241        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1242        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1243        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1244        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1245        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1246        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1247        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1248        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1249        system_time = expression.args.get("system_time")
1250        system_time = f" {self.sql(expression, 'system_time')}" if system_time else ""
1251
1252        return f"{table}{system_time}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
1253
1254    def tablesample_sql(
1255        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1256    ) -> str:
1257        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1258            table = expression.this.copy()
1259            table.set("alias", None)
1260            this = self.sql(table)
1261            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1262        else:
1263            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1264            alias = ""
1265        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1266        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1267        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1268        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1269        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1270        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1271        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1272        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1273        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1274        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1275        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1276        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1277        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1278            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1279        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1280        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1281        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1282        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
1283
1284    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1285        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1286
1287        if expression.this:
1288            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1289            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1290            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1291            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1292            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1293            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1294
1295        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1296        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1297        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1298        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1299        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1300        return f"{direction}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1301
1302    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1303        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1304
1305    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1306        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1307        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1308        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1309        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1310        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1311        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1312        if self.RETURNING_END:
1313            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}{limit}"
1314        else:
1315            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}{limit}"
1316        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}"
1317        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1318
1319    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1320        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1321        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1322            args = self.expressions(expression)
1323            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1324            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1325            values = (
1326                f"({values})"
1327                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1328                else values
1329            )
1330            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1331
1332        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1333        # Note: If you have a lot of unions then this will result in a large number of recursive statements to
1334        # evaluate the expression. You may need to increase `sys.setrecursionlimit` to run and it can also be
1335        # very slow.
1336        expression = expression.copy()
1337        column_names = expression.alias and expression.args["alias"].columns
1338
1339        selects = []
1340
1341        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1342            row = tup.expressions
1343
1344            if i == 0 and column_names:
1345                row = [
1346                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1347                ]
1348
1349            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1350
1351        subquery_expression: exp.Select | exp.Union = selects[0]
1352        if len(selects) > 1:
1353            for select in selects[1:]:
1354                subquery_expression = exp.union(
1355                    subquery_expression, select, distinct=False, copy=False
1356                )
1357
1358        return self.subquery_sql(subquery_expression.subquery(expression.alias, copy=False))
1359
1360    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1361        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1362
1363    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1364        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1365        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1366        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1367
1368    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1369        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1370
1371    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1372        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1373
1374        if expression.args.get("all"):
1375            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1376
1377        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1378        grouping_sets = (
1379            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1380        )
1381
1382        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1383        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1384            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1385        else:
1386            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1387            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1388
1389        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1390        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1391            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1392        else:
1393            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1394            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1395
1396        groupings = csv(
1397            grouping_sets,
1398            cube_sql,
1399            rollup_sql,
1400            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1401            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1402        )
1403
1404        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1405            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1406
1407        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1408
1409    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1410        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1411        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1412
1413    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1414        op_sql = " ".join(
1415            op
1416            for op in (
1417                expression.method,
1418                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1419                expression.side,
1420                expression.kind,
1421                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1422            )
1423            if op
1424        )
1425        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1426        using = expression.args.get("using")
1427
1428        if not on_sql and using:
1429            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1430
1431        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1432
1433        if on_sql:
1434            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1435            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1436            if using:
1437                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1438            else:
1439                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1440        elif not op_sql:
1441            return f", {this_sql}"
1442
1443        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1444        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1445
1446    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1447        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1448        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1449        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1450
1451    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1452        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1453
1454        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1455            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1456
1457        if expression.args.get("view"):
1458            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1459            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1460            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1461            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1462            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1463            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1464
1465        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1466        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1467        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1468
1469    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1470        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1471        args = ", ".join(
1472            sql
1473            for sql in (
1474                self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1475                self.sql(expression, "expression"),
1476            )
1477            if sql
1478        )
1479        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args}"
1480
1481    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1482        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1483        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1484
1485    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1486        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1487        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1488        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1489        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1490        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1491        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1492        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1493        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1494
1495    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1496        expressions = (
1497            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1498        )
1499        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1500        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1501
1502    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1503        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1504
1505    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1506        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1507            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1508            return ""
1509
1510        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1511        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1512        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1513        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1514
1515        if wait is not None:
1516            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1517                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1518            else:
1519                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1520
1521        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1522
1523    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1524        text = expression.this or ""
1525        if expression.is_string:
1526            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1527        return text
1528
1529    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1530        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1531        if self.ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK:
1532            text = text.replace("\n", "\\n")
1533        elif self.pretty:
1534            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1535        return text
1536
1537    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1538        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1539        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1540        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1541        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1542        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1543        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1544        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1545        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1546        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1547        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1548        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1549
1550    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1551        return "NULL"
1552
1553    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1554        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1555
1556    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1557        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1558        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1559        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1560
1561    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1562        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1563
1564    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1565        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1566
1567    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1568        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1569
1570    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1571        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1572        asc = not desc
1573
1574        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1575        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1576        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1577        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1578        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1579
1580        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1581        nulls_sort_change = ""
1582        if nulls_first and (
1583            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1584        ):
1585            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1586        elif (
1587            nulls_last
1588            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1589            and not nulls_are_last
1590        ):
1591            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1592
1593        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1594            self.unsupported(
1595                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1596            )
1597            nulls_sort_change = ""
1598
1599        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1600
1601    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1602        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1603        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1604        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1605        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1606        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1607        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1608        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1609        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1610        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1611        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1612        definition_sqls = [
1613            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1614            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1615        ]
1616        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1617        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1618        body = "".join(
1619            (
1620                partition,
1621                order,
1622                measures,
1623                rows,
1624                after,
1625                pattern,
1626                define,
1627            )
1628        )
1629        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1630        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1631        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1632
1633    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1634        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1635
1636        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1637        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1638
1639        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1640            limit = exp.Limit(expression=limit.args.get("count"))
1641        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1642            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=limit.expression)
1643
1644        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1645
1646        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1647            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1648            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1649            else []
1650        )
1651
1652        return csv(
1653            *sqls,
1654            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1655            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1656            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1657            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1658            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1659            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1660            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1661            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1662            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1663            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1664            sep="",
1665        )
1666
1667    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1668        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1669    ) -> t.List[str]:
1670        return [
1671            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1672            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1673        ]
1674
1675    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1676        return [
1677            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1678            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1679            if expression.args.get("windows")
1680            else "",
1681            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1682            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1683            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1684        ]
1685
1686    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1687        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1688        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1689        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1690
1691    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1692        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1693        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1694        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1695        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1696        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1697        top = (
1698            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1699            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1700            else ""
1701        )
1702
1703        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1704
1705        if kind:
1706            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1707                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1708            else:
1709                if kind == "STRUCT":
1710                    expressions = self.expressions(
1711                        sqls=[
1712                            self.sql(
1713                                exp.Struct(
1714                                    expressions=[
1715                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1716                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1717                                        )
1718                                        for e in expression.expressions
1719                                    ]
1720                                )
1721                            )
1722                        ]
1723                    )
1724                kind = ""
1725
1726        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1727        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1728            expression,
1729            f"SELECT{top}{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1730            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1731            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1732        )
1733        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1734
1735    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1736        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1737        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1738        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1739        return f"{this}{sql}"
1740
1741    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1742        return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1743
1744    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1745        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1746        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1747        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1748        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1749        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
1750
1751    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1752        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1753        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1754        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
1755
1756    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1757        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1758        kind = expression.text("kind")
1759        if kind:
1760            kind = f"{kind}."
1761        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
1762
1763    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1764        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
1765
1766    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1767        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1768        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1769
1770        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1771        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1772
1773        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1774        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1775
1776    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1777        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1778        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1779
1780    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1781        return self.prepend_ctes(
1782            expression,
1783            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1784        )
1785
1786    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1787        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1788        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1789        return f"UNION{kind}"
1790
1791    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1792        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1793        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1794        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1795            columns = alias.columns
1796            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1797        else:
1798            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1799        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1800        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1801        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1802        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1803        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
1804
1805    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1806        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1807        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1808
1809    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1810        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1811        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1812        order = expression.args.get("order")
1813        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1814        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1815        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1816        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1817
1818        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1819
1820        first = expression.args.get("first")
1821        if first is None:
1822            first = ""
1823        else:
1824            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1825
1826        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1827            return f"{this} {alias}"
1828
1829        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1830        return f"{this} ({args})"
1831
1832    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1833        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1834        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
1835
1836    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1837        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1838        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1839        end = (
1840            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1841            or "CURRENT ROW"
1842        )
1843        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
1844
1845    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1846        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1847        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1848        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
1849
1850    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1851        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1852        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1853        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1854        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
1855
1856    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1857        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
1858        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1859
1860        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
1861
1862    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
1863        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
1864
1865    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1866        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
1867
1868    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1869        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1870        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1871            this = self.wrap(this)
1872        return f"ANY {this}"
1873
1874    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1875        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
1876
1877    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1878        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1879        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1880
1881        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1882            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1883            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1884
1885        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1886
1887        if default:
1888            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1889
1890        statements.append("END")
1891
1892        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
1893            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1894
1895        return " ".join(statements)
1896
1897    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1898        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1899        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1900        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
1901
1902    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1903        order = expression.args.get("order")
1904        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1905        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
1906
1907    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1908        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1909        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1910        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
1911
1912    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1913        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1914
1915        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1916            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1917        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1918            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1919        else:
1920            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
1921
1922    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
1923        expressions = expression.expressions
1924        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
1925            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
1926        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
1927
1928    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1929        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1930        return f"CHECK ({this})"
1931
1932    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1933        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1934        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1935        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1936        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
1937        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
1938        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
1939        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
1940        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
1941
1942    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1943        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1944        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1945        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1946        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
1947
1948    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
1949        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
1950
1951    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1952        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
1953        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
1954        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
1955
1956    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1957        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1958
1959    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
1960        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
1961        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
1962        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
1963        if unique_keys is not None:
1964            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
1965        else:
1966            unique_keys = ""
1967        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
1968        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
1969        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
1970        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
1971        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
1972        return self.func(
1973            "JSON_OBJECT",
1974            *expression.expressions,
1975            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})",
1976        )
1977
1978    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
1979        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1980        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1981        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1982        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
1983        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
1984        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
1985
1986    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
1987        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1988        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1989        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
1990        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1991        with_ = (
1992            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1993            if expressions
1994            else ""
1995        )
1996        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
1997
1998    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
1999        query = expression.args.get("query")
2000        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2001        field = expression.args.get("field")
2002        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2003
2004        if query:
2005            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2006        elif unnest:
2007            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2008        elif field:
2009            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2010        else:
2011            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2012
2013        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2014
2015    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2016        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2017
2018    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2019        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2020        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2021            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
2022        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2023
2024        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2025            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2026            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2027
2028        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2029        if this:
2030            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2031            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2032
2033        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2034
2035    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2036        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2037
2038    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2039        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2040        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2041        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2042        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2043        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2044        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2045
2046    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2047        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
2048
2049    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2050        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2051            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2052        else:
2053            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2054            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2055
2056        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2057
2058    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2059        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2060        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2061        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2062        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2063
2064    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2065        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2066
2067    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2068        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2069        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2070        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2071
2072    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2073        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2074
2075    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2076        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2077        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2078        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2079
2080    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2081        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2082
2083    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2084        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
2085
2086    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2087        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
2088
2089    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2090        if not self.pretty:
2091            return self.binary(expression, op)
2092
2093        sqls = tuple(
2094            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2095            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2096        )
2097
2098        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2099        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
2100
2101    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2102        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2103
2104    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2105        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2106
2107    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2108        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2109
2110    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2111        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2112
2113    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2114        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2115
2116    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2117        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2118
2119    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2120        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2121        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2122        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')}{format_sql})"
2123
2124    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2125        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2126        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2127
2128    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2129        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2130
2131    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2132        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2133
2134    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2135        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2136        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2137        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2138        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2139        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2140
2141    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2142        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2143        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2144        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2145        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2146        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2147        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2148        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2149        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2150        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2151
2152    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2153        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2154        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2155        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2156        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2157
2158        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2159            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2160
2161        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2162
2163    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2164        return "BEGIN"
2165
2166    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2167        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2168        if chain is not None:
2169            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2170
2171        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2172
2173    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2174        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2175        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2176        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2177
2178    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2179        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2180
2181        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2182        if dtype:
2183            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2184            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2185            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2186            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2187            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2188
2189        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2190        if default:
2191            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2192
2193        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2194            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2195
2196        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2197
2198    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2199        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2200            # Remove db from tables
2201            expression = expression.transform(
2202                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2203            )
2204        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2205        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2206
2207    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2208        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2209
2210        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2211            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMN ")
2212        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2213            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2214        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2215            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2216        else:
2217            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2218
2219        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2220        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2221
2222    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2223        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2224        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2225        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2226
2227    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2228        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2229        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2230        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2231
2232        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2233        if enforced is not None:
2234            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2235
2236        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2237
2238    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2239        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2240        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2241
2242        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2243        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2244        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2245
2246    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2247        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2248
2249    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2250        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2251
2252    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2253        return self.sql(
2254            exp.Cast(
2255                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2256                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2257            )
2258        )
2259
2260    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2261        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2262
2263    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2264        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2265            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2266        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
2267
2268    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2269        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2270
2271    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2272        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2273
2274    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2275        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2276
2277    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2278        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2279
2280    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2281        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2282
2283    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2284        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2285
2286    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2287        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2288
2289    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2290        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2291
2292    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2293        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2294
2295    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2296        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2297
2298    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2299        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2300
2301    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2302        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2303            return self.sql(
2304                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2305            )
2306        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2307
2308    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2309        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2310
2311    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2312        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2313
2314    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2315        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2316
2317    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2318        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2319
2320    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2321        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2322
2323    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2324        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2325
2326    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2327        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2328
2329    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2330        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2331
2332    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2333        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2334
2335    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2336        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2337
2338    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2339        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2340
2341    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2342        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2343
2344    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2345        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2346
2347    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2348        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
2349
2350    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2351        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2352        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2353        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2354        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2355        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2356
2357    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2358        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2359        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2360
2361    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2362        args = []
2363
2364        for key in expression.arg_types:
2365            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2366
2367            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2368                for value in arg_value:
2369                    args.append(value)
2370            elif arg_value is not None:
2371                args.append(arg_value)
2372
2373        return self.func(expression.sql_name(), *args)
2374
2375    def func(
2376        self,
2377        name: str,
2378        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2379        prefix: str = "(",
2380        suffix: str = ")",
2381    ) -> str:
2382        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2383
2384    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2385        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2386        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2387            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2388        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2389
2390    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2391        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2392
2393    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2394        return format_time(
2395            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2396        )
2397
2398    def expressions(
2399        self,
2400        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2401        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2402        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2403        flat: bool = False,
2404        indent: bool = True,
2405        skip_first: bool = False,
2406        sep: str = ", ",
2407        prefix: str = "",
2408    ) -> str:
2409        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2410
2411        if not expressions:
2412            return ""
2413
2414        if flat:
2415            return sep.join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2416
2417        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2418
2419        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2420        pad = " " * self.pad
2421        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2422
2423        result_sqls = []
2424        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2425            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2426            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2427
2428            if self.pretty:
2429                if self.leading_comma:
2430                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2431                else:
2432                    result_sqls.append(
2433                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2434                    )
2435            else:
2436                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2437
2438        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2439        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
2440
2441    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2442        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2443        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2444        if flat:
2445            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2446        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2447
2448    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2449        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2450        if not property_name:
2451            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2452        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2453
2454    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2455        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2456        op = self.seg(op)
2457        return self.query_modifiers(
2458            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2459        )
2460
2461    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2462        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2463
2464    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2465        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2466
2467    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2468        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2469        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2470        expressions = (
2471            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2472        )
2473        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2474
2475    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2476        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2477        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2478        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2479
2480    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2481        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2482
2483    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2484        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2485        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2486        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2487        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2488
2489        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2490        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2491            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2492            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2493                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2494        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2495            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2496                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2497            else:
2498                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2499        else:
2500            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2501        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2502
2503    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2504        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2505        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2506        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2507        return f"MERGE INTO {this} {using} {on} {self.expressions(expression, sep=' ')}"
2508
2509    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2510        if expression.args.get("format"):
2511            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2512
2513        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2514
2515    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2516        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2517        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2518        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2519        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2520        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2521
2522    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2523        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2524        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2525        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2526        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2527
2528    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2529        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
2530
2531    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2532        return ""
2533
2534    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2535        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2536        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2537        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2538        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2539        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
2540
2541    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2542        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2543        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2544
2545        if having:
2546            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2547
2548        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
2549
2550    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2551        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2552        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2553        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2554        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2555        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2556        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2557        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2558        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2559        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2560        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2561        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2562        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
2563        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
2564
2565
2566def cached_generator(
2567    cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
2568) -> t.Callable[[exp.Expression], str]:
2569    """Returns a cached generator."""
2570    cache = {} if cache is None else cache
2571    generator = Generator(normalize=True, identify="safe")
2572    return lambda e: generator.generate(e, cache)
logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
class Generator:
  16class Generator:
  17    """
  18    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  19
  20    Args:
  21        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  22            Default: False.
  23        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  24            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  25            True or 'always': Always quote.
  26            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  27        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  28            Default: False.
  29        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  30            Default: 2.
  31        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  32            Default: 2.
  33        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  34            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  35            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  36            False: Disables function name normalization.
  37        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  38            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  39        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  40            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  41            Default: 3
  42        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  43            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  44            Default: False
  45        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  46            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  47            line length.
  48            Default: 80
  49        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  50            Default: True
  51    """
  52
  53    TRANSFORMS = {
  54        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  55            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  56        ),
  57        exp.TsOrDsAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  58            "TS_OR_DS_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  59        ),
  60        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  61        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  62        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  63        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  64        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  65        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  66        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  67        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  68        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  69        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  70        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  71        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  72        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  73        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  74        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  75        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  76        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  77        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  78        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  79        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  80        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  81        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  82        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  83        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  84        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
  85        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
  86        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
  87        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
  88        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
  89        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
  91        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
  92        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
  93        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94    }
  95
  96    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
  97    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
  98
  99    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 100    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 101
 102    # Always do union distinct or union all
 103    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 104
 105    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 106    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 107
 108    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 109    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 110
 111    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 112    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 113
 114    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 115    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 116
 117    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 118    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 119
 120    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 121    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 122
 123    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 124    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 125
 126    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 127    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 128
 129    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 130    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 131
 132    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 133    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 134
 135    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 136    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 137
 138    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 139    JOIN_HINTS = True
 140
 141    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 142    TABLE_HINTS = True
 143
 144    # Whether or not query hints should be generated
 145    QUERY_HINTS = True
 146
 147    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 148    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 149
 150    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 151    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 152
 153    # Whether or not to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 154    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 155
 156    # Whether or not to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 157    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 158
 159    # Whether or not to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 160    RETURNING_END = True
 161
 162    # Whether or not to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 163    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 164
 165    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 166    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 167
 168    # Whether or not VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 169    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 170    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 171    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 172
 173    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 174        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 175        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 176        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 177        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 178        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 179        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 180        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 181    }
 182
 183    STAR_MAPPING = {
 184        "except": "EXCEPT",
 185        "replace": "REPLACE",
 186    }
 187
 188    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 189        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 190        "seconds": "second",
 191        "minutes": "minute",
 192        "hours": "hour",
 193        "days": "day",
 194        "weeks": "week",
 195        "months": "month",
 196        "quarters": "quarter",
 197        "years": "year",
 198    }
 199
 200    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 201
 202    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 203
 204    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 205
 206    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 207        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 208        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 209        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 210        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 211        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 212        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 213        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 214        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 215        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 216        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 217        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 218        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 219        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 220        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 221        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 222        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 223        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 224        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 225        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 226        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 227        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 228        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 229        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 230        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 231        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 232        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 233        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 234        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 235        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 236        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 237        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 238        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 239        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 240        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 241        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 242        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 243        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 244        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 245        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 246        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 247        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 248        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 249        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 250        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 251        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 252        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 253        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 254        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 255        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 256        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 257        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 258        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 259        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 260        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 261        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 262    }
 263
 264    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 265    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 266
 267    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 268    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 269        exp.Drop,
 270        exp.From,
 271        exp.Select,
 272        exp.Where,
 273        exp.With,
 274    )
 275
 276    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 277    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 278        exp.Column,
 279        exp.Literal,
 280        exp.Neg,
 281        exp.Paren,
 282    )
 283
 284    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 285
 286    # Autofilled
 287    INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 288    INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: t.Dict = {}
 289    INDEX_OFFSET = 0
 290    UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
 291    ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
 292    IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
 293    STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
 294    NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = "upper"
 295    NULL_ORDERING = "nulls_are_small"
 296    ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK = False
 297
 298    can_identify: t.Callable[[str, str | bool], bool]
 299
 300    # Delimiters for quotes, identifiers and the corresponding escape characters
 301    QUOTE_START = "'"
 302    QUOTE_END = "'"
 303    IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
 304    IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
 305    STRING_ESCAPE = "'"
 306    IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE = '"'
 307
 308    # Delimiters for bit, hex, byte and raw literals
 309    BIT_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 310    BIT_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 311    HEX_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 312    HEX_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 313    BYTE_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 314    BYTE_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 315
 316    __slots__ = (
 317        "pretty",
 318        "identify",
 319        "normalize",
 320        "pad",
 321        "_indent",
 322        "normalize_functions",
 323        "unsupported_level",
 324        "max_unsupported",
 325        "leading_comma",
 326        "max_text_width",
 327        "comments",
 328        "unsupported_messages",
 329        "_escaped_quote_end",
 330        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 331        "_cache",
 332    )
 333
 334    def __init__(
 335        self,
 336        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 337        identify: str | bool = False,
 338        normalize: bool = False,
 339        pad: int = 2,
 340        indent: int = 2,
 341        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 342        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 343        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 344        leading_comma: bool = False,
 345        max_text_width: int = 80,
 346        comments: bool = True,
 347    ):
 348        import sqlglot
 349
 350        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 351        self.identify = identify
 352        self.normalize = normalize
 353        self.pad = pad
 354        self._indent = indent
 355        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 356        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 357        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 358        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 359        self.comments = comments
 360
 361        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 362        self.normalize_functions = (
 363            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 364        )
 365
 366        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 367        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.STRING_ESCAPE + self.QUOTE_END
 368        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = self.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE + self.IDENTIFIER_END
 369        self._cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
 370
 371    def generate(
 372        self,
 373        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
 374        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
 375    ) -> str:
 376        """
 377        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 378
 379        Args:
 380            expression: The syntax tree.
 381            cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression
 382                which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
 383
 384        Returns:
 385            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 386        """
 387        if cache is not None:
 388            self._cache = cache
 389
 390        self.unsupported_messages = []
 391        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 392        self._cache = None
 393
 394        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 395            return sql
 396
 397        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 398            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 399                logger.warning(msg)
 400        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 401            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 402
 403        if self.pretty:
 404            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 405        return sql
 406
 407    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 408        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 409            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 410        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 411
 412    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 413        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 414
 415    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 416        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 417
 418    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 419        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 420        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 421        return comment
 422
 423    def maybe_comment(
 424        self,
 425        sql: str,
 426        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 427        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 428    ) -> str:
 429        comments = (
 430            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 431            if self.comments
 432            else None
 433        )
 434
 435        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
 436            return sql
 437
 438        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
 439        comments_sql = sep.join(
 440            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 441        )
 442
 443        if not comments_sql:
 444            return sql
 445
 446        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 447            return (
 448                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 449                if sql[0].isspace()
 450                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 451            )
 452
 453        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 454
 455    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 456        this_sql = self.indent(
 457            self.sql(expression)
 458            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 459            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 460            level=1,
 461            pad=0,
 462        )
 463        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 464
 465    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 466        original = self.identify
 467        self.identify = False
 468        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 469        self.identify = original
 470        return result
 471
 472    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 473        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 474            return name.upper()
 475        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 476            return name.lower()
 477        return name
 478
 479    def indent(
 480        self,
 481        sql: str,
 482        level: int = 0,
 483        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 484        skip_first: bool = False,
 485        skip_last: bool = False,
 486    ) -> str:
 487        if not self.pretty:
 488            return sql
 489
 490        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 491        lines = sql.split("\n")
 492
 493        return "\n".join(
 494            line
 495            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 496            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 497            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 498        )
 499
 500    def sql(
 501        self,
 502        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 503        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 504        comment: bool = True,
 505    ) -> str:
 506        if not expression:
 507            return ""
 508
 509        if isinstance(expression, str):
 510            return expression
 511
 512        if key:
 513            value = expression.args.get(key)
 514            if value:
 515                return self.sql(value)
 516            return ""
 517
 518        if self._cache is not None:
 519            expression_id = hash(expression)
 520
 521            if expression_id in self._cache:
 522                return self._cache[expression_id]
 523
 524        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 525
 526        if callable(transform):
 527            sql = transform(self, expression)
 528        elif transform:
 529            sql = transform
 530        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 531            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 532
 533            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 534                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 535            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 536                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 537            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 538                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 539            else:
 540                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 541        else:
 542            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 543
 544        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 545
 546        if self._cache is not None:
 547            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
 548        return sql
 549
 550    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 551        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 552        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 553        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 554
 555    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 556        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 557        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 558        options = expression.args.get("options")
 559        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 560        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 561        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 562        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 563        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 564
 565    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 566        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 567            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 568        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 569        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 570
 571    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 572        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 573
 574        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 575            join_mark = ""
 576            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 577
 578        column = ".".join(
 579            self.sql(part)
 580            for part in (
 581                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 582                expression.args.get("db"),
 583                expression.args.get("table"),
 584                expression.args.get("this"),
 585            )
 586            if part
 587        )
 588
 589        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 590
 591    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 592        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 593        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 594        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 595        return f"{position}{this}"
 596
 597    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 598        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 599        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 600        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 601        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 602        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 603        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 604        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 605        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 606
 607        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 608
 609    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 610        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 611        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 612        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 613
 614    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 615        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 616
 617    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 618        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 619            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 620        else:
 621            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 622
 623        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 624
 625    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 626        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 627    ) -> str:
 628        this = ""
 629        if expression.this is not None:
 630            on_null = "ON NULL " if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 631            this = " ALWAYS " if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT {on_null}"
 632
 633        start = expression.args.get("start")
 634        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 635        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 636        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 637        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 638        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 639        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 640        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 641        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 642        cycle_sql = ""
 643
 644        if cycle is not None:
 645            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 646            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 647
 648        sequence_opts = ""
 649        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 650            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 651            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 652
 653        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 654        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 655
 656        return f"GENERATED{this}AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 657
 658    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 659        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 660
 661    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 662        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 663        if desc is not None:
 664            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 665        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 666
 667    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 668        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 669        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 670        return f"UNIQUE{this}"
 671
 672    def createable_sql(
 673        self, expression: exp.Create, locations: dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]
 674    ) -> str:
 675        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 676
 677    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 678        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 679        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 680        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else {}
 681
 682        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 683
 684        properties_sql = ""
 685        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 686            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 687        ):
 688            properties_sql = self.sql(
 689                exp.Properties(
 690                    expressions=[
 691                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 692                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 693                    ]
 694                )
 695            )
 696
 697        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 698        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 699        if expression_sql:
 700            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
 701
 702            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 703                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 704                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 705                        exp.Properties(
 706                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 707                        ),
 708                        wrapped=False,
 709                    )
 710                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 711                else:
 712                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 713
 714        postindex_props_sql = ""
 715        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 716            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 717                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 718                wrapped=False,
 719                prefix=" ",
 720            )
 721
 722        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 723        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 724        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 725
 726        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 727        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 728
 729        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 730        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 731            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 732                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 733                sep=" ",
 734                prefix=" ",
 735                wrapped=False,
 736            )
 737
 738        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 739
 740        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 741        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 742            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 743                exp.Properties(
 744                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 745                ),
 746                sep=" ",
 747                prefix=" ",
 748                wrapped=False,
 749            )
 750
 751        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 752        no_schema_binding = (
 753            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 754        )
 755
 756        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 757        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 758
 759        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 760        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 761
 762    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 763        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 764        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 765
 766        if when:
 767            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 768            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 769            return f"CLONE {this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 770
 771        return f"CLONE {this}"
 772
 773    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 774        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 775
 776    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 777        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 778        if with_:
 779            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 780        return sql
 781
 782    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 783        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 784        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
 785
 786        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 787
 788    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 789        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 790        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 791
 792    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 793        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 794        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 795        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 796        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 797
 798    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 799        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 800        if self.BIT_START:
 801            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
 802        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 803
 804    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 805        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 806        if self.HEX_START:
 807            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
 808        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 809
 810    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 811        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 812        if self.BYTE_START:
 813            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
 814        return this
 815
 816    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 817        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
 818        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
 819
 820    def datatypesize_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeSize) -> str:
 821        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 822        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 823        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
 824        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 825
 826    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 827        type_value = expression.this
 828        type_sql = (
 829            self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 830            if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
 831            else type_value
 832        )
 833        nested = ""
 834        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 835        values = ""
 836        if interior:
 837            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 838                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 839                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 840                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 841                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 842                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 843            else:
 844                nested = f"({interior})"
 845
 846        return f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 847
 848    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 849        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 850        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 851        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 852        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
 853
 854    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 855        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 856        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 857        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 858        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
 859        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
 860        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
 861        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
 862        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
 863        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
 864        if self.RETURNING_END:
 865            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
 866        else:
 867            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
 868        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
 869
 870    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
 871        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 872        kind = expression.args["kind"]
 873        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
 874        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
 875        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
 876        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
 877        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
 878        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
 879        return (
 880            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
 881        )
 882
 883    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 884        return self.prepend_ctes(
 885            expression,
 886            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
 887        )
 888
 889    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 890        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
 891
 892    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
 893        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
 894        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
 895        count = expression.args.get("count")
 896        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
 897        if expression.args.get("percent"):
 898            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
 899        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
 900        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
 901
 902    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
 903        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 904        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
 905        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
 906
 907    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
 908        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
 909            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
 910            return ""
 911
 912        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
 913
 914    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
 915        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 916        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
 917        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
 918        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
 919        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
 920        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
 921        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table} " if table else ""
 922        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 923        using = f"USING {using} " if using else ""
 924        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
 925        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 926        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 927        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
 928        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
 929        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}"
 930
 931    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
 932        text = expression.name
 933        lower = text.lower()
 934        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
 935        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
 936        if (
 937            expression.quoted
 938            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
 939            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
 940            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
 941        ):
 942            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
 943        return text
 944
 945    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
 946        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
 947        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
 948        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
 949        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
 950        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
 951
 952    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
 953        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
 954        return f"{prefix}{string}"
 955
 956    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
 957        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
 958
 959    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
 960        root_properties = []
 961        with_properties = []
 962
 963        for p in expression.expressions:
 964            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
 965            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
 966                with_properties.append(p)
 967            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
 968                root_properties.append(p)
 969
 970        return self.root_properties(
 971            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
 972        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
 973
 974    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
 975        if properties.expressions:
 976            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
 977        return ""
 978
 979    def properties(
 980        self,
 981        properties: exp.Properties,
 982        prefix: str = "",
 983        sep: str = ", ",
 984        suffix: str = "",
 985        wrapped: bool = True,
 986    ) -> str:
 987        if properties.expressions:
 988            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
 989            expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
 990            return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
 991        return ""
 992
 993    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
 994        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
 995
 996    def locate_properties(
 997        self, properties: exp.Properties
 998    ) -> t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]:
 999        properties_locs: t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]] = {
1000            key: [] for key in exp.Properties.Location
1001        }
1002
1003        for p in properties.expressions:
1004            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1005            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME:
1006                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME].append(p)
1007            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX:
1008                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX].append(p)
1009            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1010                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA].append(p)
1011            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1012                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH].append(p)
1013            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE:
1014                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE].append(p)
1015            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS:
1016                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS].append(p)
1017            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION:
1018                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION].append(p)
1019            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1020                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1021
1022        return properties_locs
1023
1024    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1025        property_cls = expression.__class__
1026        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1027            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1028
1029        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1030        if not property_name:
1031            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1032
1033        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1034
1035    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1036        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1037        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1038        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1039
1040    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1041        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1042        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1043        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1044
1045    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1046        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1047        local = expression.args.get("local")
1048        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1049        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1050        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1051        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1052        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1053
1054    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1055        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1056        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1057        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1058
1059    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1060        if expression.args.get("default"):
1061            property = "DEFAULT"
1062        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1063            property = "ON"
1064        else:
1065            property = "OFF"
1066        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1067
1068    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1069        if expression.args.get("no"):
1070            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1071        if expression.args.get("default"):
1072            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1073
1074        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1075        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1076
1077    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1078        default = expression.args.get("default")
1079        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1080        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1081        if default or minimum or maximum:
1082            if default:
1083                prop = "DEFAULT"
1084            elif minimum:
1085                prop = "MINIMUM"
1086            else:
1087                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1088            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1089        units = expression.args.get("units")
1090        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1091        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1092
1093    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1094        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1095        always = expression.args.get("always")
1096        default = expression.args.get("default")
1097        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1098        never = expression.args.get("never")
1099
1100        if autotemp is not None:
1101            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1102        elif always:
1103            prop = "ALWAYS"
1104        elif default:
1105            prop = "DEFAULT"
1106        elif manual:
1107            prop = "MANUAL"
1108        elif never:
1109            prop = "NEVER"
1110        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1111
1112    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1113        no = expression.args.get("no")
1114        no = " NO" if no else ""
1115        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1116        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1117
1118        for_ = ""
1119        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1120            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1121        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1122            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1123        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1124            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1125        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1126
1127    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1128        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1129        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1130        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1131        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1132        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1133        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1134
1135    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1136        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1137        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1138        statistics_sql = ""
1139        if statistics is not None:
1140            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1141        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1142
1143    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1144        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1145
1146        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1147            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1148        else:
1149            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1150
1151        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1152        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1153        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1154
1155        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1156
1157        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1158        partition_sql = (
1159            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1160        )
1161        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1162        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1163        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1164        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1165        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1166
1167        if self.RETURNING_END:
1168            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1169        else:
1170            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1171
1172        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1173        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1174
1175    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1176        return self.prepend_ctes(
1177            expression,
1178            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1179        )
1180
1181    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1182        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1183
1184    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1185        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1186
1187    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1188        return expression.name.upper()
1189
1190    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1191        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1192        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1193        if constraint:
1194            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1195        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1196        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1197        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1198        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1199        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1200        if expressions:
1201            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1202        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1203
1204    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1205        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1206
1207    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1208        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1209        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1210        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1211        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1212        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1213        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1214        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1215        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1216        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1217        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1218        null = expression.args.get("null")
1219        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1220        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1221
1222    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1223        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1224
1225    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1226        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1227        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1228        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1229        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1230
1231    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1232        table = ".".join(
1233            part
1234            for part in [
1235                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1236                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1237                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1238            ]
1239            if part
1240        )
1241
1242        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1243        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1244        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1245        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1246        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1247        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1248        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1249        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1250        system_time = expression.args.get("system_time")
1251        system_time = f" {self.sql(expression, 'system_time')}" if system_time else ""
1252
1253        return f"{table}{system_time}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
1254
1255    def tablesample_sql(
1256        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1257    ) -> str:
1258        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1259            table = expression.this.copy()
1260            table.set("alias", None)
1261            this = self.sql(table)
1262            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1263        else:
1264            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1265            alias = ""
1266        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1267        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1268        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1269        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1270        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1271        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1272        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1273        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1274        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1275        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1276        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1277        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1278        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1279            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1280        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1281        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1282        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1283        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
1284
1285    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1286        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1287
1288        if expression.this:
1289            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1290            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1291            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1292            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1293            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1294            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1295
1296        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1297        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1298        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1299        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1300        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1301        return f"{direction}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1302
1303    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1304        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1305
1306    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1307        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1308        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1309        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1310        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1311        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1312        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1313        if self.RETURNING_END:
1314            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}{limit}"
1315        else:
1316            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}{limit}"
1317        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}"
1318        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1319
1320    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1321        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1322        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1323            args = self.expressions(expression)
1324            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1325            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1326            values = (
1327                f"({values})"
1328                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1329                else values
1330            )
1331            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1332
1333        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1334        # Note: If you have a lot of unions then this will result in a large number of recursive statements to
1335        # evaluate the expression. You may need to increase `sys.setrecursionlimit` to run and it can also be
1336        # very slow.
1337        expression = expression.copy()
1338        column_names = expression.alias and expression.args["alias"].columns
1339
1340        selects = []
1341
1342        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1343            row = tup.expressions
1344
1345            if i == 0 and column_names:
1346                row = [
1347                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1348                ]
1349
1350            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1351
1352        subquery_expression: exp.Select | exp.Union = selects[0]
1353        if len(selects) > 1:
1354            for select in selects[1:]:
1355                subquery_expression = exp.union(
1356                    subquery_expression, select, distinct=False, copy=False
1357                )
1358
1359        return self.subquery_sql(subquery_expression.subquery(expression.alias, copy=False))
1360
1361    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1362        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1363
1364    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1365        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1366        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1367        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1368
1369    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1370        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1371
1372    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1373        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1374
1375        if expression.args.get("all"):
1376            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1377
1378        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1379        grouping_sets = (
1380            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1381        )
1382
1383        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1384        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1385            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1386        else:
1387            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1388            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1389
1390        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1391        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1392            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1393        else:
1394            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1395            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1396
1397        groupings = csv(
1398            grouping_sets,
1399            cube_sql,
1400            rollup_sql,
1401            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1402            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1403        )
1404
1405        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1406            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1407
1408        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1409
1410    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1411        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1412        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1413
1414    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1415        op_sql = " ".join(
1416            op
1417            for op in (
1418                expression.method,
1419                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1420                expression.side,
1421                expression.kind,
1422                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1423            )
1424            if op
1425        )
1426        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1427        using = expression.args.get("using")
1428
1429        if not on_sql and using:
1430            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1431
1432        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1433
1434        if on_sql:
1435            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1436            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1437            if using:
1438                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1439            else:
1440                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1441        elif not op_sql:
1442            return f", {this_sql}"
1443
1444        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1445        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1446
1447    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1448        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1449        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1450        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1451
1452    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1453        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1454
1455        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1456            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1457
1458        if expression.args.get("view"):
1459            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1460            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1461            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1462            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1463            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1464            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1465
1466        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1467        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1468        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1469
1470    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1471        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1472        args = ", ".join(
1473            sql
1474            for sql in (
1475                self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1476                self.sql(expression, "expression"),
1477            )
1478            if sql
1479        )
1480        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args}"
1481
1482    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1483        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1484        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1485
1486    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1487        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1488        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1489        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1490        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1491        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1492        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1493        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1494        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1495
1496    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1497        expressions = (
1498            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1499        )
1500        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1501        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1502
1503    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1504        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1505
1506    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1507        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1508            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1509            return ""
1510
1511        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1512        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1513        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1514        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1515
1516        if wait is not None:
1517            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1518                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1519            else:
1520                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1521
1522        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1523
1524    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1525        text = expression.this or ""
1526        if expression.is_string:
1527            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1528        return text
1529
1530    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1531        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1532        if self.ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK:
1533            text = text.replace("\n", "\\n")
1534        elif self.pretty:
1535            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1536        return text
1537
1538    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1539        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1540        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1541        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1542        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1543        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1544        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1545        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1546        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1547        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1548        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1549        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1550
1551    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1552        return "NULL"
1553
1554    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1555        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1556
1557    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1558        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1559        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1560        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1561
1562    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1563        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1564
1565    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1566        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1567
1568    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1569        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1570
1571    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1572        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1573        asc = not desc
1574
1575        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1576        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1577        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1578        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1579        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1580
1581        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1582        nulls_sort_change = ""
1583        if nulls_first and (
1584            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1585        ):
1586            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1587        elif (
1588            nulls_last
1589            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1590            and not nulls_are_last
1591        ):
1592            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1593
1594        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1595            self.unsupported(
1596                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1597            )
1598            nulls_sort_change = ""
1599
1600        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1601
1602    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1603        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1604        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1605        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1606        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1607        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1608        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1609        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1610        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1611        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1612        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1613        definition_sqls = [
1614            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1615            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1616        ]
1617        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1618        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1619        body = "".join(
1620            (
1621                partition,
1622                order,
1623                measures,
1624                rows,
1625                after,
1626                pattern,
1627                define,
1628            )
1629        )
1630        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1631        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1632        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1633
1634    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1635        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1636
1637        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1638        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1639
1640        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1641            limit = exp.Limit(expression=limit.args.get("count"))
1642        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1643            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=limit.expression)
1644
1645        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1646
1647        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1648            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1649            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1650            else []
1651        )
1652
1653        return csv(
1654            *sqls,
1655            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1656            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1657            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1658            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1659            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1660            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1661            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1662            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1663            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1664            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1665            sep="",
1666        )
1667
1668    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1669        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1670    ) -> t.List[str]:
1671        return [
1672            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1673            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1674        ]
1675
1676    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1677        return [
1678            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1679            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1680            if expression.args.get("windows")
1681            else "",
1682            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1683            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1684            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1685        ]
1686
1687    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1688        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1689        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1690        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1691
1692    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1693        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1694        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1695        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1696        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1697        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1698        top = (
1699            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1700            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1701            else ""
1702        )
1703
1704        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1705
1706        if kind:
1707            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1708                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1709            else:
1710                if kind == "STRUCT":
1711                    expressions = self.expressions(
1712                        sqls=[
1713                            self.sql(
1714                                exp.Struct(
1715                                    expressions=[
1716                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1717                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1718                                        )
1719                                        for e in expression.expressions
1720                                    ]
1721                                )
1722                            )
1723                        ]
1724                    )
1725                kind = ""
1726
1727        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1728        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1729            expression,
1730            f"SELECT{top}{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1731            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1732            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1733        )
1734        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1735
1736    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1737        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1738        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1739        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1740        return f"{this}{sql}"
1741
1742    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1743        return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1744
1745    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1746        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1747        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1748        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1749        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1750        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
1751
1752    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1753        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1754        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1755        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
1756
1757    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1758        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1759        kind = expression.text("kind")
1760        if kind:
1761            kind = f"{kind}."
1762        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
1763
1764    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1765        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
1766
1767    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1768        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1769        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1770
1771        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1772        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1773
1774        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1775        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1776
1777    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1778        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1779        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1780
1781    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1782        return self.prepend_ctes(
1783            expression,
1784            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1785        )
1786
1787    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1788        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1789        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1790        return f"UNION{kind}"
1791
1792    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1793        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1794        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1795        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1796            columns = alias.columns
1797            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1798        else:
1799            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1800        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1801        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1802        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1803        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1804        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
1805
1806    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1807        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1808        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1809
1810    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1811        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1812        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1813        order = expression.args.get("order")
1814        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1815        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1816        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1817        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1818
1819        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1820
1821        first = expression.args.get("first")
1822        if first is None:
1823            first = ""
1824        else:
1825            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1826
1827        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1828            return f"{this} {alias}"
1829
1830        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1831        return f"{this} ({args})"
1832
1833    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1834        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1835        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
1836
1837    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1838        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1839        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1840        end = (
1841            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1842            or "CURRENT ROW"
1843        )
1844        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
1845
1846    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1847        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1848        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1849        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
1850
1851    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1852        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1853        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1854        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1855        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
1856
1857    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1858        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
1859        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1860
1861        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
1862
1863    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
1864        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
1865
1866    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1867        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
1868
1869    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1870        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1871        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1872            this = self.wrap(this)
1873        return f"ANY {this}"
1874
1875    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1876        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
1877
1878    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1879        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1880        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1881
1882        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1883            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1884            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1885
1886        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1887
1888        if default:
1889            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1890
1891        statements.append("END")
1892
1893        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
1894            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1895
1896        return " ".join(statements)
1897
1898    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1899        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1900        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1901        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
1902
1903    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1904        order = expression.args.get("order")
1905        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1906        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
1907
1908    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1909        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1910        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1911        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
1912
1913    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1914        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1915
1916        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1917            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1918        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1919            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1920        else:
1921            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
1922
1923    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
1924        expressions = expression.expressions
1925        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
1926            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
1927        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
1928
1929    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1930        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1931        return f"CHECK ({this})"
1932
1933    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1934        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1935        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1936        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1937        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
1938        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
1939        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
1940        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
1941        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
1942
1943    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1944        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1945        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1946        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1947        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
1948
1949    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
1950        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
1951
1952    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1953        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
1954        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
1955        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
1956
1957    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1958        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1959
1960    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
1961        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
1962        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
1963        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
1964        if unique_keys is not None:
1965            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
1966        else:
1967            unique_keys = ""
1968        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
1969        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
1970        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
1971        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
1972        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
1973        return self.func(
1974            "JSON_OBJECT",
1975            *expression.expressions,
1976            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})",
1977        )
1978
1979    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
1980        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1981        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1982        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1983        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
1984        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
1985        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
1986
1987    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
1988        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1989        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1990        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
1991        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1992        with_ = (
1993            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1994            if expressions
1995            else ""
1996        )
1997        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
1998
1999    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2000        query = expression.args.get("query")
2001        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2002        field = expression.args.get("field")
2003        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2004
2005        if query:
2006            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2007        elif unnest:
2008            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2009        elif field:
2010            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2011        else:
2012            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2013
2014        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2015
2016    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2017        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2018
2019    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2020        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2021        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2022            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
2023        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2024
2025        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2026            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2027            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2028
2029        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2030        if this:
2031            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2032            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2033
2034        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2035
2036    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2037        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2038
2039    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2040        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2041        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2042        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2043        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2044        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2045        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2046
2047    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2048        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
2049
2050    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2051        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2052            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2053        else:
2054            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2055            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2056
2057        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2058
2059    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2060        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2061        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2062        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2063        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2064
2065    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2066        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2067
2068    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2069        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2070        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2071        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2072
2073    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2074        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2075
2076    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2077        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2078        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2079        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2080
2081    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2082        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2083
2084    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2085        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
2086
2087    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2088        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
2089
2090    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2091        if not self.pretty:
2092            return self.binary(expression, op)
2093
2094        sqls = tuple(
2095            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2096            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2097        )
2098
2099        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2100        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
2101
2102    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2103        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2104
2105    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2106        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2107
2108    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2109        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2110
2111    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2112        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2113
2114    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2115        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2116
2117    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2118        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2119
2120    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2121        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2122        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2123        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')}{format_sql})"
2124
2125    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2126        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2127        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2128
2129    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2130        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2131
2132    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2133        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2134
2135    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2136        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2137        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2138        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2139        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2140        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2141
2142    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2143        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2144        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2145        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2146        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2147        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2148        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2149        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2150        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2151        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2152
2153    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2154        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2155        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2156        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2157        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2158
2159        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2160            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2161
2162        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2163
2164    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2165        return "BEGIN"
2166
2167    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2168        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2169        if chain is not None:
2170            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2171
2172        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2173
2174    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2175        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2176        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2177        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2178
2179    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2180        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2181
2182        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2183        if dtype:
2184            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2185            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2186            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2187            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2188            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2189
2190        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2191        if default:
2192            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2193
2194        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2195            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2196
2197        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2198
2199    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2200        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2201            # Remove db from tables
2202            expression = expression.transform(
2203                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2204            )
2205        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2206        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2207
2208    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2209        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2210
2211        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2212            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMN ")
2213        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2214            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2215        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2216            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2217        else:
2218            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2219
2220        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2221        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2222
2223    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2224        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2225        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2226        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2227
2228    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2229        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2230        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2231        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2232
2233        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2234        if enforced is not None:
2235            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2236
2237        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2238
2239    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2240        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2241        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2242
2243        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2244        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2245        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2246
2247    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2248        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2249
2250    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2251        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2252
2253    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2254        return self.sql(
2255            exp.Cast(
2256                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2257                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2258            )
2259        )
2260
2261    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2262        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2263
2264    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2265        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2266            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2267        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
2268
2269    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2270        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2271
2272    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2273        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2274
2275    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2276        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2277
2278    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2279        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2280
2281    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2282        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2283
2284    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2285        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2286
2287    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2288        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2289
2290    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2291        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2292
2293    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2294        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2295
2296    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2297        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2298
2299    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2300        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2301
2302    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2303        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2304            return self.sql(
2305                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2306            )
2307        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2308
2309    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2310        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2311
2312    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2313        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2314
2315    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2316        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2317
2318    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2319        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2320
2321    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2322        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2323
2324    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2325        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2326
2327    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2328        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2329
2330    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2331        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2332
2333    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2334        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2335
2336    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2337        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2338
2339    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2340        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2341
2342    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2343        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2344
2345    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2346        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2347
2348    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2349        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
2350
2351    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2352        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2353        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2354        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2355        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2356        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2357
2358    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2359        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2360        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2361
2362    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2363        args = []
2364
2365        for key in expression.arg_types:
2366            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2367
2368            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2369                for value in arg_value:
2370                    args.append(value)
2371            elif arg_value is not None:
2372                args.append(arg_value)
2373
2374        return self.func(expression.sql_name(), *args)
2375
2376    def func(
2377        self,
2378        name: str,
2379        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2380        prefix: str = "(",
2381        suffix: str = ")",
2382    ) -> str:
2383        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2384
2385    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2386        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2387        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2388            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2389        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2390
2391    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2392        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2393
2394    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2395        return format_time(
2396            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2397        )
2398
2399    def expressions(
2400        self,
2401        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2402        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2403        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2404        flat: bool = False,
2405        indent: bool = True,
2406        skip_first: bool = False,
2407        sep: str = ", ",
2408        prefix: str = "",
2409    ) -> str:
2410        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2411
2412        if not expressions:
2413            return ""
2414
2415        if flat:
2416            return sep.join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2417
2418        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2419
2420        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2421        pad = " " * self.pad
2422        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2423
2424        result_sqls = []
2425        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2426            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2427            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2428
2429            if self.pretty:
2430                if self.leading_comma:
2431                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2432                else:
2433                    result_sqls.append(
2434                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2435                    )
2436            else:
2437                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2438
2439        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2440        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
2441
2442    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2443        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2444        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2445        if flat:
2446            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2447        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2448
2449    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2450        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2451        if not property_name:
2452            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2453        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2454
2455    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2456        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2457        op = self.seg(op)
2458        return self.query_modifiers(
2459            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2460        )
2461
2462    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2463        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2464
2465    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2466        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2467
2468    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2469        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2470        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2471        expressions = (
2472            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2473        )
2474        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2475
2476    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2477        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2478        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2479        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2480
2481    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2482        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2483
2484    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2485        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2486        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2487        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2488        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2489
2490        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2491        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2492            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2493            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2494                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2495        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2496            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2497                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2498            else:
2499                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2500        else:
2501            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2502        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2503
2504    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2505        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2506        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2507        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2508        return f"MERGE INTO {this} {using} {on} {self.expressions(expression, sep=' ')}"
2509
2510    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2511        if expression.args.get("format"):
2512            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2513
2514        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2515
2516    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2517        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2518        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2519        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2520        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2521        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2522
2523    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2524        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2525        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2526        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2527        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2528
2529    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2530        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
2531
2532    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2533        return ""
2534
2535    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2536        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2537        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2538        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2539        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2540        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
2541
2542    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2543        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2544        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2545
2546        if having:
2547            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2548
2549        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
2550
2551    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2552        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2553        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2554        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2555        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2556        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2557        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2558        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2559        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2560        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2561        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2562        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2563        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
2564        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

Arguments:
  • pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
  • identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  • normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
  • pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
  • unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True)
334    def __init__(
335        self,
336        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
337        identify: str | bool = False,
338        normalize: bool = False,
339        pad: int = 2,
340        indent: int = 2,
341        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
342        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
343        max_unsupported: int = 3,
344        leading_comma: bool = False,
345        max_text_width: int = 80,
346        comments: bool = True,
347    ):
348        import sqlglot
349
350        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
351        self.identify = identify
352        self.normalize = normalize
353        self.pad = pad
354        self._indent = indent
355        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
356        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
357        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
358        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
359        self.comments = comments
360
361        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
362        self.normalize_functions = (
363            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
364        )
365
366        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
367        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.STRING_ESCAPE + self.QUOTE_END
368        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = self.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE + self.IDENTIFIER_END
369        self._cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
TRANSFORMS = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsAdd'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXPLICIT_UNION = False
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINT_SEP = ', '
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
RETURNING_END = True
COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET'}
STAR_MAPPING = {'except': 'EXCEPT', 'replace': 'REPLACE'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'microseconds': 'microsecond', 'seconds': 'second', 'minutes': 'minute', 'hours': 'hour', 'days': 'day', 'weeks': 'week', 'months': 'month', 'quarters': 'quarter', 'years': 'year'}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Drop'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.From'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Select'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Where'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.With'>)
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: Dict[str, str] = {}
INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: Dict = {}
INDEX_OFFSET = 0
UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = 'upper'
NULL_ORDERING = 'nulls_are_small'
ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK = False
@classmethod
def can_identify(text: str, identify: str | bool = 'safe') -> bool:
248    @classmethod
249    def can_identify(cls, text: str, identify: str | bool = "safe") -> bool:
250        """Checks if text can be identified given an identify option.
251
252        Args:
253            text: The text to check.
254            identify:
255                "always" or `True`: Always returns true.
256                "safe": True if the identifier is case-insensitive.
257
258        Returns:
259            Whether or not the given text can be identified.
260        """
261        if identify is True or identify == "always":
262            return True
263
264        if identify == "safe":
265            return not cls.case_sensitive(text)
266
267        return False

Checks if text can be identified given an identify option.

Arguments:
  • text: The text to check.
  • identify: "always" or True: Always returns true. "safe": True if the identifier is case-insensitive.
Returns:

Whether or not the given text can be identified.

QUOTE_START = "'"
QUOTE_END = "'"
IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
STRING_ESCAPE = "'"
IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE = '"'
BIT_START: Optional[str] = None
BIT_END: Optional[str] = None
HEX_START: Optional[str] = None
HEX_END: Optional[str] = None
BYTE_START: Optional[str] = None
BYTE_END: Optional[str] = None
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], cache: Optional[Dict[int, str]] = None) -> str:
371    def generate(
372        self,
373        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
374        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
375    ) -> str:
376        """
377        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
378
379        Args:
380            expression: The syntax tree.
381            cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression
382                which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
383
384        Returns:
385            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
386        """
387        if cache is not None:
388            self._cache = cache
389
390        self.unsupported_messages = []
391        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
392        self._cache = None
393
394        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
395            return sql
396
397        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
398            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
399                logger.warning(msg)
400        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
401            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
402
403        if self.pretty:
404            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
405        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

Arguments:
  • expression: The syntax tree.
  • cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
Returns:

The SQL string corresponding to expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
407    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
408        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
409            raise UnsupportedError(message)
410        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
412    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
413        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
415    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
416        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
418    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
419        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
420        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
421        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None) -> str:
423    def maybe_comment(
424        self,
425        sql: str,
426        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
427        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
428    ) -> str:
429        comments = (
430            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
431            if self.comments
432            else None
433        )
434
435        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
436            return sql
437
438        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
439        comments_sql = sep.join(
440            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
441        )
442
443        if not comments_sql:
444            return sql
445
446        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
447            return (
448                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
449                if sql[0].isspace()
450                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
451            )
452
453        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
455    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
456        this_sql = self.indent(
457            self.sql(expression)
458            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
459            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
460            level=1,
461            pad=0,
462        )
463        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
465    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
466        original = self.identify
467        self.identify = False
468        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
469        self.identify = original
470        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
472    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
473        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
474            return name.upper()
475        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
476            return name.lower()
477        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
479    def indent(
480        self,
481        sql: str,
482        level: int = 0,
483        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
484        skip_first: bool = False,
485        skip_last: bool = False,
486    ) -> str:
487        if not self.pretty:
488            return sql
489
490        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
491        lines = sql.split("\n")
492
493        return "\n".join(
494            line
495            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
496            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
497            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
498        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
500    def sql(
501        self,
502        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
503        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
504        comment: bool = True,
505    ) -> str:
506        if not expression:
507            return ""
508
509        if isinstance(expression, str):
510            return expression
511
512        if key:
513            value = expression.args.get(key)
514            if value:
515                return self.sql(value)
516            return ""
517
518        if self._cache is not None:
519            expression_id = hash(expression)
520
521            if expression_id in self._cache:
522                return self._cache[expression_id]
523
524        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
525
526        if callable(transform):
527            sql = transform(self, expression)
528        elif transform:
529            sql = transform
530        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
531            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
532
533            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
534                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
535            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
536                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
537            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
538                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
539            else:
540                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
541        else:
542            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
543
544        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
545
546        if self._cache is not None:
547            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
548        return sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
550    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
551        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
552        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
553        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
555    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
556        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
557        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
558        options = expression.args.get("options")
559        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
560        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
561        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
562        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
563        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
565    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
566        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
567            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
568        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
569        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
571    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
572        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
573
574        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
575            join_mark = ""
576            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
577
578        column = ".".join(
579            self.sql(part)
580            for part in (
581                expression.args.get("catalog"),
582                expression.args.get("db"),
583                expression.args.get("table"),
584                expression.args.get("this"),
585            )
586            if part
587        )
588
589        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
591    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
592        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
593        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
594        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
595        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
597    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
598        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
599        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
600        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
601        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
602        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
603        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
604        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
605        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
606
607        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
609    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
610        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
611        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
612        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
614    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
615        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
617    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
618        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
619            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
620        else:
621            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
622
623        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
625    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
626        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
627    ) -> str:
628        this = ""
629        if expression.this is not None:
630            on_null = "ON NULL " if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
631            this = " ALWAYS " if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT {on_null}"
632
633        start = expression.args.get("start")
634        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
635        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
636        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
637        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
638        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
639        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
640        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
641        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
642        cycle_sql = ""
643
644        if cycle is not None:
645            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
646            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
647
648        sequence_opts = ""
649        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
650            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
651            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
652
653        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
654        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
655
656        return f"GENERATED{this}AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
658    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
659        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
661    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
662        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
663        if desc is not None:
664            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
665        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
667    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
668        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
669        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
670        return f"UNIQUE{this}"
def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: dict[sqlglot.expressions.Properties.Location, list[sqlglot.expressions.Property]]) -> str:
672    def createable_sql(
673        self, expression: exp.Create, locations: dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]
674    ) -> str:
675        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
677    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
678        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
679        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
680        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else {}
681
682        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
683
684        properties_sql = ""
685        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
686            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
687        ):
688            properties_sql = self.sql(
689                exp.Properties(
690                    expressions=[
691                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
692                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
693                    ]
694                )
695            )
696
697        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
698        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
699        if expression_sql:
700            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
701
702            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
703                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
704                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
705                        exp.Properties(
706                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
707                        ),
708                        wrapped=False,
709                    )
710                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
711                else:
712                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
713
714        postindex_props_sql = ""
715        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
716            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
717                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
718                wrapped=False,
719                prefix=" ",
720            )
721
722        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
723        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
724        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
725
726        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
727        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
728
729        postcreate_props_sql = ""
730        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
731            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
732                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
733                sep=" ",
734                prefix=" ",
735                wrapped=False,
736            )
737
738        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
739
740        postexpression_props_sql = ""
741        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
742            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
743                exp.Properties(
744                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
745                ),
746                sep=" ",
747                prefix=" ",
748                wrapped=False,
749            )
750
751        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
752        no_schema_binding = (
753            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
754        )
755
756        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
757        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
758
759        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
760        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
762    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
763        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
764        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
765
766        if when:
767            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
768            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
769            return f"CLONE {this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
770
771        return f"CLONE {this}"
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
773    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
774        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
776    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
777        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
778        if with_:
779            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
780        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
782    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
783        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
784        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
785
786        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
788    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
789        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
790        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
792    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
793        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
794        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
795        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
796        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
798    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
799        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
800        if self.BIT_START:
801            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
802        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
804    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
805        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
806        if self.HEX_START:
807            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
808        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
810    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
811        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
812        if self.BYTE_START:
813            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
814        return this
def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str:
816    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
817        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
818        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
def datatypesize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeSize) -> str:
820    def datatypesize_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeSize) -> str:
821        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
822        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
823        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
824        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
826    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
827        type_value = expression.this
828        type_sql = (
829            self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
830            if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
831            else type_value
832        )
833        nested = ""
834        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
835        values = ""
836        if interior:
837            if expression.args.get("nested"):
838                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
839                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
840                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
841                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
842                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
843            else:
844                nested = f"({interior})"
845
846        return f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
848    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
849        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
850        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
851        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
852        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
854    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
855        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
856        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
857        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
858        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
859        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
860        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
861        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
862        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
863        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
864        if self.RETURNING_END:
865            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
866        else:
867            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
868        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
870    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
871        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
872        kind = expression.args["kind"]
873        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
874        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
875        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
876        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
877        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
878        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
879        return (
880            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
881        )
def except_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
883    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
884        return self.prepend_ctes(
885            expression,
886            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
887        )
def except_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
889    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
890        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
892    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
893        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
894        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
895        count = expression.args.get("count")
896        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
897        if expression.args.get("percent"):
898            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
899        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
900        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
902    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
903        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
904        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
905        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
907    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
908        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
909            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
910            return ""
911
912        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
914    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
915        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
916        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
917        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
918        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
919        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
920        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
921        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table} " if table else ""
922        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
923        using = f"USING {using} " if using else ""
924        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
925        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
926        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
927        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
928        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
929        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
931    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
932        text = expression.name
933        lower = text.lower()
934        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
935        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
936        if (
937            expression.quoted
938            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
939            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
940            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
941        ):
942            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
943        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
945    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
946        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
947        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
948        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
949        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
950        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str:
952    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
953        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
954        return f"{prefix}{string}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
956    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
957        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
959    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
960        root_properties = []
961        with_properties = []
962
963        for p in expression.expressions:
964            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
965            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
966                with_properties.append(p)
967            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
968                root_properties.append(p)
969
970        return self.root_properties(
971            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
972        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
974    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
975        if properties.expressions:
976            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
977        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
979    def properties(
980        self,
981        properties: exp.Properties,
982        prefix: str = "",
983        sep: str = ", ",
984        suffix: str = "",
985        wrapped: bool = True,
986    ) -> str:
987        if properties.expressions:
988            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
989            expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
990            return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
991        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
993    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
994        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
def locate_properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> Dict[sqlglot.expressions.Properties.Location, list[sqlglot.expressions.Property]]:
 996    def locate_properties(
 997        self, properties: exp.Properties
 998    ) -> t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]:
 999        properties_locs: t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]] = {
1000            key: [] for key in exp.Properties.Location
1001        }
1002
1003        for p in properties.expressions:
1004            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1005            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME:
1006                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME].append(p)
1007            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX:
1008                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX].append(p)
1009            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1010                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA].append(p)
1011            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1012                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH].append(p)
1013            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE:
1014                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE].append(p)
1015            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS:
1016                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS].append(p)
1017            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION:
1018                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION].append(p)
1019            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1020                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1021
1022        return properties_locs
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
1024    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1025        property_cls = expression.__class__
1026        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1027            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1028
1029        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1030        if not property_name:
1031            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1032
1033        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
1035    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1036        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1037        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1038        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1040    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1041        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1042        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1043        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
1045    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1046        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1047        local = expression.args.get("local")
1048        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1049        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1050        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1051        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1052        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1054    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1055        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1056        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1057        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1059    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1060        if expression.args.get("default"):
1061            property = "DEFAULT"
1062        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1063            property = "ON"
1064        else:
1065            property = "OFF"
1066        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1068    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1069        if expression.args.get("no"):
1070            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1071        if expression.args.get("default"):
1072            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1073
1074        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1075        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1077    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1078        default = expression.args.get("default")
1079        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1080        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1081        if default or minimum or maximum:
1082            if default:
1083                prop = "DEFAULT"
1084            elif minimum:
1085                prop = "MINIMUM"
1086            else:
1087                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1088            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1089        units = expression.args.get("units")
1090        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1091        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1093    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1094        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1095        always = expression.args.get("always")
1096        default = expression.args.get("default")
1097        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1098        never = expression.args.get("never")
1099
1100        if autotemp is not None:
1101            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1102        elif always:
1103            prop = "ALWAYS"
1104        elif default:
1105            prop = "DEFAULT"
1106        elif manual:
1107            prop = "MANUAL"
1108        elif never:
1109            prop = "NEVER"
1110        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1112    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1113        no = expression.args.get("no")
1114        no = " NO" if no else ""
1115        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1116        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1117
1118        for_ = ""
1119        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1120            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1121        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1122            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1123        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1124            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1125        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1127    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1128        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1129        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1130        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1131        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1132        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1133        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1135    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1136        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1137        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1138        statistics_sql = ""
1139        if statistics is not None:
1140            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1141        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1143    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1144        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1145
1146        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1147            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1148        else:
1149            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1150
1151        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1152        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1153        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1154
1155        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1156
1157        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1158        partition_sql = (
1159            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1160        )
1161        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1162        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1163        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1164        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1165        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1166
1167        if self.RETURNING_END:
1168            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1169        else:
1170            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1171
1172        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1173        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def intersect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1175    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1176        return self.prepend_ctes(
1177            expression,
1178            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1179        )
def intersect_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1181    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1182        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1184    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1185        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1187    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1188        return expression.name.upper()
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1190    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1191        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1192        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1193        if constraint:
1194            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1195        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1196        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1197        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1198        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1199        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1200        if expressions:
1201            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1202        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1204    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1205        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1207    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1208        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1209        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1210        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1211        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1212        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1213        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1214        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1215        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1216        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1217        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1218        null = expression.args.get("null")
1219        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1220        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint) -> str:
1222    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1223        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1225    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1226        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1227        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1228        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1229        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1231    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1232        table = ".".join(
1233            part
1234            for part in [
1235                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1236                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1237                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1238            ]
1239            if part
1240        )
1241
1242        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1243        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1244        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1245        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1246        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1247        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1248        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1249        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1250        system_time = expression.args.get("system_time")
1251        system_time = f" {self.sql(expression, 'system_time')}" if system_time else ""
1252
1253        return f"{table}{system_time}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = 'SEED', sep=' AS ') -> str:
1255    def tablesample_sql(
1256        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1257    ) -> str:
1258        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1259            table = expression.this.copy()
1260            table.set("alias", None)
1261            this = self.sql(table)
1262            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1263        else:
1264            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1265            alias = ""
1266        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1267        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1268        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1269        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1270        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1271        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1272        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1273        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1274        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1275        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1276        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1277        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1278        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1279            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1280        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1281        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1282        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1283        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1285    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1286        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1287
1288        if expression.this:
1289            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1290            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1291            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1292            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1293            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1294            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1295
1296        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1297        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1298        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1299        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1300        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1301        return f"{direction}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
1303    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1304        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
1306    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1307        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1308        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1309        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1310        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1311        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1312        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1313        if self.RETURNING_END:
1314            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}{limit}"
1315        else:
1316            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}{limit}"
1317        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}"
1318        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values) -> str:
1320    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1321        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1322        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1323            args = self.expressions(expression)
1324            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1325            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1326            values = (
1327                f"({values})"
1328                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1329                else values
1330            )
1331            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1332
1333        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1334        # Note: If you have a lot of unions then this will result in a large number of recursive statements to
1335        # evaluate the expression. You may need to increase `sys.setrecursionlimit` to run and it can also be
1336        # very slow.
1337        expression = expression.copy()
1338        column_names = expression.alias and expression.args["alias"].columns
1339
1340        selects = []
1341
1342        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1343            row = tup.expressions
1344
1345            if i == 0 and column_names:
1346                row = [
1347                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1348                ]
1349
1350            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1351
1352        subquery_expression: exp.Select | exp.Union = selects[0]
1353        if len(selects) > 1:
1354            for select in selects[1:]:
1355                subquery_expression = exp.union(
1356                    subquery_expression, select, distinct=False, copy=False
1357                )
1358
1359        return self.subquery_sql(subquery_expression.subquery(expression.alias, copy=False))
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
1361    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1362        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
1364    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1365        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1366        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1367        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
1369    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1370        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
1372    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1373        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1374
1375        if expression.args.get("all"):
1376            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1377
1378        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1379        grouping_sets = (
1380            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1381        )
1382
1383        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1384        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1385            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1386        else:
1387            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1388            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1389
1390        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1391        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1392            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1393        else:
1394            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1395            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1396
1397        groupings = csv(
1398            grouping_sets,
1399            cube_sql,
1400            rollup_sql,
1401            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1402            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1403        )
1404
1405        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1406            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1407
1408        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
1410    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1411        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1412        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
1414    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1415        op_sql = " ".join(
1416            op
1417            for op in (
1418                expression.method,
1419                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1420                expression.side,
1421                expression.kind,
1422                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1423            )
1424            if op
1425        )
1426        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1427        using = expression.args.get("using")
1428
1429        if not on_sql and using:
1430            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1431
1432        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1433
1434        if on_sql:
1435            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1436            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1437            if using:
1438                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1439            else:
1440                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1441        elif not op_sql:
1442            return f", {this_sql}"
1443
1444        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1445        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
1447    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1448        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1449        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1450        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
1452    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1453        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1454
1455        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1456            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1457
1458        if expression.args.get("view"):
1459            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1460            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1461            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1462            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1463            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1464            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1465
1466        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1467        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1468        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1470    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1471        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1472        args = ", ".join(
1473            sql
1474            for sql in (
1475                self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1476                self.sql(expression, "expression"),
1477            )
1478            if sql
1479        )
1480        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
1482    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1483        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1484        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
1486    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1487        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1488        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1489        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1490        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1491        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1492        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1493        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1494        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
1496    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1497        expressions = (
1498            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1499        )
1500        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1501        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
1503    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1504        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
1506    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1507        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1508            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1509            return ""
1510
1511        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1512        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1513        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1514        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1515
1516        if wait is not None:
1517            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1518                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1519            else:
1520                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1521
1522        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
1524    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1525        text = expression.this or ""
1526        if expression.is_string:
1527            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1528        return text
def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1530    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1531        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1532        if self.ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK:
1533            text = text.replace("\n", "\\n")
1534        elif self.pretty:
1535            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1536        return text
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
1538    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1539        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1540        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1541        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1542        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1543        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1544        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1545        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1546        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1547        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1548        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1549        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1551    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1552        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
1554    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1555        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1557    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1558        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1559        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1560        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
1562    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1563        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
1565    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1566        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
1568    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1569        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
1571    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1572        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1573        asc = not desc
1574
1575        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1576        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1577        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1578        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1579        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1580
1581        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1582        nulls_sort_change = ""
1583        if nulls_first and (
1584            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1585        ):
1586            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1587        elif (
1588            nulls_last
1589            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1590            and not nulls_are_last
1591        ):
1592            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1593
1594        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1595            self.unsupported(
1596                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1597            )
1598            nulls_sort_change = ""
1599
1600        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1602    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1603        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1604        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1605        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1606        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1607        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1608        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1609        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1610        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1611        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1612        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1613        definition_sqls = [
1614            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1615            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1616        ]
1617        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1618        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1619        body = "".join(
1620            (
1621                partition,
1622                order,
1623                measures,
1624                rows,
1625                after,
1626                pattern,
1627                define,
1628            )
1629        )
1630        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1631        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1632        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1634    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1635        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1636
1637        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1638        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1639
1640        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1641            limit = exp.Limit(expression=limit.args.get("count"))
1642        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1643            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=limit.expression)
1644
1645        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1646
1647        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1648            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1649            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1650            else []
1651        )
1652
1653        return csv(
1654            *sqls,
1655            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1656            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1657            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1658            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1659            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1660            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1661            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1662            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1663            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1664            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1665            sep="",
1666        )
def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]:
1668    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1669        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1670    ) -> t.List[str]:
1671        return [
1672            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1673            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1674        ]
def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
1676    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1677        return [
1678            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1679            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1680            if expression.args.get("windows")
1681            else "",
1682            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1683            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1684            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1685        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
1687    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1688        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1689        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1690        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
1692    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1693        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1694        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1695        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1696        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1697        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1698        top = (
1699            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1700            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1701            else ""
1702        )
1703
1704        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1705
1706        if kind:
1707            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1708                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1709            else:
1710                if kind == "STRUCT":
1711                    expressions = self.expressions(
1712                        sqls=[
1713                            self.sql(
1714                                exp.Struct(
1715                                    expressions=[
1716                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1717                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1718                                        )
1719                                        for e in expression.expressions
1720                                    ]
1721                                )
1722                            )
1723                        ]
1724                    )
1725                kind = ""
1726
1727        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1728        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1729            expression,
1730            f"SELECT{top}{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1731            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1732            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1733        )
1734        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
1736    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1737        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1738        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1739        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1740        return f"{this}{sql}"
def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
1742    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1743        return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
1745    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1746        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1747        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1748        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1749        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1750        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
1752    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1753        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1754        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1755        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
1757    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1758        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1759        kind = expression.text("kind")
1760        if kind:
1761            kind = f"{kind}."
1762        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
1764    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1765        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1767    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1768        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1769        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1770
1771        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1772        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1773
1774        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1775        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
1777    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1778        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1779        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def union_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
1781    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1782        return self.prepend_ctes(
1783            expression,
1784            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1785        )
def union_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
1787    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1788        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1789        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1790        return f"UNION{kind}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
1792    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1793        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1794        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1795        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1796            columns = alias.columns
1797            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1798        else:
1799            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1800        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1801        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1802        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1803        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1804        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
1806    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1807        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1808        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
1810    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1811        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1812        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1813        order = expression.args.get("order")
1814        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1815        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1816        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1817        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1818
1819        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1820
1821        first = expression.args.get("first")
1822        if first is None:
1823            first = ""
1824        else:
1825            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1826
1827        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1828            return f"{this} {alias}"
1829
1830        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1831        return f"{this} ({args})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1833    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1834        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1835        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
1837    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1838        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1839        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1840        end = (
1841            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1842            or "CURRENT ROW"
1843        )
1844        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
1846    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1847        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1848        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1849        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
1851    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1852        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1853        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1854        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1855        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
1857    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1858        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
1859        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1860
1861        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def safebracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeBracket) -> str:
1863    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
1864        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
1866    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1867        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
1869    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1870        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1871        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1872            this = self.wrap(this)
1873        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
1875    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1876        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
1878    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1879        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1880        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1881
1882        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1883            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1884            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1885
1886        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1887
1888        if default:
1889            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1890
1891        statements.append("END")
1892
1893        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
1894            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1895
1896        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
1898    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1899        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1900        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1901        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
1903    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1904        order = expression.args.get("order")
1905        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1906        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
1908    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1909        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1910        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1911        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
1913    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1914        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1915
1916        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1917            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1918        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1919            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1920        else:
1921            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeConcat) -> str:
1923    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
1924        expressions = expression.expressions
1925        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
1926            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
1927        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
1929    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1930        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1931        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
1933    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1934        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1935        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1936        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1937        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
1938        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
1939        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
1940        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
1941        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
1943    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1944        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1945        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1946        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1947        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
1949    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
1950        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1952    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1953        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
1954        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
1955        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1957    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1958        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject) -> str:
1960    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
1961        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
1962        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
1963        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
1964        if unique_keys is not None:
1965            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
1966        else:
1967            unique_keys = ""
1968        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
1969        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
1970        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
1971        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
1972        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
1973        return self.func(
1974            "JSON_OBJECT",
1975            *expression.expressions,
1976            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})",
1977        )
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
1979    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
1980        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1981        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1982        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1983        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
1984        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
1985        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
1987    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
1988        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1989        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1990        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
1991        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1992        with_ = (
1993            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1994            if expressions
1995            else ""
1996        )
1997        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
1999    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2000        query = expression.args.get("query")
2001        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2002        field = expression.args.get("field")
2003        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2004
2005        if query:
2006            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2007        elif unnest:
2008            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2009        elif field:
2010            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2011        else:
2012            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2013
2014        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2016    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2017        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
2019    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2020        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2021        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2022            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
2023        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2024
2025        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2026            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2027            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2028
2029        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2030        if this:
2031            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2032            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2033
2034        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
2036    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2037        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
2039    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2040        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2041        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2042        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2043        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2044        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2045        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
2047    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2048        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
2050    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2051        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2052            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2053        else:
2054            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2055            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2056
2057        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
2059    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2060        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2061        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2062        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2063        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
2065    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2066        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
2068    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2069        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2070        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2071        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
2073    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2074        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2076    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2077        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2078        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2079        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
2081    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2082        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And) -> str:
2084    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2085        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
def xor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Xor) -> str:
2087    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2088        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
def connector_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2090    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2091        if not self.pretty:
2092            return self.binary(expression, op)
2093
2094        sqls = tuple(
2095            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2096            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2097        )
2098
2099        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2100        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2102    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2103        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2105    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2106        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2108    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2109        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2111    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2112        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2114    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2115        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2117    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2118        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2120    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2121        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2122        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2123        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')}{format_sql})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
2125    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2126        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2127        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
2129    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2130        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
2132    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2133        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
2135    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2136        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2137        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2138        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2139        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2140        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2142    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2143        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2144        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2145        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2146        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2147        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2148        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2149        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2150        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2151        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2153    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2154        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2155        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2156        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2157        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2158
2159        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2160            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2161
2162        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
2164    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2165        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
2167    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2168        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2169        if chain is not None:
2170            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2171
2172        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
2174    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2175        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2176        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2177        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
2179    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2180        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2181
2182        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2183        if dtype:
2184            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2185            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2186            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2187            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2188            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2189
2190        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2191        if default:
2192            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2193
2194        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2195            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2196
2197        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str:
2199    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2200        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2201            # Remove db from tables
2202            expression = expression.transform(
2203                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2204            )
2205        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2206        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def altertable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
2208    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2209        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2210
2211        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2212            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMN ")
2213        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2214            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2215        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2216            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2217        else:
2218            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2219
2220        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2221        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
2223    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2224        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2225        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2226        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
2228    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2229        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2230        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2231        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2232
2233        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2234        if enforced is not None:
2235            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2236
2237        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
2239    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2240        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2241        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2242
2243        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2244        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2245        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2247    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2248        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
2250    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2251        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
2253    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2254        return self.sql(
2255            exp.Cast(
2256                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2257                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2258            )
2259        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
2261    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2262        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2264    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2265        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2266            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2267        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
2269    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2270        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
2272    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2273        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
2275    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2276        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
2278    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2279        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
2281    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2282        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
2284    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2285        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
2287    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2288        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
2290    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2291        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
2293    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2294        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
2296    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2297        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
2299    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2300        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
2302    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2303        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2304            return self.sql(
2305                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2306            )
2307        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
2309    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2310        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
2312    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2313        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
2315    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2316        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
2318    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2319        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
2321    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2322        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
2324    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2325        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
2327    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2328        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
2330    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2331        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2333    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2334        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2336    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2337        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def or_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or) -> str:
2339    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2340        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
2342    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2343        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
2345    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2346        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
2348    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2349        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
2351    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2352        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2353        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2354        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2355        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2356        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2358    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2359        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2360        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
2362    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2363        args = []
2364
2365        for key in expression.arg_types:
2366            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2367
2368            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2369                for value in arg_value:
2370                    args.append(value)
2371            elif arg_value is not None:
2372                args.append(arg_value)
2373
2374        return self.func(expression.sql_name(), *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')') -> str:
2376    def func(
2377        self,
2378        name: str,
2379        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2380        prefix: str = "(",
2381        suffix: str = ")",
2382    ) -> str:
2383        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
2385    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2386        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2387        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2388            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2389        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
def text_width(self, args: Iterable) -> int:
2391    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2392        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
def format_time(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> Optional[str]:
2394    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2395        return format_time(
2396            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2397        )
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[List[str]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, skip_first: bool = False, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '') -> str:
2399    def expressions(
2400        self,
2401        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2402        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2403        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2404        flat: bool = False,
2405        indent: bool = True,
2406        skip_first: bool = False,
2407        sep: str = ", ",
2408        prefix: str = "",
2409    ) -> str:
2410        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2411
2412        if not expressions:
2413            return ""
2414
2415        if flat:
2416            return sep.join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2417
2418        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2419
2420        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2421        pad = " " * self.pad
2422        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2423
2424        result_sqls = []
2425        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2426            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2427            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2428
2429            if self.pretty:
2430                if self.leading_comma:
2431                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2432                else:
2433                    result_sqls.append(
2434                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2435                    )
2436            else:
2437                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2438
2439        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2440        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2442    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2443        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2444        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2445        if flat:
2446            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2447        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
2449    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2450        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2451        if not property_name:
2452            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2453        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def set_operation(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2455    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2456        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2457        op = self.seg(op)
2458        return self.query_modifiers(
2459            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2460        )
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
2462    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2463        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
2465    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2466        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2468    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2469        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2470        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2471        expressions = (
2472            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2473        )
2474        return f"{this}{expressions}"
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
2476    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2477        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2478        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2479        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
2481    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2482        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
2484    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2485        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2486        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2487        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2488        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2489
2490        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2491        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2492            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2493            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2494                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2495        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2496            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2497                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2498            else:
2499                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2500        else:
2501            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2502        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
2504    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2505        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2506        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2507        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2508        return f"MERGE INTO {this} {using} {on} {self.expressions(expression, sep=' ')}"
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
2510    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2511        if expression.args.get("format"):
2512            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2513
2514        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str:
2516    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2517        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2518        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2519        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2520        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2521        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str:
2523    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2524        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2525        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2526        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2527        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2529    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2530        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str:
2532    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2533        return ""
def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2535    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2536        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2537        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2538        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2539        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2540        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue) -> str:
2542    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2543        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2544        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2545
2546        if having:
2547            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2548
2549        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
def querytransform_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryTransform) -> str:
2551    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2552        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2553        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2554        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2555        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2556        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2557        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2558        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2559        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2560        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2561        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2562        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2563        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
2564        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
def cached_generator( cache: Optional[Dict[int, str]] = None) -> Callable[[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], str]:
2567def cached_generator(
2568    cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
2569) -> t.Callable[[exp.Expression], str]:
2570    """Returns a cached generator."""
2571    cache = {} if cache is None else cache
2572    generator = Generator(normalize=True, identify="safe")
2573    return lambda e: generator.generate(e, cache)

Returns a cached generator.