Edit on GitHub

sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import typing as t
   5
   6from sqlglot import exp
   7from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
   8from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, seq_get
   9from sqlglot.time import format_time
  10from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  11
  12logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  13
  14
  15class Generator:
  16    """
  17    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  18
  19    Args:
  20        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  21            Default: False.
  22        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  23            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  24            True or 'always': Always quote.
  25            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  26        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  27            Default: False.
  28        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  29            Default: 2.
  30        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  31            Default: 2.
  32        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  33            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  34            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  35            False: Disables function name normalization.
  36        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  37            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  38        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  39            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  40            Default: 3
  41        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  42            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  43            Default: False
  44        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  45            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  46            line length.
  47            Default: 80
  48        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  49            Default: True
  50    """
  51
  52    TRANSFORMS = {
  53        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  54            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  55        ),
  56        exp.TsOrDsAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  57            "TS_OR_DS_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  58        ),
  59        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  60        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  61        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  62        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  63        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  64        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  65        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  66        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  67        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  68        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  69        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  70        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  71        exp.HeapProperty: lambda self, e: "HEAP",
  72        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  73        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  74        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  75        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  76        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  77        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  78        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  79        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  80        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  81        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  82        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  83        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  84        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
  85        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
  86        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
  87        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
  88        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
  89        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
  91        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
  92        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
  93        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94    }
  95
  96    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
  97    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
  98
  99    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 100    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 101
 102    # Always do union distinct or union all
 103    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 104
 105    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 106    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 107
 108    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 109    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 110
 111    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 112    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 113
 114    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 115    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 116
 117    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 118    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 119
 120    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 121    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 122
 123    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 124    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 125
 126    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 127    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 128
 129    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 130    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 131
 132    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 133    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 134
 135    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 136    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 137
 138    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 139    JOIN_HINTS = True
 140
 141    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 142    TABLE_HINTS = True
 143
 144    # Whether or not query hints should be generated
 145    QUERY_HINTS = True
 146
 147    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 148    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 149
 150    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 151    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 152
 153    # Whether or not to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 154    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 155
 156    # Whether or not to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 157    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 158
 159    # Whether or not to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 160    RETURNING_END = True
 161
 162    # Whether or not to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 163    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 164
 165    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 166    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 167
 168    # Whether or not VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 169    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 170    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 171    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 172
 173    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 174        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 175        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 176        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 177        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 178        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 179        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 180        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 181    }
 182
 183    STAR_MAPPING = {
 184        "except": "EXCEPT",
 185        "replace": "REPLACE",
 186    }
 187
 188    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 189        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 190        "seconds": "second",
 191        "minutes": "minute",
 192        "hours": "hour",
 193        "days": "day",
 194        "weeks": "week",
 195        "months": "month",
 196        "quarters": "quarter",
 197        "years": "year",
 198    }
 199
 200    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 201
 202    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 203
 204    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 205
 206    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 207        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 208        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 209        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 210        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 211        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 212        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 213        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 214        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 215        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 216        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 217        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 218        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 219        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 220        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 221        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 222        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 223        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 224        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 225        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 226        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 227        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 228        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 229        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 230        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 231        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 232        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 233        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 234        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 235        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 236        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 237        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 238        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 239        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 240        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 241        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 242        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 243        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 244        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 245        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 246        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 247        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 248        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 249        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 250        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 251        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 252        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 253        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 254        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 255        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 256        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 257        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 258        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 259        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 260        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 261        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 262        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 263    }
 264
 265    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 266    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 267
 268    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 269    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 270        exp.Delete,
 271        exp.Drop,
 272        exp.From,
 273        exp.Insert,
 274        exp.Select,
 275        exp.Update,
 276        exp.Where,
 277        exp.With,
 278    )
 279
 280    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 281    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 282        exp.Column,
 283        exp.Literal,
 284        exp.Neg,
 285        exp.Paren,
 286    )
 287
 288    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 289
 290    # Autofilled
 291    INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 292    INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: t.Dict = {}
 293    INDEX_OFFSET = 0
 294    UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
 295    ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
 296    IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
 297    STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
 298    NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = "upper"
 299    NULL_ORDERING = "nulls_are_small"
 300    ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK = False
 301
 302    can_identify: t.Callable[[str, str | bool], bool]
 303
 304    # Delimiters for quotes, identifiers and the corresponding escape characters
 305    QUOTE_START = "'"
 306    QUOTE_END = "'"
 307    IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
 308    IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
 309    STRING_ESCAPE = "'"
 310    IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE = '"'
 311
 312    # Delimiters for bit, hex, byte and raw literals
 313    BIT_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 314    BIT_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 315    HEX_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 316    HEX_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 317    BYTE_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 318    BYTE_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 319
 320    __slots__ = (
 321        "pretty",
 322        "identify",
 323        "normalize",
 324        "pad",
 325        "_indent",
 326        "normalize_functions",
 327        "unsupported_level",
 328        "max_unsupported",
 329        "leading_comma",
 330        "max_text_width",
 331        "comments",
 332        "unsupported_messages",
 333        "_escaped_quote_end",
 334        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 335        "_cache",
 336    )
 337
 338    def __init__(
 339        self,
 340        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 341        identify: str | bool = False,
 342        normalize: bool = False,
 343        pad: int = 2,
 344        indent: int = 2,
 345        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 346        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 347        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 348        leading_comma: bool = False,
 349        max_text_width: int = 80,
 350        comments: bool = True,
 351    ):
 352        import sqlglot
 353
 354        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 355        self.identify = identify
 356        self.normalize = normalize
 357        self.pad = pad
 358        self._indent = indent
 359        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 360        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 361        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 362        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 363        self.comments = comments
 364
 365        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 366        self.normalize_functions = (
 367            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 368        )
 369
 370        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 371        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.STRING_ESCAPE + self.QUOTE_END
 372        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = self.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE + self.IDENTIFIER_END
 373        self._cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
 374
 375    def generate(
 376        self,
 377        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
 378        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
 379    ) -> str:
 380        """
 381        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 382
 383        Args:
 384            expression: The syntax tree.
 385            cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression
 386                which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
 387
 388        Returns:
 389            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 390        """
 391        if cache is not None:
 392            self._cache = cache
 393
 394        self.unsupported_messages = []
 395        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 396        self._cache = None
 397
 398        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 399            return sql
 400
 401        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 402            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 403                logger.warning(msg)
 404        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 405            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 406
 407        if self.pretty:
 408            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 409        return sql
 410
 411    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 412        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 413            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 414        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 415
 416    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 417        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 418
 419    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 420        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 421
 422    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 423        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 424        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 425        return comment
 426
 427    def maybe_comment(
 428        self,
 429        sql: str,
 430        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 431        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 432    ) -> str:
 433        comments = (
 434            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 435            if self.comments
 436            else None
 437        )
 438
 439        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
 440            return sql
 441
 442        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
 443        comments_sql = sep.join(
 444            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 445        )
 446
 447        if not comments_sql:
 448            return sql
 449
 450        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 451            return (
 452                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 453                if sql[0].isspace()
 454                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 455            )
 456
 457        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 458
 459    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 460        this_sql = self.indent(
 461            self.sql(expression)
 462            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 463            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 464            level=1,
 465            pad=0,
 466        )
 467        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 468
 469    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 470        original = self.identify
 471        self.identify = False
 472        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 473        self.identify = original
 474        return result
 475
 476    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 477        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 478            return name.upper()
 479        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 480            return name.lower()
 481        return name
 482
 483    def indent(
 484        self,
 485        sql: str,
 486        level: int = 0,
 487        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 488        skip_first: bool = False,
 489        skip_last: bool = False,
 490    ) -> str:
 491        if not self.pretty:
 492            return sql
 493
 494        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 495        lines = sql.split("\n")
 496
 497        return "\n".join(
 498            line
 499            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 500            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 501            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 502        )
 503
 504    def sql(
 505        self,
 506        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 507        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 508        comment: bool = True,
 509    ) -> str:
 510        if not expression:
 511            return ""
 512
 513        if isinstance(expression, str):
 514            return expression
 515
 516        if key:
 517            value = expression.args.get(key)
 518            if value:
 519                return self.sql(value)
 520            return ""
 521
 522        if self._cache is not None:
 523            expression_id = hash(expression)
 524
 525            if expression_id in self._cache:
 526                return self._cache[expression_id]
 527
 528        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 529
 530        if callable(transform):
 531            sql = transform(self, expression)
 532        elif transform:
 533            sql = transform
 534        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 535            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 536
 537            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 538                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 539            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 540                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 541            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 542                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 543            else:
 544                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 545        else:
 546            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 547
 548        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 549
 550        if self._cache is not None:
 551            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
 552        return sql
 553
 554    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 555        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 556        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 557        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 558
 559    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 560        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 561        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 562        options = expression.args.get("options")
 563        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 564        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 565        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 566        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 567        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 568
 569    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 570        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 571            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 572        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 573        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 574
 575    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 576        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 577
 578        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 579            join_mark = ""
 580            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 581
 582        column = ".".join(
 583            self.sql(part)
 584            for part in (
 585                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 586                expression.args.get("db"),
 587                expression.args.get("table"),
 588                expression.args.get("this"),
 589            )
 590            if part
 591        )
 592
 593        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 594
 595    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 596        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 597        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 598        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 599        return f"{position}{this}"
 600
 601    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 602        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 603        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 604        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 605        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 606        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 607        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 608        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 609        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 610
 611        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 612
 613    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 614        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 615        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 616        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 617
 618    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 619        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 620
 621    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 622        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 623            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 624        else:
 625            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 626
 627        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 628
 629    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 630        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 631    ) -> str:
 632        this = ""
 633        if expression.this is not None:
 634            on_null = "ON NULL " if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 635            this = " ALWAYS " if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT {on_null}"
 636
 637        start = expression.args.get("start")
 638        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 639        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 640        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 641        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 642        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 643        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 644        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 645        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 646        cycle_sql = ""
 647
 648        if cycle is not None:
 649            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 650            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 651
 652        sequence_opts = ""
 653        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 654            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 655            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 656
 657        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 658        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 659
 660        return f"GENERATED{this}AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 661
 662    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 663        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 664
 665    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 666        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 667        if desc is not None:
 668            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 669        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 670
 671    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 672        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 673        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 674        return f"UNIQUE{this}"
 675
 676    def createable_sql(
 677        self, expression: exp.Create, locations: dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]
 678    ) -> str:
 679        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 680
 681    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 682        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 683        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 684        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else {}
 685
 686        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 687
 688        properties_sql = ""
 689        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 690            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 691        ):
 692            properties_sql = self.sql(
 693                exp.Properties(
 694                    expressions=[
 695                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 696                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 697                    ]
 698                )
 699            )
 700
 701        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 702        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 703        if expression_sql:
 704            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
 705
 706            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 707                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 708                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 709                        exp.Properties(
 710                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 711                        ),
 712                        wrapped=False,
 713                    )
 714                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 715                else:
 716                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 717
 718        postindex_props_sql = ""
 719        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 720            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 721                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 722                wrapped=False,
 723                prefix=" ",
 724            )
 725
 726        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 727        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 728        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 729
 730        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 731        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 732
 733        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 734        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 735            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 736                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 737                sep=" ",
 738                prefix=" ",
 739                wrapped=False,
 740            )
 741
 742        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 743
 744        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 745        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 746            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 747                exp.Properties(
 748                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 749                ),
 750                sep=" ",
 751                prefix=" ",
 752                wrapped=False,
 753            )
 754
 755        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 756        no_schema_binding = (
 757            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 758        )
 759
 760        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 761        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 762
 763        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 764        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 765
 766    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 767        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 768        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 769
 770        if when:
 771            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 772            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 773            return f"CLONE {this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 774
 775        return f"CLONE {this}"
 776
 777    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 778        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 779
 780    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 781        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 782        if with_:
 783            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 784        return sql
 785
 786    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 787        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 788        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
 789
 790        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 791
 792    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 793        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 794        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 795
 796    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 797        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 798        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 799        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 800        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 801
 802    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 803        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 804        if self.BIT_START:
 805            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
 806        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 807
 808    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 809        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 810        if self.HEX_START:
 811            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
 812        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 813
 814    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 815        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 816        if self.BYTE_START:
 817            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
 818        return this
 819
 820    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 821        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
 822        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
 823
 824    def datatypesize_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeSize) -> str:
 825        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 826        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 827        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
 828        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 829
 830    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 831        type_value = expression.this
 832        type_sql = (
 833            self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 834            if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
 835            else type_value
 836        )
 837        nested = ""
 838        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 839        values = ""
 840        if interior:
 841            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 842                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 843                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 844                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 845                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 846                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 847            else:
 848                nested = f"({interior})"
 849
 850        return f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 851
 852    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 853        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 854        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 855        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 856        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
 857
 858    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 859        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 860        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 861        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 862        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
 863        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
 864        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
 865        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
 866        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
 867        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
 868        if self.RETURNING_END:
 869            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
 870        else:
 871            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
 872        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
 873
 874    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
 875        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 876        kind = expression.args["kind"]
 877        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
 878        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
 879        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
 880        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
 881        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
 882        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
 883        return (
 884            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
 885        )
 886
 887    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 888        return self.prepend_ctes(
 889            expression,
 890            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
 891        )
 892
 893    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 894        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
 895
 896    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
 897        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
 898        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
 899        count = expression.args.get("count")
 900        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
 901        if expression.args.get("percent"):
 902            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
 903        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
 904        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
 905
 906    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
 907        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 908        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
 909        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
 910
 911    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
 912        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
 913            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
 914            return ""
 915
 916        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
 917
 918    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
 919        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 920        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
 921        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
 922        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
 923        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
 924        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
 925        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table} " if table else ""
 926        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 927        using = f"USING {using} " if using else ""
 928        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
 929        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 930        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 931        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
 932        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
 933        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}"
 934
 935    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
 936        text = expression.name
 937        lower = text.lower()
 938        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
 939        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
 940        if (
 941            expression.quoted
 942            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
 943            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
 944            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
 945        ):
 946            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
 947        return text
 948
 949    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
 950        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
 951        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
 952        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
 953        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
 954        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
 955
 956    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
 957        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
 958        return f"{prefix}{string}"
 959
 960    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
 961        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
 962
 963    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
 964        root_properties = []
 965        with_properties = []
 966
 967        for p in expression.expressions:
 968            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
 969            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
 970                with_properties.append(p)
 971            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
 972                root_properties.append(p)
 973
 974        return self.root_properties(
 975            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
 976        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
 977
 978    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
 979        if properties.expressions:
 980            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
 981        return ""
 982
 983    def properties(
 984        self,
 985        properties: exp.Properties,
 986        prefix: str = "",
 987        sep: str = ", ",
 988        suffix: str = "",
 989        wrapped: bool = True,
 990    ) -> str:
 991        if properties.expressions:
 992            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
 993            if expressions:
 994                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
 995                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
 996        return ""
 997
 998    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
 999        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1000
1001    def locate_properties(
1002        self, properties: exp.Properties
1003    ) -> t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]:
1004        properties_locs: t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]] = {
1005            key: [] for key in exp.Properties.Location
1006        }
1007
1008        for p in properties.expressions:
1009            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1010            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME:
1011                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME].append(p)
1012            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX:
1013                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX].append(p)
1014            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1015                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA].append(p)
1016            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1017                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH].append(p)
1018            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE:
1019                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE].append(p)
1020            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS:
1021                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS].append(p)
1022            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION:
1023                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION].append(p)
1024            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1025                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1026
1027        return properties_locs
1028
1029    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1030        property_cls = expression.__class__
1031        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1032            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1033
1034        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1035        if not property_name:
1036            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1037
1038        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1039
1040    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1041        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1042        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1043        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1044
1045    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1046        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1047        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1048        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1049
1050    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1051        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1052        local = expression.args.get("local")
1053        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1054        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1055        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1056        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1057        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1058
1059    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1060        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1061        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1062        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1063
1064    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1065        if expression.args.get("default"):
1066            property = "DEFAULT"
1067        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1068            property = "ON"
1069        else:
1070            property = "OFF"
1071        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1072
1073    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1074        if expression.args.get("no"):
1075            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1076        if expression.args.get("default"):
1077            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1078
1079        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1080        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1081
1082    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1083        default = expression.args.get("default")
1084        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1085        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1086        if default or minimum or maximum:
1087            if default:
1088                prop = "DEFAULT"
1089            elif minimum:
1090                prop = "MINIMUM"
1091            else:
1092                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1093            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1094        units = expression.args.get("units")
1095        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1096        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1097
1098    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1099        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1100        always = expression.args.get("always")
1101        default = expression.args.get("default")
1102        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1103        never = expression.args.get("never")
1104
1105        if autotemp is not None:
1106            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1107        elif always:
1108            prop = "ALWAYS"
1109        elif default:
1110            prop = "DEFAULT"
1111        elif manual:
1112            prop = "MANUAL"
1113        elif never:
1114            prop = "NEVER"
1115        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1116
1117    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1118        no = expression.args.get("no")
1119        no = " NO" if no else ""
1120        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1121        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1122
1123        for_ = ""
1124        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1125            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1126        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1127            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1128        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1129            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1130        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1131
1132    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1133        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1134        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1135        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1136        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1137        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1138        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1139
1140    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1141        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1142        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1143        statistics_sql = ""
1144        if statistics is not None:
1145            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1146        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1147
1148    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1149        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1150
1151        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1152            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1153        else:
1154            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1155
1156        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1157        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1158        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1159
1160        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1161
1162        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1163        partition_sql = (
1164            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1165        )
1166        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1167        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1168        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1169        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1170        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1171
1172        if self.RETURNING_END:
1173            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1174        else:
1175            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1176
1177        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1178        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1179
1180    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1181        return self.prepend_ctes(
1182            expression,
1183            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1184        )
1185
1186    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1187        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1188
1189    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1190        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1191
1192    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1193        return expression.name.upper()
1194
1195    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1196        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1197        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1198        if constraint:
1199            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1200        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1201        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1202        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1203        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1204        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1205        if expressions:
1206            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1207        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1208
1209    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1210        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1211
1212    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1213        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1214        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1215        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1216        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1217        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1218        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1219        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1220        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1221        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1222        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1223        null = expression.args.get("null")
1224        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1225        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1226
1227    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1228        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1229
1230    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1231        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1232        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1233        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1234        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1235
1236    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1237        table = ".".join(
1238            part
1239            for part in [
1240                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1241                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1242                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1243            ]
1244            if part
1245        )
1246
1247        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1248        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1249        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1250        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1251        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1252        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1253        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1254        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1255        system_time = expression.args.get("system_time")
1256        system_time = f" {self.sql(expression, 'system_time')}" if system_time else ""
1257
1258        return f"{table}{system_time}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
1259
1260    def tablesample_sql(
1261        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1262    ) -> str:
1263        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1264            table = expression.this.copy()
1265            table.set("alias", None)
1266            this = self.sql(table)
1267            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1268        else:
1269            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1270            alias = ""
1271        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1272        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1273        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1274        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1275        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1276        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1277        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1278        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1279        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1280        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1281        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1282        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1283        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1284            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1285        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1286        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1287        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1288        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
1289
1290    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1291        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1292
1293        if expression.this:
1294            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1295            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1296            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1297            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1298            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1299            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1300
1301        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1302        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1303        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1304        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1305        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1306        return f"{direction}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1307
1308    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1309        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1310
1311    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1312        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1313        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1314        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1315        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1316        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1317        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1318        if self.RETURNING_END:
1319            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}{limit}"
1320        else:
1321            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}{limit}"
1322        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}"
1323        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1324
1325    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1326        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1327        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1328            args = self.expressions(expression)
1329            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1330            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1331            values = (
1332                f"({values})"
1333                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1334                else values
1335            )
1336            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1337
1338        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1339        # Note: If you have a lot of unions then this will result in a large number of recursive statements to
1340        # evaluate the expression. You may need to increase `sys.setrecursionlimit` to run and it can also be
1341        # very slow.
1342        expression = expression.copy()
1343        column_names = expression.alias and expression.args["alias"].columns
1344
1345        selects = []
1346
1347        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1348            row = tup.expressions
1349
1350            if i == 0 and column_names:
1351                row = [
1352                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1353                ]
1354
1355            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1356
1357        subquery_expression: exp.Select | exp.Union = selects[0]
1358        if len(selects) > 1:
1359            for select in selects[1:]:
1360                subquery_expression = exp.union(
1361                    subquery_expression, select, distinct=False, copy=False
1362                )
1363
1364        return self.subquery_sql(subquery_expression.subquery(expression.alias, copy=False))
1365
1366    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1367        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1368
1369    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1370        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1371        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1372        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1373
1374    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1375        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1376
1377    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1378        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1379
1380        if expression.args.get("all"):
1381            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1382
1383        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1384        grouping_sets = (
1385            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1386        )
1387
1388        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1389        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1390            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1391        else:
1392            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1393            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1394
1395        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1396        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1397            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1398        else:
1399            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1400            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1401
1402        groupings = csv(
1403            grouping_sets,
1404            cube_sql,
1405            rollup_sql,
1406            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1407            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1408        )
1409
1410        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1411            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1412
1413        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1414
1415    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1416        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1417        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1418
1419    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1420        op_sql = " ".join(
1421            op
1422            for op in (
1423                expression.method,
1424                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1425                expression.side,
1426                expression.kind,
1427                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1428            )
1429            if op
1430        )
1431        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1432        using = expression.args.get("using")
1433
1434        if not on_sql and using:
1435            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1436
1437        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1438
1439        if on_sql:
1440            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1441            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1442            if using:
1443                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1444            else:
1445                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1446        elif not op_sql:
1447            return f", {this_sql}"
1448
1449        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1450        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1451
1452    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1453        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1454        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1455        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1456
1457    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1458        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1459
1460        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1461            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1462
1463        if expression.args.get("view"):
1464            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1465            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1466            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1467            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1468            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1469            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1470
1471        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1472        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1473        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1474
1475    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1476        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1477        args = ", ".join(
1478            sql
1479            for sql in (
1480                self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1481                self.sql(expression, "expression"),
1482            )
1483            if sql
1484        )
1485        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args}"
1486
1487    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1488        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1489        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1490
1491    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1492        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1493        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1494        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1495        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1496        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1497        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1498        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1499        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1500
1501    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1502        expressions = (
1503            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1504        )
1505        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1506        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1507
1508    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1509        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1510
1511    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1512        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1513            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1514            return ""
1515
1516        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1517        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1518        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1519        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1520
1521        if wait is not None:
1522            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1523                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1524            else:
1525                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1526
1527        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1528
1529    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1530        text = expression.this or ""
1531        if expression.is_string:
1532            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1533        return text
1534
1535    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1536        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1537        if self.ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK:
1538            text = text.replace("\n", "\\n")
1539        elif self.pretty:
1540            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1541        return text
1542
1543    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1544        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1545        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1546        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1547        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1548        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1549        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1550        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1551        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1552        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1553        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1554        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1555
1556    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1557        return "NULL"
1558
1559    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1560        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1561
1562    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1563        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1564        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1565        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1566
1567    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1568        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1569
1570    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1571        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1572
1573    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1574        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1575
1576    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1577        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1578        asc = not desc
1579
1580        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1581        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1582        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1583        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1584        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1585
1586        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1587        nulls_sort_change = ""
1588        if nulls_first and (
1589            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1590        ):
1591            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1592        elif (
1593            nulls_last
1594            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1595            and not nulls_are_last
1596        ):
1597            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1598
1599        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1600            self.unsupported(
1601                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1602            )
1603            nulls_sort_change = ""
1604
1605        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1606
1607    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1608        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1609        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1610        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1611        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1612        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1613        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1614        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1615        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1616        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1617        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1618        definition_sqls = [
1619            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1620            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1621        ]
1622        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1623        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1624        body = "".join(
1625            (
1626                partition,
1627                order,
1628                measures,
1629                rows,
1630                after,
1631                pattern,
1632                define,
1633            )
1634        )
1635        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1636        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1637        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1638
1639    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1640        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1641
1642        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1643        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1644
1645        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1646            limit = exp.Limit(expression=limit.args.get("count"))
1647        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1648            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=limit.expression)
1649
1650        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1651
1652        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1653            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1654            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1655            else []
1656        )
1657
1658        return csv(
1659            *sqls,
1660            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1661            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1662            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1663            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1664            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1665            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1666            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1667            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1668            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1669            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1670            sep="",
1671        )
1672
1673    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1674        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1675    ) -> t.List[str]:
1676        return [
1677            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1678            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1679        ]
1680
1681    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1682        return [
1683            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1684            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1685            if expression.args.get("windows")
1686            else "",
1687            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1688            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1689            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1690        ]
1691
1692    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1693        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1694        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1695        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1696
1697    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1698        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1699        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1700        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1701        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1702        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1703        top = (
1704            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1705            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1706            else ""
1707        )
1708
1709        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1710
1711        if kind:
1712            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1713                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1714            else:
1715                if kind == "STRUCT":
1716                    expressions = self.expressions(
1717                        sqls=[
1718                            self.sql(
1719                                exp.Struct(
1720                                    expressions=[
1721                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1722                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1723                                        )
1724                                        for e in expression.expressions
1725                                    ]
1726                                )
1727                            )
1728                        ]
1729                    )
1730                kind = ""
1731
1732        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1733        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1734            expression,
1735            f"SELECT{top}{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1736            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1737            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1738        )
1739        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1740
1741    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1742        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1743        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1744        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1745        return f"{this}{sql}"
1746
1747    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1748        return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1749
1750    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1751        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1752        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1753        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1754        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1755        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
1756
1757    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1758        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1759        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1760        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
1761
1762    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1763        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1764        kind = expression.text("kind")
1765        if kind:
1766            kind = f"{kind}."
1767        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
1768
1769    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1770        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
1771
1772    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1773        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1774        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1775
1776        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1777        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1778
1779        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1780        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1781
1782    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1783        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1784        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1785
1786    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1787        return self.prepend_ctes(
1788            expression,
1789            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1790        )
1791
1792    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1793        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1794        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1795        return f"UNION{kind}"
1796
1797    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1798        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1799        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1800        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1801            columns = alias.columns
1802            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1803        else:
1804            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1805        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1806        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1807        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1808        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1809        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
1810
1811    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1812        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1813        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1814
1815    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1816        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1817        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1818        order = expression.args.get("order")
1819        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1820        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1821        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1822        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1823
1824        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1825
1826        first = expression.args.get("first")
1827        if first is None:
1828            first = ""
1829        else:
1830            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1831
1832        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1833            return f"{this} {alias}"
1834
1835        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1836        return f"{this} ({args})"
1837
1838    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1839        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1840        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
1841
1842    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1843        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1844        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1845        end = (
1846            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1847            or "CURRENT ROW"
1848        )
1849        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
1850
1851    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1852        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1853        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1854        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
1855
1856    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1857        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1858        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1859        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1860        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
1861
1862    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1863        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
1864        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1865
1866        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
1867
1868    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
1869        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
1870
1871    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1872        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
1873
1874    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1875        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1876        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1877            this = self.wrap(this)
1878        return f"ANY {this}"
1879
1880    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1881        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
1882
1883    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1884        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1885        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1886
1887        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1888            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1889            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1890
1891        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1892
1893        if default:
1894            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1895
1896        statements.append("END")
1897
1898        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
1899            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1900
1901        return " ".join(statements)
1902
1903    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1904        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1905        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1906        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
1907
1908    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1909        order = expression.args.get("order")
1910        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1911        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
1912
1913    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1914        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1915        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1916        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
1917
1918    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1919        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1920
1921        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1922            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1923        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1924            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1925        else:
1926            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
1927
1928    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
1929        expressions = expression.expressions
1930        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
1931            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
1932        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
1933
1934    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1935        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1936        return f"CHECK ({this})"
1937
1938    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1939        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1940        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1941        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1942        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
1943        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
1944        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
1945        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
1946        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
1947
1948    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1949        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1950        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1951        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1952        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
1953
1954    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
1955        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
1956
1957    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1958        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
1959        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
1960        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
1961
1962    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1963        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1964
1965    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
1966        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
1967        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
1968        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
1969        if unique_keys is not None:
1970            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
1971        else:
1972            unique_keys = ""
1973        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
1974        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
1975        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
1976        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
1977        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
1978        return self.func(
1979            "JSON_OBJECT",
1980            *expression.expressions,
1981            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})",
1982        )
1983
1984    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
1985        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1986        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1987        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1988        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
1989        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
1990        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
1991
1992    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
1993        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1994        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1995        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
1996        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1997        with_ = (
1998            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1999            if expressions
2000            else ""
2001        )
2002        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2003
2004    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2005        query = expression.args.get("query")
2006        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2007        field = expression.args.get("field")
2008        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2009
2010        if query:
2011            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2012        elif unnest:
2013            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2014        elif field:
2015            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2016        else:
2017            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2018
2019        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2020
2021    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2022        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2023
2024    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2025        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2026        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2027            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
2028        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2029
2030        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2031            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2032            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2033
2034        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2035        if this:
2036            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2037            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2038
2039        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2040
2041    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2042        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2043
2044    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2045        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2046        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2047        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2048        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2049        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2050        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2051
2052    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2053        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
2054
2055    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2056        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2057            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2058        else:
2059            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2060            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2061
2062        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2063
2064    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2065        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2066        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2067        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2068        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2069
2070    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2071        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2072
2073    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2074        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2075        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2076        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2077
2078    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2079        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2080
2081    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2082        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2083        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2084        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2085
2086    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2087        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2088
2089    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2090        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
2091
2092    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2093        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
2094
2095    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2096        if not self.pretty:
2097            return self.binary(expression, op)
2098
2099        sqls = tuple(
2100            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2101            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2102        )
2103
2104        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2105        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
2106
2107    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2108        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2109
2110    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2111        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2112
2113    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2114        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2115
2116    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2117        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2118
2119    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2120        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2121
2122    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2123        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2124
2125    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2126        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2127        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2128        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')}{format_sql})"
2129
2130    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2131        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2132        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2133
2134    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2135        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2136
2137    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2138        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2139
2140    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2141        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2142        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2143        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2144        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2145        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2146
2147    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2148        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2149        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2150        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2151        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2152        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2153        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2154        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2155        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2156        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2157
2158    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2159        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2160        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2161        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2162        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2163
2164        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2165            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2166
2167        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2168
2169    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2170        return "BEGIN"
2171
2172    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2173        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2174        if chain is not None:
2175            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2176
2177        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2178
2179    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2180        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2181        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2182        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2183
2184    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2185        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2186
2187        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2188        if dtype:
2189            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2190            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2191            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2192            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2193            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2194
2195        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2196        if default:
2197            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2198
2199        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2200            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2201
2202        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2203
2204    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2205        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2206            # Remove db from tables
2207            expression = expression.transform(
2208                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2209            )
2210        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2211        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2212
2213    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2214        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2215
2216        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2217            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMN ")
2218        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2219            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2220        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2221            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2222        else:
2223            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2224
2225        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2226        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2227
2228    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2229        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2230        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2231        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2232
2233    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2234        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2235        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2236        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2237
2238        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2239        if enforced is not None:
2240            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2241
2242        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2243
2244    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2245        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2246        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2247
2248        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2249        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2250        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2251
2252    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2253        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2254
2255    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2256        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2257
2258    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2259        return self.sql(
2260            exp.Cast(
2261                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2262                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2263            )
2264        )
2265
2266    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2267        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2268
2269    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2270        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2271            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2272        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
2273
2274    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2275        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2276
2277    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2278        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2279
2280    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2281        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2282
2283    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2284        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2285
2286    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2287        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2288
2289    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2290        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2291
2292    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2293        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2294
2295    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2296        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2297
2298    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2299        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2300
2301    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2302        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2303
2304    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2305        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2306
2307    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2308        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2309            return self.sql(
2310                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2311            )
2312        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2313
2314    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2315        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2316
2317    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2318        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2319
2320    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2321        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2322
2323    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2324        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2325
2326    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2327        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2328
2329    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2330        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2331
2332    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2333        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2334
2335    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2336        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2337
2338    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2339        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2340
2341    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2342        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2343
2344    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2345        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2346
2347    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2348        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2349
2350    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2351        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2352
2353    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2354        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
2355
2356    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2357        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2358        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2359        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2360        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2361        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2362
2363    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2364        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2365        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2366
2367    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2368        args = []
2369
2370        for key in expression.arg_types:
2371            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2372
2373            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2374                for value in arg_value:
2375                    args.append(value)
2376            elif arg_value is not None:
2377                args.append(arg_value)
2378
2379        return self.func(expression.sql_name(), *args)
2380
2381    def func(
2382        self,
2383        name: str,
2384        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2385        prefix: str = "(",
2386        suffix: str = ")",
2387    ) -> str:
2388        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2389
2390    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2391        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2392        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2393            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2394        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2395
2396    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2397        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2398
2399    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2400        return format_time(
2401            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2402        )
2403
2404    def expressions(
2405        self,
2406        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2407        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2408        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2409        flat: bool = False,
2410        indent: bool = True,
2411        skip_first: bool = False,
2412        sep: str = ", ",
2413        prefix: str = "",
2414    ) -> str:
2415        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2416
2417        if not expressions:
2418            return ""
2419
2420        if flat:
2421            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2422
2423        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2424
2425        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2426        pad = " " * self.pad
2427        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2428
2429        result_sqls = []
2430        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2431            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2432            if not sql:
2433                continue
2434
2435            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2436
2437            if self.pretty:
2438                if self.leading_comma:
2439                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2440                else:
2441                    result_sqls.append(
2442                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2443                    )
2444            else:
2445                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2446
2447        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2448        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
2449
2450    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2451        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2452        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2453        if flat:
2454            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2455        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2456
2457    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2458        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2459        if not property_name:
2460            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2461        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2462
2463    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2464        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2465        op = self.seg(op)
2466        return self.query_modifiers(
2467            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2468        )
2469
2470    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2471        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2472
2473    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2474        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2475
2476    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2477        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2478        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2479        expressions = (
2480            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2481        )
2482        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2483
2484    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2485        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2486        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2487        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2488
2489    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2490        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2491
2492    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2493        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2494        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2495        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2496        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2497
2498        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2499        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2500            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2501            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2502                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2503        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2504            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2505                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2506            else:
2507                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2508        else:
2509            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2510        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2511
2512    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2513        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2514        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2515        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2516        return f"MERGE INTO {this} {using} {on} {self.expressions(expression, sep=' ')}"
2517
2518    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2519        if expression.args.get("format"):
2520            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2521
2522        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2523
2524    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2525        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2526        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2527        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2528        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2529        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2530
2531    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2532        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2533        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2534        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2535        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2536
2537    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2538        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
2539
2540    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2541        return ""
2542
2543    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2544        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2545        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2546        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2547        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2548        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
2549
2550    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2551        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2552        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2553
2554        if having:
2555            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2556
2557        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
2558
2559    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2560        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2561        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2562        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2563        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2564        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2565        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2566        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2567        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2568        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2569        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2570        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2571        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
2572        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
2573
2574    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2575        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
2576        if key_block_size:
2577            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
2578
2579        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2580        if using:
2581            return f"USING {using}"
2582
2583        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
2584        if parser:
2585            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
2586
2587        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2588        if comment:
2589            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
2590
2591        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
2592        if visible is not None:
2593            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
2594
2595        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
2596        if engine_attr:
2597            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
2598
2599        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
2600        if secondary_engine_attr:
2601            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
2602
2603        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
2604        return ""
2605
2606    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2607        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2608        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
2609        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2610        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2611        type_ = self.sql(expression, "type")
2612        type_ = f" USING {type_}" if type_ else ""
2613        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2614        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
2615        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
2616        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2617        return f"{kind}{this}{type_}{schema}{options}"
2618
2619
2620def cached_generator(
2621    cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
2622) -> t.Callable[[exp.Expression], str]:
2623    """Returns a cached generator."""
2624    cache = {} if cache is None else cache
2625    generator = Generator(normalize=True, identify="safe")
2626    return lambda e: generator.generate(e, cache)
logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
class Generator:
  16class Generator:
  17    """
  18    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  19
  20    Args:
  21        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  22            Default: False.
  23        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  24            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  25            True or 'always': Always quote.
  26            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  27        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  28            Default: False.
  29        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  30            Default: 2.
  31        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  32            Default: 2.
  33        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  34            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  35            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  36            False: Disables function name normalization.
  37        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  38            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  39        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  40            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  41            Default: 3
  42        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  43            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  44            Default: False
  45        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  46            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  47            line length.
  48            Default: 80
  49        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  50            Default: True
  51    """
  52
  53    TRANSFORMS = {
  54        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  55            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  56        ),
  57        exp.TsOrDsAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  58            "TS_OR_DS_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  59        ),
  60        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  61        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  62        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  63        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  64        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  65        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  66        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  67        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  68        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  69        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  70        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  71        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  72        exp.HeapProperty: lambda self, e: "HEAP",
  73        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  74        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  75        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  76        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  77        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  78        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  79        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  80        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  81        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  82        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  83        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  84        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  85        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
  86        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
  87        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
  88        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
  89        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
  90        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
  92        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
  93        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
  94        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  95    }
  96
  97    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
  98    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
  99
 100    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 101    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 102
 103    # Always do union distinct or union all
 104    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 105
 106    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 107    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 108
 109    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 110    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 111
 112    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 113    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 114
 115    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 116    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 117
 118    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 119    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 120
 121    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 122    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 123
 124    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 125    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 126
 127    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 128    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 129
 130    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 131    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 132
 133    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 134    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 135
 136    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 137    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 138
 139    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 140    JOIN_HINTS = True
 141
 142    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 143    TABLE_HINTS = True
 144
 145    # Whether or not query hints should be generated
 146    QUERY_HINTS = True
 147
 148    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 149    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 150
 151    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 152    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 153
 154    # Whether or not to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 155    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 156
 157    # Whether or not to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 158    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 159
 160    # Whether or not to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 161    RETURNING_END = True
 162
 163    # Whether or not to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 164    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 165
 166    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 167    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 168
 169    # Whether or not VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 170    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 171    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 172    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 173
 174    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 175        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 176        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 177        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 178        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 179        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 180        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 181        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 182    }
 183
 184    STAR_MAPPING = {
 185        "except": "EXCEPT",
 186        "replace": "REPLACE",
 187    }
 188
 189    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 190        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 191        "seconds": "second",
 192        "minutes": "minute",
 193        "hours": "hour",
 194        "days": "day",
 195        "weeks": "week",
 196        "months": "month",
 197        "quarters": "quarter",
 198        "years": "year",
 199    }
 200
 201    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 202
 203    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 204
 205    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 206
 207    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 208        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 209        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 210        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 211        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 212        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 213        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 214        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 215        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 216        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 217        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 218        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 219        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 220        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 221        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 222        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 223        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 224        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 225        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 226        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 227        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 228        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 229        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 230        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 231        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 232        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 233        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 234        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 235        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 236        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 237        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 238        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 239        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 240        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 241        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 242        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 243        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 244        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 245        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 246        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 247        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 248        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 249        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 250        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 251        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 252        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 253        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 254        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 255        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 256        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 257        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 258        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 259        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 260        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 261        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 262        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 263        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 264    }
 265
 266    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 267    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 268
 269    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 270    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 271        exp.Delete,
 272        exp.Drop,
 273        exp.From,
 274        exp.Insert,
 275        exp.Select,
 276        exp.Update,
 277        exp.Where,
 278        exp.With,
 279    )
 280
 281    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 282    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 283        exp.Column,
 284        exp.Literal,
 285        exp.Neg,
 286        exp.Paren,
 287    )
 288
 289    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 290
 291    # Autofilled
 292    INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 293    INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: t.Dict = {}
 294    INDEX_OFFSET = 0
 295    UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
 296    ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
 297    IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
 298    STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
 299    NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = "upper"
 300    NULL_ORDERING = "nulls_are_small"
 301    ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK = False
 302
 303    can_identify: t.Callable[[str, str | bool], bool]
 304
 305    # Delimiters for quotes, identifiers and the corresponding escape characters
 306    QUOTE_START = "'"
 307    QUOTE_END = "'"
 308    IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
 309    IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
 310    STRING_ESCAPE = "'"
 311    IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE = '"'
 312
 313    # Delimiters for bit, hex, byte and raw literals
 314    BIT_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 315    BIT_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 316    HEX_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 317    HEX_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 318    BYTE_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 319    BYTE_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 320
 321    __slots__ = (
 322        "pretty",
 323        "identify",
 324        "normalize",
 325        "pad",
 326        "_indent",
 327        "normalize_functions",
 328        "unsupported_level",
 329        "max_unsupported",
 330        "leading_comma",
 331        "max_text_width",
 332        "comments",
 333        "unsupported_messages",
 334        "_escaped_quote_end",
 335        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 336        "_cache",
 337    )
 338
 339    def __init__(
 340        self,
 341        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 342        identify: str | bool = False,
 343        normalize: bool = False,
 344        pad: int = 2,
 345        indent: int = 2,
 346        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 347        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 348        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 349        leading_comma: bool = False,
 350        max_text_width: int = 80,
 351        comments: bool = True,
 352    ):
 353        import sqlglot
 354
 355        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 356        self.identify = identify
 357        self.normalize = normalize
 358        self.pad = pad
 359        self._indent = indent
 360        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 361        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 362        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 363        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 364        self.comments = comments
 365
 366        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 367        self.normalize_functions = (
 368            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 369        )
 370
 371        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 372        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.STRING_ESCAPE + self.QUOTE_END
 373        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = self.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE + self.IDENTIFIER_END
 374        self._cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
 375
 376    def generate(
 377        self,
 378        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
 379        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
 380    ) -> str:
 381        """
 382        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 383
 384        Args:
 385            expression: The syntax tree.
 386            cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression
 387                which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
 388
 389        Returns:
 390            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 391        """
 392        if cache is not None:
 393            self._cache = cache
 394
 395        self.unsupported_messages = []
 396        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 397        self._cache = None
 398
 399        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 400            return sql
 401
 402        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 403            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 404                logger.warning(msg)
 405        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 406            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 407
 408        if self.pretty:
 409            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 410        return sql
 411
 412    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 413        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 414            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 415        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 416
 417    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 418        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 419
 420    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 421        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 422
 423    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 424        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 425        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 426        return comment
 427
 428    def maybe_comment(
 429        self,
 430        sql: str,
 431        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 432        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 433    ) -> str:
 434        comments = (
 435            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 436            if self.comments
 437            else None
 438        )
 439
 440        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
 441            return sql
 442
 443        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
 444        comments_sql = sep.join(
 445            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 446        )
 447
 448        if not comments_sql:
 449            return sql
 450
 451        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 452            return (
 453                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 454                if sql[0].isspace()
 455                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 456            )
 457
 458        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 459
 460    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 461        this_sql = self.indent(
 462            self.sql(expression)
 463            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 464            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 465            level=1,
 466            pad=0,
 467        )
 468        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 469
 470    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 471        original = self.identify
 472        self.identify = False
 473        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 474        self.identify = original
 475        return result
 476
 477    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 478        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 479            return name.upper()
 480        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 481            return name.lower()
 482        return name
 483
 484    def indent(
 485        self,
 486        sql: str,
 487        level: int = 0,
 488        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 489        skip_first: bool = False,
 490        skip_last: bool = False,
 491    ) -> str:
 492        if not self.pretty:
 493            return sql
 494
 495        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 496        lines = sql.split("\n")
 497
 498        return "\n".join(
 499            line
 500            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 501            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 502            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 503        )
 504
 505    def sql(
 506        self,
 507        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 508        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 509        comment: bool = True,
 510    ) -> str:
 511        if not expression:
 512            return ""
 513
 514        if isinstance(expression, str):
 515            return expression
 516
 517        if key:
 518            value = expression.args.get(key)
 519            if value:
 520                return self.sql(value)
 521            return ""
 522
 523        if self._cache is not None:
 524            expression_id = hash(expression)
 525
 526            if expression_id in self._cache:
 527                return self._cache[expression_id]
 528
 529        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 530
 531        if callable(transform):
 532            sql = transform(self, expression)
 533        elif transform:
 534            sql = transform
 535        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 536            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 537
 538            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 539                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 540            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 541                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 542            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 543                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 544            else:
 545                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 546        else:
 547            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 548
 549        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 550
 551        if self._cache is not None:
 552            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
 553        return sql
 554
 555    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 556        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 557        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 558        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 559
 560    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 561        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 562        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 563        options = expression.args.get("options")
 564        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 565        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 566        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 567        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 568        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 569
 570    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 571        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 572            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 573        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 574        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 575
 576    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 577        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 578
 579        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 580            join_mark = ""
 581            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 582
 583        column = ".".join(
 584            self.sql(part)
 585            for part in (
 586                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 587                expression.args.get("db"),
 588                expression.args.get("table"),
 589                expression.args.get("this"),
 590            )
 591            if part
 592        )
 593
 594        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 595
 596    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 597        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 598        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 599        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 600        return f"{position}{this}"
 601
 602    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 603        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 604        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 605        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 606        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 607        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 608        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 609        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 610        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 611
 612        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 613
 614    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 615        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 616        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 617        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 618
 619    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 620        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 621
 622    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 623        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 624            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 625        else:
 626            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 627
 628        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 629
 630    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 631        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 632    ) -> str:
 633        this = ""
 634        if expression.this is not None:
 635            on_null = "ON NULL " if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 636            this = " ALWAYS " if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT {on_null}"
 637
 638        start = expression.args.get("start")
 639        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 640        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 641        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 642        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 643        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 644        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 645        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 646        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 647        cycle_sql = ""
 648
 649        if cycle is not None:
 650            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 651            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 652
 653        sequence_opts = ""
 654        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 655            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 656            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 657
 658        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 659        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 660
 661        return f"GENERATED{this}AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 662
 663    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 664        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 665
 666    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 667        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 668        if desc is not None:
 669            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 670        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 671
 672    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 673        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 674        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 675        return f"UNIQUE{this}"
 676
 677    def createable_sql(
 678        self, expression: exp.Create, locations: dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]
 679    ) -> str:
 680        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 681
 682    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 683        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 684        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 685        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else {}
 686
 687        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 688
 689        properties_sql = ""
 690        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 691            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 692        ):
 693            properties_sql = self.sql(
 694                exp.Properties(
 695                    expressions=[
 696                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 697                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 698                    ]
 699                )
 700            )
 701
 702        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 703        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 704        if expression_sql:
 705            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
 706
 707            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 708                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 709                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 710                        exp.Properties(
 711                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 712                        ),
 713                        wrapped=False,
 714                    )
 715                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 716                else:
 717                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 718
 719        postindex_props_sql = ""
 720        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 721            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 722                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 723                wrapped=False,
 724                prefix=" ",
 725            )
 726
 727        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 728        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 729        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 730
 731        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 732        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 733
 734        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 735        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 736            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 737                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 738                sep=" ",
 739                prefix=" ",
 740                wrapped=False,
 741            )
 742
 743        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 744
 745        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 746        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 747            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 748                exp.Properties(
 749                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 750                ),
 751                sep=" ",
 752                prefix=" ",
 753                wrapped=False,
 754            )
 755
 756        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 757        no_schema_binding = (
 758            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 759        )
 760
 761        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 762        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 763
 764        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 765        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 766
 767    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 768        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 769        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 770
 771        if when:
 772            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 773            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 774            return f"CLONE {this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 775
 776        return f"CLONE {this}"
 777
 778    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 779        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 780
 781    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 782        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 783        if with_:
 784            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 785        return sql
 786
 787    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 788        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 789        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
 790
 791        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 792
 793    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 794        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 795        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 796
 797    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 798        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 799        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 800        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 801        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 802
 803    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 804        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 805        if self.BIT_START:
 806            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
 807        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 808
 809    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 810        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 811        if self.HEX_START:
 812            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
 813        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 814
 815    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 816        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 817        if self.BYTE_START:
 818            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
 819        return this
 820
 821    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 822        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
 823        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
 824
 825    def datatypesize_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeSize) -> str:
 826        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 827        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 828        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
 829        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 830
 831    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 832        type_value = expression.this
 833        type_sql = (
 834            self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 835            if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
 836            else type_value
 837        )
 838        nested = ""
 839        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 840        values = ""
 841        if interior:
 842            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 843                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 844                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 845                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 846                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 847                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 848            else:
 849                nested = f"({interior})"
 850
 851        return f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 852
 853    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 854        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 855        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 856        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 857        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
 858
 859    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 860        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 861        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 862        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 863        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
 864        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
 865        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
 866        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
 867        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
 868        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
 869        if self.RETURNING_END:
 870            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
 871        else:
 872            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
 873        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
 874
 875    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
 876        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 877        kind = expression.args["kind"]
 878        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
 879        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
 880        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
 881        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
 882        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
 883        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
 884        return (
 885            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
 886        )
 887
 888    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 889        return self.prepend_ctes(
 890            expression,
 891            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
 892        )
 893
 894    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 895        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
 896
 897    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
 898        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
 899        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
 900        count = expression.args.get("count")
 901        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
 902        if expression.args.get("percent"):
 903            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
 904        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
 905        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
 906
 907    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
 908        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 909        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
 910        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
 911
 912    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
 913        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
 914            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
 915            return ""
 916
 917        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
 918
 919    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
 920        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 921        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
 922        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
 923        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
 924        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
 925        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
 926        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table} " if table else ""
 927        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 928        using = f"USING {using} " if using else ""
 929        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
 930        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 931        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 932        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
 933        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
 934        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}"
 935
 936    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
 937        text = expression.name
 938        lower = text.lower()
 939        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
 940        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
 941        if (
 942            expression.quoted
 943            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
 944            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
 945            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
 946        ):
 947            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
 948        return text
 949
 950    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
 951        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
 952        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
 953        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
 954        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
 955        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
 956
 957    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
 958        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
 959        return f"{prefix}{string}"
 960
 961    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
 962        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
 963
 964    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
 965        root_properties = []
 966        with_properties = []
 967
 968        for p in expression.expressions:
 969            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
 970            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
 971                with_properties.append(p)
 972            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
 973                root_properties.append(p)
 974
 975        return self.root_properties(
 976            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
 977        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
 978
 979    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
 980        if properties.expressions:
 981            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
 982        return ""
 983
 984    def properties(
 985        self,
 986        properties: exp.Properties,
 987        prefix: str = "",
 988        sep: str = ", ",
 989        suffix: str = "",
 990        wrapped: bool = True,
 991    ) -> str:
 992        if properties.expressions:
 993            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
 994            if expressions:
 995                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
 996                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
 997        return ""
 998
 999    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1000        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1001
1002    def locate_properties(
1003        self, properties: exp.Properties
1004    ) -> t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]:
1005        properties_locs: t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]] = {
1006            key: [] for key in exp.Properties.Location
1007        }
1008
1009        for p in properties.expressions:
1010            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1011            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME:
1012                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME].append(p)
1013            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX:
1014                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX].append(p)
1015            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1016                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA].append(p)
1017            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1018                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH].append(p)
1019            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE:
1020                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE].append(p)
1021            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS:
1022                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS].append(p)
1023            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION:
1024                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION].append(p)
1025            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1026                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1027
1028        return properties_locs
1029
1030    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1031        property_cls = expression.__class__
1032        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1033            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1034
1035        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1036        if not property_name:
1037            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1038
1039        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1040
1041    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1042        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1043        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1044        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1045
1046    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1047        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1048        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1049        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1050
1051    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1052        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1053        local = expression.args.get("local")
1054        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1055        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1056        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1057        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1058        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1059
1060    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1061        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1062        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1063        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1064
1065    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1066        if expression.args.get("default"):
1067            property = "DEFAULT"
1068        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1069            property = "ON"
1070        else:
1071            property = "OFF"
1072        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1073
1074    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1075        if expression.args.get("no"):
1076            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1077        if expression.args.get("default"):
1078            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1079
1080        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1081        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1082
1083    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1084        default = expression.args.get("default")
1085        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1086        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1087        if default or minimum or maximum:
1088            if default:
1089                prop = "DEFAULT"
1090            elif minimum:
1091                prop = "MINIMUM"
1092            else:
1093                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1094            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1095        units = expression.args.get("units")
1096        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1097        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1098
1099    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1100        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1101        always = expression.args.get("always")
1102        default = expression.args.get("default")
1103        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1104        never = expression.args.get("never")
1105
1106        if autotemp is not None:
1107            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1108        elif always:
1109            prop = "ALWAYS"
1110        elif default:
1111            prop = "DEFAULT"
1112        elif manual:
1113            prop = "MANUAL"
1114        elif never:
1115            prop = "NEVER"
1116        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1117
1118    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1119        no = expression.args.get("no")
1120        no = " NO" if no else ""
1121        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1122        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1123
1124        for_ = ""
1125        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1126            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1127        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1128            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1129        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1130            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1131        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1132
1133    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1134        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1135        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1136        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1137        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1138        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1139        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1140
1141    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1142        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1143        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1144        statistics_sql = ""
1145        if statistics is not None:
1146            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1147        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1148
1149    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1150        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1151
1152        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1153            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1154        else:
1155            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1156
1157        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1158        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1159        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1160
1161        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1162
1163        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1164        partition_sql = (
1165            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1166        )
1167        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1168        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1169        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1170        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1171        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1172
1173        if self.RETURNING_END:
1174            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1175        else:
1176            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1177
1178        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1179        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1180
1181    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1182        return self.prepend_ctes(
1183            expression,
1184            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1185        )
1186
1187    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1188        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1189
1190    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1191        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1192
1193    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1194        return expression.name.upper()
1195
1196    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1197        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1198        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1199        if constraint:
1200            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1201        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1202        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1203        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1204        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1205        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1206        if expressions:
1207            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1208        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1209
1210    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1211        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1212
1213    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1214        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1215        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1216        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1217        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1218        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1219        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1220        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1221        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1222        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1223        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1224        null = expression.args.get("null")
1225        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1226        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1227
1228    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1229        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1230
1231    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1232        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1233        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1234        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1235        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1236
1237    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1238        table = ".".join(
1239            part
1240            for part in [
1241                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1242                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1243                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1244            ]
1245            if part
1246        )
1247
1248        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1249        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1250        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1251        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1252        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1253        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1254        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1255        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1256        system_time = expression.args.get("system_time")
1257        system_time = f" {self.sql(expression, 'system_time')}" if system_time else ""
1258
1259        return f"{table}{system_time}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
1260
1261    def tablesample_sql(
1262        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1263    ) -> str:
1264        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1265            table = expression.this.copy()
1266            table.set("alias", None)
1267            this = self.sql(table)
1268            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1269        else:
1270            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1271            alias = ""
1272        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1273        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1274        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1275        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1276        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1277        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1278        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1279        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1280        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1281        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1282        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1283        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1284        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1285            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1286        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1287        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1288        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1289        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
1290
1291    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1292        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1293
1294        if expression.this:
1295            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1296            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1297            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1298            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1299            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1300            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1301
1302        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1303        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1304        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1305        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1306        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1307        return f"{direction}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1308
1309    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1310        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1311
1312    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1313        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1314        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1315        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1316        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1317        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1318        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1319        if self.RETURNING_END:
1320            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}{limit}"
1321        else:
1322            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}{limit}"
1323        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}"
1324        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1325
1326    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1327        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1328        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1329            args = self.expressions(expression)
1330            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1331            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1332            values = (
1333                f"({values})"
1334                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1335                else values
1336            )
1337            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1338
1339        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1340        # Note: If you have a lot of unions then this will result in a large number of recursive statements to
1341        # evaluate the expression. You may need to increase `sys.setrecursionlimit` to run and it can also be
1342        # very slow.
1343        expression = expression.copy()
1344        column_names = expression.alias and expression.args["alias"].columns
1345
1346        selects = []
1347
1348        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1349            row = tup.expressions
1350
1351            if i == 0 and column_names:
1352                row = [
1353                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1354                ]
1355
1356            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1357
1358        subquery_expression: exp.Select | exp.Union = selects[0]
1359        if len(selects) > 1:
1360            for select in selects[1:]:
1361                subquery_expression = exp.union(
1362                    subquery_expression, select, distinct=False, copy=False
1363                )
1364
1365        return self.subquery_sql(subquery_expression.subquery(expression.alias, copy=False))
1366
1367    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1368        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1369
1370    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1371        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1372        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1373        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1374
1375    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1376        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1377
1378    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1379        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1380
1381        if expression.args.get("all"):
1382            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1383
1384        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1385        grouping_sets = (
1386            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1387        )
1388
1389        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1390        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1391            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1392        else:
1393            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1394            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1395
1396        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1397        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1398            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1399        else:
1400            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1401            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1402
1403        groupings = csv(
1404            grouping_sets,
1405            cube_sql,
1406            rollup_sql,
1407            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1408            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1409        )
1410
1411        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1412            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1413
1414        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1415
1416    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1417        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1418        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1419
1420    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1421        op_sql = " ".join(
1422            op
1423            for op in (
1424                expression.method,
1425                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1426                expression.side,
1427                expression.kind,
1428                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1429            )
1430            if op
1431        )
1432        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1433        using = expression.args.get("using")
1434
1435        if not on_sql and using:
1436            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1437
1438        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1439
1440        if on_sql:
1441            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1442            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1443            if using:
1444                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1445            else:
1446                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1447        elif not op_sql:
1448            return f", {this_sql}"
1449
1450        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1451        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1452
1453    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1454        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1455        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1456        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1457
1458    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1459        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1460
1461        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1462            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1463
1464        if expression.args.get("view"):
1465            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1466            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1467            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1468            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1469            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1470            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1471
1472        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1473        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1474        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1475
1476    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1477        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1478        args = ", ".join(
1479            sql
1480            for sql in (
1481                self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1482                self.sql(expression, "expression"),
1483            )
1484            if sql
1485        )
1486        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args}"
1487
1488    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1489        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1490        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1491
1492    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1493        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1494        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1495        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1496        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1497        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1498        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1499        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1500        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1501
1502    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1503        expressions = (
1504            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1505        )
1506        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1507        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1508
1509    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1510        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1511
1512    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1513        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1514            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1515            return ""
1516
1517        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1518        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1519        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1520        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1521
1522        if wait is not None:
1523            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1524                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1525            else:
1526                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1527
1528        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1529
1530    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1531        text = expression.this or ""
1532        if expression.is_string:
1533            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1534        return text
1535
1536    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1537        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1538        if self.ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK:
1539            text = text.replace("\n", "\\n")
1540        elif self.pretty:
1541            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1542        return text
1543
1544    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1545        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1546        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1547        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1548        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1549        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1550        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1551        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1552        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1553        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1554        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1555        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1556
1557    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1558        return "NULL"
1559
1560    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1561        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1562
1563    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1564        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1565        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1566        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1567
1568    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1569        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1570
1571    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1572        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1573
1574    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1575        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1576
1577    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1578        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1579        asc = not desc
1580
1581        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1582        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1583        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1584        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1585        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1586
1587        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1588        nulls_sort_change = ""
1589        if nulls_first and (
1590            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1591        ):
1592            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1593        elif (
1594            nulls_last
1595            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1596            and not nulls_are_last
1597        ):
1598            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1599
1600        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1601            self.unsupported(
1602                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1603            )
1604            nulls_sort_change = ""
1605
1606        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1607
1608    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1609        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1610        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1611        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1612        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1613        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1614        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1615        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1616        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1617        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1618        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1619        definition_sqls = [
1620            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1621            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1622        ]
1623        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1624        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1625        body = "".join(
1626            (
1627                partition,
1628                order,
1629                measures,
1630                rows,
1631                after,
1632                pattern,
1633                define,
1634            )
1635        )
1636        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1637        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1638        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1639
1640    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1641        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1642
1643        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1644        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1645
1646        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1647            limit = exp.Limit(expression=limit.args.get("count"))
1648        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1649            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=limit.expression)
1650
1651        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1652
1653        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1654            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1655            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1656            else []
1657        )
1658
1659        return csv(
1660            *sqls,
1661            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1662            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1663            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1664            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1665            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1666            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1667            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1668            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1669            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1670            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1671            sep="",
1672        )
1673
1674    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1675        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1676    ) -> t.List[str]:
1677        return [
1678            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1679            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1680        ]
1681
1682    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1683        return [
1684            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1685            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1686            if expression.args.get("windows")
1687            else "",
1688            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1689            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1690            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1691        ]
1692
1693    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1694        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1695        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1696        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1697
1698    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1699        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1700        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1701        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1702        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1703        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1704        top = (
1705            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1706            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1707            else ""
1708        )
1709
1710        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1711
1712        if kind:
1713            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1714                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1715            else:
1716                if kind == "STRUCT":
1717                    expressions = self.expressions(
1718                        sqls=[
1719                            self.sql(
1720                                exp.Struct(
1721                                    expressions=[
1722                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1723                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1724                                        )
1725                                        for e in expression.expressions
1726                                    ]
1727                                )
1728                            )
1729                        ]
1730                    )
1731                kind = ""
1732
1733        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1734        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1735            expression,
1736            f"SELECT{top}{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1737            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1738            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1739        )
1740        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1741
1742    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1743        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1744        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1745        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1746        return f"{this}{sql}"
1747
1748    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1749        return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1750
1751    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1752        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1753        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1754        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1755        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1756        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
1757
1758    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1759        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1760        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1761        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
1762
1763    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1764        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1765        kind = expression.text("kind")
1766        if kind:
1767            kind = f"{kind}."
1768        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
1769
1770    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1771        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
1772
1773    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1774        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1775        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1776
1777        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1778        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1779
1780        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1781        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1782
1783    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1784        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1785        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1786
1787    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1788        return self.prepend_ctes(
1789            expression,
1790            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1791        )
1792
1793    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1794        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1795        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1796        return f"UNION{kind}"
1797
1798    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1799        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1800        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1801        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1802            columns = alias.columns
1803            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1804        else:
1805            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1806        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1807        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1808        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1809        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1810        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
1811
1812    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1813        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1814        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1815
1816    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1817        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1818        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1819        order = expression.args.get("order")
1820        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1821        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1822        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1823        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1824
1825        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1826
1827        first = expression.args.get("first")
1828        if first is None:
1829            first = ""
1830        else:
1831            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1832
1833        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1834            return f"{this} {alias}"
1835
1836        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1837        return f"{this} ({args})"
1838
1839    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1840        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1841        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
1842
1843    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1844        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1845        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1846        end = (
1847            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1848            or "CURRENT ROW"
1849        )
1850        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
1851
1852    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1853        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1854        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1855        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
1856
1857    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1858        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1859        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1860        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1861        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
1862
1863    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1864        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
1865        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1866
1867        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
1868
1869    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
1870        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
1871
1872    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1873        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
1874
1875    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1876        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1877        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1878            this = self.wrap(this)
1879        return f"ANY {this}"
1880
1881    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1882        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
1883
1884    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1885        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1886        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1887
1888        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1889            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1890            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1891
1892        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1893
1894        if default:
1895            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1896
1897        statements.append("END")
1898
1899        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
1900            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1901
1902        return " ".join(statements)
1903
1904    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1905        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1906        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1907        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
1908
1909    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1910        order = expression.args.get("order")
1911        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1912        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
1913
1914    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1915        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1916        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1917        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
1918
1919    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1920        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1921
1922        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1923            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1924        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1925            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1926        else:
1927            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
1928
1929    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
1930        expressions = expression.expressions
1931        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
1932            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
1933        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
1934
1935    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1936        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1937        return f"CHECK ({this})"
1938
1939    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1940        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1941        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1942        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1943        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
1944        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
1945        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
1946        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
1947        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
1948
1949    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1950        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1951        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1952        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1953        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
1954
1955    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
1956        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
1957
1958    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1959        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
1960        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
1961        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
1962
1963    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1964        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1965
1966    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
1967        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
1968        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
1969        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
1970        if unique_keys is not None:
1971            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
1972        else:
1973            unique_keys = ""
1974        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
1975        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
1976        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
1977        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
1978        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
1979        return self.func(
1980            "JSON_OBJECT",
1981            *expression.expressions,
1982            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})",
1983        )
1984
1985    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
1986        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1987        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1988        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1989        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
1990        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
1991        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
1992
1993    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
1994        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1995        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1996        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
1997        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1998        with_ = (
1999            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2000            if expressions
2001            else ""
2002        )
2003        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2004
2005    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2006        query = expression.args.get("query")
2007        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2008        field = expression.args.get("field")
2009        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2010
2011        if query:
2012            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2013        elif unnest:
2014            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2015        elif field:
2016            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2017        else:
2018            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2019
2020        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2021
2022    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2023        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2024
2025    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2026        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2027        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2028            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
2029        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2030
2031        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2032            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2033            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2034
2035        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2036        if this:
2037            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2038            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2039
2040        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2041
2042    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2043        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2044
2045    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2046        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2047        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2048        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2049        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2050        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2051        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2052
2053    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2054        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
2055
2056    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2057        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2058            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2059        else:
2060            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2061            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2062
2063        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2064
2065    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2066        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2067        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2068        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2069        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2070
2071    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2072        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2073
2074    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2075        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2076        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2077        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2078
2079    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2080        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2081
2082    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2083        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2084        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2085        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2086
2087    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2088        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2089
2090    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2091        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
2092
2093    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2094        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
2095
2096    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2097        if not self.pretty:
2098            return self.binary(expression, op)
2099
2100        sqls = tuple(
2101            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2102            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2103        )
2104
2105        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2106        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
2107
2108    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2109        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2110
2111    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2112        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2113
2114    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2115        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2116
2117    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2118        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2119
2120    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2121        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2122
2123    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2124        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2125
2126    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2127        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2128        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2129        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')}{format_sql})"
2130
2131    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2132        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2133        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2134
2135    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2136        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2137
2138    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2139        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2140
2141    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2142        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2143        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2144        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2145        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2146        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2147
2148    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2149        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2150        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2151        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2152        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2153        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2154        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2155        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2156        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2157        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2158
2159    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2160        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2161        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2162        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2163        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2164
2165        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2166            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2167
2168        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2169
2170    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2171        return "BEGIN"
2172
2173    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2174        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2175        if chain is not None:
2176            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2177
2178        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2179
2180    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2181        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2182        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2183        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2184
2185    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2186        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2187
2188        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2189        if dtype:
2190            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2191            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2192            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2193            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2194            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2195
2196        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2197        if default:
2198            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2199
2200        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2201            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2202
2203        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2204
2205    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2206        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2207            # Remove db from tables
2208            expression = expression.transform(
2209                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2210            )
2211        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2212        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2213
2214    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2215        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2216
2217        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2218            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMN ")
2219        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2220            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2221        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2222            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2223        else:
2224            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2225
2226        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2227        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2228
2229    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2230        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2231        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2232        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2233
2234    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2235        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2236        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2237        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2238
2239        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2240        if enforced is not None:
2241            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2242
2243        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2244
2245    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2246        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2247        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2248
2249        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2250        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2251        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2252
2253    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2254        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2255
2256    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2257        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2258
2259    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2260        return self.sql(
2261            exp.Cast(
2262                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2263                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2264            )
2265        )
2266
2267    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2268        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2269
2270    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2271        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2272            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2273        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
2274
2275    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2276        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2277
2278    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2279        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2280
2281    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2282        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2283
2284    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2285        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2286
2287    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2288        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2289
2290    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2291        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2292
2293    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2294        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2295
2296    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2297        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2298
2299    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2300        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2301
2302    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2303        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2304
2305    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2306        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2307
2308    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2309        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2310            return self.sql(
2311                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2312            )
2313        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2314
2315    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2316        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2317
2318    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2319        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2320
2321    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2322        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2323
2324    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2325        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2326
2327    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2328        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2329
2330    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2331        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2332
2333    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2334        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2335
2336    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2337        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2338
2339    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2340        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2341
2342    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2343        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2344
2345    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2346        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2347
2348    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2349        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2350
2351    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2352        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2353
2354    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2355        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
2356
2357    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2358        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2359        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2360        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2361        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2362        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2363
2364    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2365        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2366        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2367
2368    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2369        args = []
2370
2371        for key in expression.arg_types:
2372            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2373
2374            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2375                for value in arg_value:
2376                    args.append(value)
2377            elif arg_value is not None:
2378                args.append(arg_value)
2379
2380        return self.func(expression.sql_name(), *args)
2381
2382    def func(
2383        self,
2384        name: str,
2385        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2386        prefix: str = "(",
2387        suffix: str = ")",
2388    ) -> str:
2389        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2390
2391    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2392        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2393        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2394            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2395        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2396
2397    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2398        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2399
2400    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2401        return format_time(
2402            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2403        )
2404
2405    def expressions(
2406        self,
2407        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2408        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2409        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2410        flat: bool = False,
2411        indent: bool = True,
2412        skip_first: bool = False,
2413        sep: str = ", ",
2414        prefix: str = "",
2415    ) -> str:
2416        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2417
2418        if not expressions:
2419            return ""
2420
2421        if flat:
2422            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2423
2424        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2425
2426        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2427        pad = " " * self.pad
2428        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2429
2430        result_sqls = []
2431        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2432            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2433            if not sql:
2434                continue
2435
2436            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2437
2438            if self.pretty:
2439                if self.leading_comma:
2440                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2441                else:
2442                    result_sqls.append(
2443                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2444                    )
2445            else:
2446                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2447
2448        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2449        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
2450
2451    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2452        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2453        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2454        if flat:
2455            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2456        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2457
2458    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2459        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2460        if not property_name:
2461            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2462        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2463
2464    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2465        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2466        op = self.seg(op)
2467        return self.query_modifiers(
2468            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2469        )
2470
2471    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2472        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2473
2474    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2475        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2476
2477    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2478        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2479        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2480        expressions = (
2481            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2482        )
2483        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2484
2485    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2486        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2487        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2488        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2489
2490    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2491        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2492
2493    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2494        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2495        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2496        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2497        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2498
2499        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2500        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2501            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2502            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2503                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2504        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2505            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2506                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2507            else:
2508                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2509        else:
2510            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2511        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2512
2513    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2514        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2515        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2516        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2517        return f"MERGE INTO {this} {using} {on} {self.expressions(expression, sep=' ')}"
2518
2519    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2520        if expression.args.get("format"):
2521            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2522
2523        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2524
2525    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2526        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2527        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2528        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2529        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2530        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2531
2532    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2533        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2534        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2535        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2536        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2537
2538    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2539        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
2540
2541    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2542        return ""
2543
2544    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2545        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2546        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2547        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2548        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2549        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
2550
2551    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2552        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2553        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2554
2555        if having:
2556            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2557
2558        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
2559
2560    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2561        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2562        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2563        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2564        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2565        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2566        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2567        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2568        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2569        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2570        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2571        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2572        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
2573        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
2574
2575    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2576        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
2577        if key_block_size:
2578            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
2579
2580        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2581        if using:
2582            return f"USING {using}"
2583
2584        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
2585        if parser:
2586            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
2587
2588        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2589        if comment:
2590            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
2591
2592        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
2593        if visible is not None:
2594            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
2595
2596        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
2597        if engine_attr:
2598            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
2599
2600        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
2601        if secondary_engine_attr:
2602            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
2603
2604        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
2605        return ""
2606
2607    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2608        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2609        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
2610        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2611        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2612        type_ = self.sql(expression, "type")
2613        type_ = f" USING {type_}" if type_ else ""
2614        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2615        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
2616        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
2617        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2618        return f"{kind}{this}{type_}{schema}{options}"

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

Arguments:
  • pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
  • identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  • normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
  • pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
  • unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True)
339    def __init__(
340        self,
341        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
342        identify: str | bool = False,
343        normalize: bool = False,
344        pad: int = 2,
345        indent: int = 2,
346        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
347        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
348        max_unsupported: int = 3,
349        leading_comma: bool = False,
350        max_text_width: int = 80,
351        comments: bool = True,
352    ):
353        import sqlglot
354
355        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
356        self.identify = identify
357        self.normalize = normalize
358        self.pad = pad
359        self._indent = indent
360        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
361        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
362        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
363        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
364        self.comments = comments
365
366        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
367        self.normalize_functions = (
368            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
369        )
370
371        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
372        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.STRING_ESCAPE + self.QUOTE_END
373        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = self.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE + self.IDENTIFIER_END
374        self._cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
TRANSFORMS = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsAdd'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXPLICIT_UNION = False
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINT_SEP = ', '
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
RETURNING_END = True
COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET'}
STAR_MAPPING = {'except': 'EXCEPT', 'replace': 'REPLACE'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'microseconds': 'microsecond', 'seconds': 'second', 'minutes': 'minute', 'hours': 'hour', 'days': 'day', 'weeks': 'week', 'months': 'month', 'quarters': 'quarter', 'years': 'year'}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: Dict[str, str] = {}
INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: Dict = {}
INDEX_OFFSET = 0
UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = 'upper'
NULL_ORDERING = 'nulls_are_small'
ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK = False
@classmethod
def can_identify(text: str, identify: str | bool = 'safe') -> bool:
248    @classmethod
249    def can_identify(cls, text: str, identify: str | bool = "safe") -> bool:
250        """Checks if text can be identified given an identify option.
251
252        Args:
253            text: The text to check.
254            identify:
255                "always" or `True`: Always returns true.
256                "safe": True if the identifier is case-insensitive.
257
258        Returns:
259            Whether or not the given text can be identified.
260        """
261        if identify is True or identify == "always":
262            return True
263
264        if identify == "safe":
265            return not cls.case_sensitive(text)
266
267        return False

Checks if text can be identified given an identify option.

Arguments:
  • text: The text to check.
  • identify: "always" or True: Always returns true. "safe": True if the identifier is case-insensitive.
Returns:

Whether or not the given text can be identified.

QUOTE_START = "'"
QUOTE_END = "'"
IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
STRING_ESCAPE = "'"
IDENTIFIER_ESCAPE = '"'
BIT_START: Optional[str] = None
BIT_END: Optional[str] = None
HEX_START: Optional[str] = None
HEX_END: Optional[str] = None
BYTE_START: Optional[str] = None
BYTE_END: Optional[str] = None
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], cache: Optional[Dict[int, str]] = None) -> str:
376    def generate(
377        self,
378        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
379        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
380    ) -> str:
381        """
382        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
383
384        Args:
385            expression: The syntax tree.
386            cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression
387                which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
388
389        Returns:
390            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
391        """
392        if cache is not None:
393            self._cache = cache
394
395        self.unsupported_messages = []
396        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
397        self._cache = None
398
399        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
400            return sql
401
402        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
403            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
404                logger.warning(msg)
405        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
406            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
407
408        if self.pretty:
409            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
410        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

Arguments:
  • expression: The syntax tree.
  • cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
Returns:

The SQL string corresponding to expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
412    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
413        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
414            raise UnsupportedError(message)
415        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
417    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
418        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
420    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
421        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
423    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
424        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
425        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
426        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None) -> str:
428    def maybe_comment(
429        self,
430        sql: str,
431        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
432        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
433    ) -> str:
434        comments = (
435            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
436            if self.comments
437            else None
438        )
439
440        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
441            return sql
442
443        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
444        comments_sql = sep.join(
445            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
446        )
447
448        if not comments_sql:
449            return sql
450
451        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
452            return (
453                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
454                if sql[0].isspace()
455                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
456            )
457
458        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
460    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
461        this_sql = self.indent(
462            self.sql(expression)
463            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
464            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
465            level=1,
466            pad=0,
467        )
468        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
470    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
471        original = self.identify
472        self.identify = False
473        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
474        self.identify = original
475        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
477    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
478        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
479            return name.upper()
480        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
481            return name.lower()
482        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
484    def indent(
485        self,
486        sql: str,
487        level: int = 0,
488        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
489        skip_first: bool = False,
490        skip_last: bool = False,
491    ) -> str:
492        if not self.pretty:
493            return sql
494
495        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
496        lines = sql.split("\n")
497
498        return "\n".join(
499            line
500            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
501            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
502            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
503        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
505    def sql(
506        self,
507        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
508        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
509        comment: bool = True,
510    ) -> str:
511        if not expression:
512            return ""
513
514        if isinstance(expression, str):
515            return expression
516
517        if key:
518            value = expression.args.get(key)
519            if value:
520                return self.sql(value)
521            return ""
522
523        if self._cache is not None:
524            expression_id = hash(expression)
525
526            if expression_id in self._cache:
527                return self._cache[expression_id]
528
529        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
530
531        if callable(transform):
532            sql = transform(self, expression)
533        elif transform:
534            sql = transform
535        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
536            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
537
538            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
539                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
540            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
541                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
542            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
543                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
544            else:
545                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
546        else:
547            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
548
549        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
550
551        if self._cache is not None:
552            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
553        return sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
555    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
556        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
557        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
558        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
560    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
561        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
562        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
563        options = expression.args.get("options")
564        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
565        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
566        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
567        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
568        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
570    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
571        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
572            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
573        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
574        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
576    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
577        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
578
579        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
580            join_mark = ""
581            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
582
583        column = ".".join(
584            self.sql(part)
585            for part in (
586                expression.args.get("catalog"),
587                expression.args.get("db"),
588                expression.args.get("table"),
589                expression.args.get("this"),
590            )
591            if part
592        )
593
594        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
596    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
597        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
598        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
599        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
600        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
602    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
603        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
604        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
605        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
606        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
607        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
608        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
609        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
610        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
611
612        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
614    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
615        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
616        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
617        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
619    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
620        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
622    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
623        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
624            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
625        else:
626            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
627
628        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
630    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
631        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
632    ) -> str:
633        this = ""
634        if expression.this is not None:
635            on_null = "ON NULL " if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
636            this = " ALWAYS " if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT {on_null}"
637
638        start = expression.args.get("start")
639        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
640        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
641        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
642        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
643        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
644        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
645        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
646        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
647        cycle_sql = ""
648
649        if cycle is not None:
650            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
651            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
652
653        sequence_opts = ""
654        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
655            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
656            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
657
658        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
659        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
660
661        return f"GENERATED{this}AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
663    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
664        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
666    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
667        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
668        if desc is not None:
669            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
670        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
672    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
673        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
674        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
675        return f"UNIQUE{this}"
def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: dict[sqlglot.expressions.Properties.Location, list[sqlglot.expressions.Property]]) -> str:
677    def createable_sql(
678        self, expression: exp.Create, locations: dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]
679    ) -> str:
680        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
682    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
683        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
684        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
685        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else {}
686
687        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
688
689        properties_sql = ""
690        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
691            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
692        ):
693            properties_sql = self.sql(
694                exp.Properties(
695                    expressions=[
696                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
697                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
698                    ]
699                )
700            )
701
702        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
703        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
704        if expression_sql:
705            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
706
707            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
708                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
709                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
710                        exp.Properties(
711                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
712                        ),
713                        wrapped=False,
714                    )
715                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
716                else:
717                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
718
719        postindex_props_sql = ""
720        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
721            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
722                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
723                wrapped=False,
724                prefix=" ",
725            )
726
727        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
728        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
729        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
730
731        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
732        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
733
734        postcreate_props_sql = ""
735        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
736            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
737                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
738                sep=" ",
739                prefix=" ",
740                wrapped=False,
741            )
742
743        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
744
745        postexpression_props_sql = ""
746        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
747            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
748                exp.Properties(
749                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
750                ),
751                sep=" ",
752                prefix=" ",
753                wrapped=False,
754            )
755
756        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
757        no_schema_binding = (
758            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
759        )
760
761        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
762        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
763
764        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
765        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
767    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
768        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
769        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
770
771        if when:
772            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
773            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
774            return f"CLONE {this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
775
776        return f"CLONE {this}"
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
778    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
779        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
781    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
782        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
783        if with_:
784            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
785        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
787    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
788        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
789        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
790
791        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
793    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
794        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
795        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
797    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
798        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
799        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
800        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
801        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
803    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
804        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
805        if self.BIT_START:
806            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
807        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
809    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
810        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
811        if self.HEX_START:
812            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
813        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
815    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
816        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
817        if self.BYTE_START:
818            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
819        return this
def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str:
821    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
822        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
823        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
def datatypesize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeSize) -> str:
825    def datatypesize_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeSize) -> str:
826        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
827        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
828        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
829        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
831    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
832        type_value = expression.this
833        type_sql = (
834            self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
835            if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
836            else type_value
837        )
838        nested = ""
839        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
840        values = ""
841        if interior:
842            if expression.args.get("nested"):
843                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
844                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
845                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
846                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
847                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
848            else:
849                nested = f"({interior})"
850
851        return f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
853    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
854        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
855        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
856        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
857        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
859    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
860        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
861        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
862        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
863        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
864        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
865        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
866        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
867        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
868        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
869        if self.RETURNING_END:
870            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
871        else:
872            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
873        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
875    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
876        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
877        kind = expression.args["kind"]
878        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
879        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
880        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
881        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
882        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
883        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
884        return (
885            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
886        )
def except_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
888    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
889        return self.prepend_ctes(
890            expression,
891            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
892        )
def except_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
894    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
895        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
897    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
898        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
899        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
900        count = expression.args.get("count")
901        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
902        if expression.args.get("percent"):
903            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
904        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
905        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
907    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
908        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
909        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
910        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
912    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
913        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
914            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
915            return ""
916
917        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
919    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
920        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
921        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
922        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
923        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
924        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
925        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
926        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table} " if table else ""
927        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
928        using = f"USING {using} " if using else ""
929        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
930        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
931        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
932        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
933        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
934        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
936    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
937        text = expression.name
938        lower = text.lower()
939        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
940        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
941        if (
942            expression.quoted
943            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
944            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
945            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
946        ):
947            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
948        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
950    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
951        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
952        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
953        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
954        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
955        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str:
957    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
958        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
959        return f"{prefix}{string}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
961    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
962        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
964    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
965        root_properties = []
966        with_properties = []
967
968        for p in expression.expressions:
969            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
970            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
971                with_properties.append(p)
972            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
973                root_properties.append(p)
974
975        return self.root_properties(
976            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
977        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
979    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
980        if properties.expressions:
981            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
982        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
984    def properties(
985        self,
986        properties: exp.Properties,
987        prefix: str = "",
988        sep: str = ", ",
989        suffix: str = "",
990        wrapped: bool = True,
991    ) -> str:
992        if properties.expressions:
993            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
994            if expressions:
995                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
996                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
997        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
 999    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1000        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
def locate_properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> Dict[sqlglot.expressions.Properties.Location, list[sqlglot.expressions.Property]]:
1002    def locate_properties(
1003        self, properties: exp.Properties
1004    ) -> t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]:
1005        properties_locs: t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]] = {
1006            key: [] for key in exp.Properties.Location
1007        }
1008
1009        for p in properties.expressions:
1010            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1011            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME:
1012                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME].append(p)
1013            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX:
1014                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX].append(p)
1015            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1016                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA].append(p)
1017            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1018                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH].append(p)
1019            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE:
1020                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE].append(p)
1021            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS:
1022                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS].append(p)
1023            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION:
1024                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION].append(p)
1025            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1026                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1027
1028        return properties_locs
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
1030    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1031        property_cls = expression.__class__
1032        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1033            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1034
1035        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1036        if not property_name:
1037            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1038
1039        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
1041    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1042        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1043        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1044        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1046    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1047        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1048        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1049        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
1051    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1052        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1053        local = expression.args.get("local")
1054        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1055        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1056        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1057        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1058        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1060    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1061        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1062        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1063        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1065    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1066        if expression.args.get("default"):
1067            property = "DEFAULT"
1068        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1069            property = "ON"
1070        else:
1071            property = "OFF"
1072        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1074    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1075        if expression.args.get("no"):
1076            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1077        if expression.args.get("default"):
1078            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1079
1080        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1081        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1083    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1084        default = expression.args.get("default")
1085        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1086        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1087        if default or minimum or maximum:
1088            if default:
1089                prop = "DEFAULT"
1090            elif minimum:
1091                prop = "MINIMUM"
1092            else:
1093                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1094            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1095        units = expression.args.get("units")
1096        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1097        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1099    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1100        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1101        always = expression.args.get("always")
1102        default = expression.args.get("default")
1103        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1104        never = expression.args.get("never")
1105
1106        if autotemp is not None:
1107            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1108        elif always:
1109            prop = "ALWAYS"
1110        elif default:
1111            prop = "DEFAULT"
1112        elif manual:
1113            prop = "MANUAL"
1114        elif never:
1115            prop = "NEVER"
1116        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1118    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1119        no = expression.args.get("no")
1120        no = " NO" if no else ""
1121        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1122        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1123
1124        for_ = ""
1125        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1126            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1127        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1128            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1129        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1130            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1131        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1133    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1134        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1135        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1136        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1137        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1138        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1139        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1141    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1142        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1143        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1144        statistics_sql = ""
1145        if statistics is not None:
1146            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1147        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1149    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1150        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1151
1152        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1153            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1154        else:
1155            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1156
1157        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1158        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1159        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1160
1161        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1162
1163        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1164        partition_sql = (
1165            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1166        )
1167        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1168        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1169        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1170        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1171        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1172
1173        if self.RETURNING_END:
1174            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1175        else:
1176            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1177
1178        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1179        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def intersect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1181    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1182        return self.prepend_ctes(
1183            expression,
1184            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1185        )
def intersect_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1187    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1188        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1190    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1191        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1193    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1194        return expression.name.upper()
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1196    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1197        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1198        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1199        if constraint:
1200            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1201        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1202        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1203        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1204        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1205        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1206        if expressions:
1207            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1208        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1210    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1211        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1213    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1214        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1215        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1216        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1217        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1218        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1219        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1220        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1221        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1222        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1223        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1224        null = expression.args.get("null")
1225        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1226        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint) -> str:
1228    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1229        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1231    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1232        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1233        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1234        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1235        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1237    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1238        table = ".".join(
1239            part
1240            for part in [
1241                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1242                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1243                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1244            ]
1245            if part
1246        )
1247
1248        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1249        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1250        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1251        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1252        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1253        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1254        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1255        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1256        system_time = expression.args.get("system_time")
1257        system_time = f" {self.sql(expression, 'system_time')}" if system_time else ""
1258
1259        return f"{table}{system_time}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = 'SEED', sep=' AS ') -> str:
1261    def tablesample_sql(
1262        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1263    ) -> str:
1264        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1265            table = expression.this.copy()
1266            table.set("alias", None)
1267            this = self.sql(table)
1268            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1269        else:
1270            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1271            alias = ""
1272        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1273        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1274        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1275        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1276        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1277        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1278        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1279        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1280        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1281        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1282        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1283        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1284        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1285            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1286        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1287        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1288        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1289        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1291    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1292        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1293
1294        if expression.this:
1295            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1296            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1297            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1298            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1299            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1300            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1301
1302        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1303        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1304        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1305        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1306        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1307        return f"{direction}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
1309    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1310        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
1312    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1313        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1314        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1315        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1316        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1317        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1318        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1319        if self.RETURNING_END:
1320            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}{limit}"
1321        else:
1322            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}{limit}"
1323        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}"
1324        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values) -> str:
1326    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1327        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1328        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1329            args = self.expressions(expression)
1330            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1331            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1332            values = (
1333                f"({values})"
1334                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1335                else values
1336            )
1337            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1338
1339        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1340        # Note: If you have a lot of unions then this will result in a large number of recursive statements to
1341        # evaluate the expression. You may need to increase `sys.setrecursionlimit` to run and it can also be
1342        # very slow.
1343        expression = expression.copy()
1344        column_names = expression.alias and expression.args["alias"].columns
1345
1346        selects = []
1347
1348        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1349            row = tup.expressions
1350
1351            if i == 0 and column_names:
1352                row = [
1353                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1354                ]
1355
1356            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1357
1358        subquery_expression: exp.Select | exp.Union = selects[0]
1359        if len(selects) > 1:
1360            for select in selects[1:]:
1361                subquery_expression = exp.union(
1362                    subquery_expression, select, distinct=False, copy=False
1363                )
1364
1365        return self.subquery_sql(subquery_expression.subquery(expression.alias, copy=False))
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
1367    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1368        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
1370    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1371        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1372        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1373        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
1375    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1376        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
1378    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1379        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1380
1381        if expression.args.get("all"):
1382            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1383
1384        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1385        grouping_sets = (
1386            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1387        )
1388
1389        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1390        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1391            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1392        else:
1393            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1394            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1395
1396        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1397        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1398            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1399        else:
1400            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1401            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1402
1403        groupings = csv(
1404            grouping_sets,
1405            cube_sql,
1406            rollup_sql,
1407            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1408            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1409        )
1410
1411        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1412            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1413
1414        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
1416    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1417        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1418        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
1420    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1421        op_sql = " ".join(
1422            op
1423            for op in (
1424                expression.method,
1425                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1426                expression.side,
1427                expression.kind,
1428                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1429            )
1430            if op
1431        )
1432        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1433        using = expression.args.get("using")
1434
1435        if not on_sql and using:
1436            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1437
1438        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1439
1440        if on_sql:
1441            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1442            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1443            if using:
1444                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1445            else:
1446                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1447        elif not op_sql:
1448            return f", {this_sql}"
1449
1450        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1451        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
1453    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1454        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1455        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1456        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
1458    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1459        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1460
1461        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1462            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1463
1464        if expression.args.get("view"):
1465            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1466            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1467            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1468            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1469            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1470            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1471
1472        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1473        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1474        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1476    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1477        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1478        args = ", ".join(
1479            sql
1480            for sql in (
1481                self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1482                self.sql(expression, "expression"),
1483            )
1484            if sql
1485        )
1486        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
1488    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1489        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1490        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
1492    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1493        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1494        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1495        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1496        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1497        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1498        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1499        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1500        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
1502    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1503        expressions = (
1504            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1505        )
1506        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1507        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
1509    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1510        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
1512    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1513        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1514            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1515            return ""
1516
1517        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1518        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1519        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1520        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1521
1522        if wait is not None:
1523            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1524                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1525            else:
1526                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1527
1528        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
1530    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1531        text = expression.this or ""
1532        if expression.is_string:
1533            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1534        return text
def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1536    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1537        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1538        if self.ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK:
1539            text = text.replace("\n", "\\n")
1540        elif self.pretty:
1541            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1542        return text
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
1544    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1545        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1546        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1547        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1548        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1549        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1550        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1551        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1552        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1553        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1554        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1555        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1557    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1558        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
1560    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1561        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1563    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1564        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1565        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1566        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
1568    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1569        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
1571    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1572        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
1574    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1575        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
1577    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1578        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1579        asc = not desc
1580
1581        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1582        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1583        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1584        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1585        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1586
1587        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1588        nulls_sort_change = ""
1589        if nulls_first and (
1590            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1591        ):
1592            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1593        elif (
1594            nulls_last
1595            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1596            and not nulls_are_last
1597        ):
1598            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1599
1600        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1601            self.unsupported(
1602                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1603            )
1604            nulls_sort_change = ""
1605
1606        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1608    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1609        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1610        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1611        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1612        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1613        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1614        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1615        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1616        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1617        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1618        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1619        definition_sqls = [
1620            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1621            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1622        ]
1623        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1624        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1625        body = "".join(
1626            (
1627                partition,
1628                order,
1629                measures,
1630                rows,
1631                after,
1632                pattern,
1633                define,
1634            )
1635        )
1636        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1637        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1638        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1640    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1641        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1642
1643        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1644        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1645
1646        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1647            limit = exp.Limit(expression=limit.args.get("count"))
1648        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1649            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=limit.expression)
1650
1651        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1652
1653        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1654            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1655            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1656            else []
1657        )
1658
1659        return csv(
1660            *sqls,
1661            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1662            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1663            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1664            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1665            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1666            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1667            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1668            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1669            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1670            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1671            sep="",
1672        )
def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]:
1674    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1675        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1676    ) -> t.List[str]:
1677        return [
1678            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1679            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1680        ]
def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
1682    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1683        return [
1684            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1685            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1686            if expression.args.get("windows")
1687            else "",
1688            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1689            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1690            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1691        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
1693    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1694        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1695        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1696        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
1698    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1699        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1700        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1701        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1702        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1703        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1704        top = (
1705            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1706            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1707            else ""
1708        )
1709
1710        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1711
1712        if kind:
1713            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1714                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1715            else:
1716                if kind == "STRUCT":
1717                    expressions = self.expressions(
1718                        sqls=[
1719                            self.sql(
1720                                exp.Struct(
1721                                    expressions=[
1722                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1723                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1724                                        )
1725                                        for e in expression.expressions
1726                                    ]
1727                                )
1728                            )
1729                        ]
1730                    )
1731                kind = ""
1732
1733        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1734        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1735            expression,
1736            f"SELECT{top}{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1737            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1738            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1739        )
1740        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
1742    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1743        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1744        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1745        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1746        return f"{this}{sql}"
def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
1748    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1749        return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
1751    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1752        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1753        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1754        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1755        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1756        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
1758    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1759        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1760        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1761        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
1763    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1764        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1765        kind = expression.text("kind")
1766        if kind:
1767            kind = f"{kind}."
1768        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
1770    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1771        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1773    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1774        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1775        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1776
1777        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1778        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1779
1780        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1781        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
1783    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1784        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1785        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def union_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
1787    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1788        return self.prepend_ctes(
1789            expression,
1790            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1791        )
def union_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
1793    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1794        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1795        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1796        return f"UNION{kind}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
1798    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1799        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1800        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1801        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1802            columns = alias.columns
1803            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1804        else:
1805            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1806        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1807        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1808        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1809        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1810        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
1812    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1813        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1814        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
1816    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1817        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1818        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1819        order = expression.args.get("order")
1820        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1821        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1822        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1823        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1824
1825        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1826
1827        first = expression.args.get("first")
1828        if first is None:
1829            first = ""
1830        else:
1831            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1832
1833        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1834            return f"{this} {alias}"
1835
1836        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1837        return f"{this} ({args})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1839    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1840        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1841        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
1843    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1844        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1845        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1846        end = (
1847            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1848            or "CURRENT ROW"
1849        )
1850        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
1852    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1853        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1854        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1855        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
1857    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1858        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1859        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1860        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1861        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
1863    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1864        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
1865        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1866
1867        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def safebracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeBracket) -> str:
1869    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
1870        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
1872    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1873        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
1875    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1876        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1877        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1878            this = self.wrap(this)
1879        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
1881    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1882        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
1884    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1885        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1886        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1887
1888        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1889            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1890            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1891
1892        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1893
1894        if default:
1895            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1896
1897        statements.append("END")
1898
1899        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
1900            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1901
1902        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
1904    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1905        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1906        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1907        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
1909    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1910        order = expression.args.get("order")
1911        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1912        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
1914    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1915        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1916        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1917        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
1919    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1920        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1921
1922        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1923            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1924        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1925            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1926        else:
1927            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeConcat) -> str:
1929    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
1930        expressions = expression.expressions
1931        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
1932            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
1933        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
1935    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1936        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1937        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
1939    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1940        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1941        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1942        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1943        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
1944        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
1945        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
1946        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
1947        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
1949    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1950        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1951        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1952        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1953        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
1955    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
1956        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1958    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1959        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
1960        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
1961        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1963    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1964        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject) -> str:
1966    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
1967        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
1968        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
1969        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
1970        if unique_keys is not None:
1971            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
1972        else:
1973            unique_keys = ""
1974        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
1975        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
1976        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
1977        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
1978        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
1979        return self.func(
1980            "JSON_OBJECT",
1981            *expression.expressions,
1982            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})",
1983        )
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
1985    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
1986        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1987        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1988        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1989        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
1990        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
1991        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
1993    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
1994        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1995        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1996        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
1997        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1998        with_ = (
1999            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2000            if expressions
2001            else ""
2002        )
2003        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
2005    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2006        query = expression.args.get("query")
2007        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2008        field = expression.args.get("field")
2009        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2010
2011        if query:
2012            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2013        elif unnest:
2014            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2015        elif field:
2016            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2017        else:
2018            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2019
2020        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2022    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2023        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
2025    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2026        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2027        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2028            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
2029        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2030
2031        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2032            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2033            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2034
2035        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2036        if this:
2037            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2038            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2039
2040        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
2042    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2043        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
2045    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2046        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2047        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2048        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2049        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2050        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2051        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
2053    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2054        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
2056    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2057        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2058            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2059        else:
2060            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2061            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2062
2063        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
2065    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2066        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2067        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2068        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2069        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
2071    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2072        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
2074    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2075        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2076        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2077        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
2079    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2080        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2082    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2083        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2084        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2085        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
2087    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2088        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And) -> str:
2090    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2091        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
def xor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Xor) -> str:
2093    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2094        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
def connector_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2096    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2097        if not self.pretty:
2098            return self.binary(expression, op)
2099
2100        sqls = tuple(
2101            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2102            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2103        )
2104
2105        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2106        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2108    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2109        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2111    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2112        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2114    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2115        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2117    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2118        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2120    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2121        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2123    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2124        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2126    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2127        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2128        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2129        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')}{format_sql})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
2131    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2132        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2133        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
2135    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2136        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
2138    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2139        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
2141    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2142        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2143        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2144        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2145        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2146        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2148    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2149        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2150        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2151        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2152        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2153        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2154        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2155        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2156        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2157        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2159    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2160        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2161        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2162        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2163        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2164
2165        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2166            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2167
2168        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
2170    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2171        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
2173    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2174        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2175        if chain is not None:
2176            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2177
2178        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
2180    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2181        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2182        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2183        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
2185    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2186        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2187
2188        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2189        if dtype:
2190            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2191            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2192            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2193            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2194            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2195
2196        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2197        if default:
2198            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2199
2200        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2201            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2202
2203        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str:
2205    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2206        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2207            # Remove db from tables
2208            expression = expression.transform(
2209                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2210            )
2211        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2212        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def altertable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
2214    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2215        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2216
2217        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2218            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMN ")
2219        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2220            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2221        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2222            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2223        else:
2224            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2225
2226        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2227        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
2229    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2230        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2231        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2232        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
2234    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2235        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2236        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2237        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2238
2239        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2240        if enforced is not None:
2241            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2242
2243        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
2245    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2246        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2247        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2248
2249        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2250        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2251        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2253    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2254        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
2256    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2257        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
2259    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2260        return self.sql(
2261            exp.Cast(
2262                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2263                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2264            )
2265        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
2267    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2268        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2270    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2271        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2272            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2273        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
2275    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2276        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
2278    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2279        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
2281    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2282        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
2284    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2285        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
2287    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2288        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
2290    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2291        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
2293    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2294        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
2296    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2297        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
2299    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2300        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
2302    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2303        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
2305    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2306        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
2308    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2309        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2310            return self.sql(
2311                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2312            )
2313        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
2315    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2316        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
2318    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2319        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
2321    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2322        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
2324    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2325        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
2327    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2328        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
2330    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2331        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
2333    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2334        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
2336    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2337        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2339    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2340        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2342    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2343        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def or_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or) -> str:
2345    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2346        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
2348    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2349        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
2351    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2352        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
2354    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2355        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
2357    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2358        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2359        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2360        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2361        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2362        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2364    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2365        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2366        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
2368    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2369        args = []
2370
2371        for key in expression.arg_types:
2372            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2373
2374            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2375                for value in arg_value:
2376                    args.append(value)
2377            elif arg_value is not None:
2378                args.append(arg_value)
2379
2380        return self.func(expression.sql_name(), *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')') -> str:
2382    def func(
2383        self,
2384        name: str,
2385        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2386        prefix: str = "(",
2387        suffix: str = ")",
2388    ) -> str:
2389        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
2391    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2392        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2393        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2394            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2395        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
def text_width(self, args: Iterable) -> int:
2397    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2398        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
def format_time(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> Optional[str]:
2400    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2401        return format_time(
2402            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2403        )
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[List[str]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, skip_first: bool = False, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '') -> str:
2405    def expressions(
2406        self,
2407        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2408        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2409        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2410        flat: bool = False,
2411        indent: bool = True,
2412        skip_first: bool = False,
2413        sep: str = ", ",
2414        prefix: str = "",
2415    ) -> str:
2416        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2417
2418        if not expressions:
2419            return ""
2420
2421        if flat:
2422            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2423
2424        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2425
2426        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2427        pad = " " * self.pad
2428        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2429
2430        result_sqls = []
2431        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2432            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2433            if not sql:
2434                continue
2435
2436            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2437
2438            if self.pretty:
2439                if self.leading_comma:
2440                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2441                else:
2442                    result_sqls.append(
2443                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2444                    )
2445            else:
2446                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2447
2448        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2449        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2451    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2452        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2453        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2454        if flat:
2455            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2456        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
2458    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2459        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2460        if not property_name:
2461            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2462        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def set_operation(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2464    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2465        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2466        op = self.seg(op)
2467        return self.query_modifiers(
2468            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2469        )
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
2471    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2472        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
2474    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2475        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2477    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2478        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2479        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2480        expressions = (
2481            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2482        )
2483        return f"{this}{expressions}"
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
2485    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2486        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2487        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2488        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
2490    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2491        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
2493    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2494        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2495        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2496        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2497        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2498
2499        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2500        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2501            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2502            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2503                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2504        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2505            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2506                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2507            else:
2508                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2509        else:
2510            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2511        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
2513    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2514        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2515        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2516        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2517        return f"MERGE INTO {this} {using} {on} {self.expressions(expression, sep=' ')}"
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
2519    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2520        if expression.args.get("format"):
2521            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2522
2523        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str:
2525    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2526        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2527        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2528        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2529        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2530        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str:
2532    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2533        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2534        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2535        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2536        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2538    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2539        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str:
2541    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2542        return ""
def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2544    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2545        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2546        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2547        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2548        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2549        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue) -> str:
2551    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2552        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2553        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2554
2555        if having:
2556            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2557
2558        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
def querytransform_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryTransform) -> str:
2560    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2561        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2562        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2563        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2564        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2565        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2566        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2567        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2568        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2569        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2570        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2571        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2572        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
2573        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2575    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2576        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
2577        if key_block_size:
2578            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
2579
2580        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2581        if using:
2582            return f"USING {using}"
2583
2584        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
2585        if parser:
2586            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
2587
2588        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2589        if comment:
2590            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
2591
2592        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
2593        if visible is not None:
2594            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
2595
2596        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
2597        if engine_attr:
2598            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
2599
2600        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
2601        if secondary_engine_attr:
2602            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
2603
2604        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
2605        return ""
def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2607    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2608        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2609        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
2610        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2611        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2612        type_ = self.sql(expression, "type")
2613        type_ = f" USING {type_}" if type_ else ""
2614        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2615        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
2616        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
2617        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2618        return f"{kind}{this}{type_}{schema}{options}"
def cached_generator( cache: Optional[Dict[int, str]] = None) -> Callable[[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], str]:
2621def cached_generator(
2622    cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
2623) -> t.Callable[[exp.Expression], str]:
2624    """Returns a cached generator."""
2625    cache = {} if cache is None else cache
2626    generator = Generator(normalize=True, identify="safe")
2627    return lambda e: generator.generate(e, cache)

Returns a cached generator.