Edit on GitHub

sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import typing as t
   5
   6from sqlglot import exp
   7from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
   8from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, seq_get, should_identify
   9from sqlglot.time import format_time
  10from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  11
  12logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  13
  14
  15class Generator:
  16    """
  17    Generator interprets the given syntax tree and produces a SQL string as an output.
  18
  19    Args:
  20        time_mapping (dict): the dictionary of custom time mappings in which the key
  21            represents a python time format and the output the target time format
  22        time_trie (trie): a trie of the time_mapping keys
  23        pretty (bool): if set to True the returned string will be formatted. Default: False.
  24        quote_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit quotes. Default: '.
  25        quote_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit quotes. Default: '.
  26        identifier_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit identifiers. Default: ".
  27        identifier_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit identifiers. Default: ".
  28        bit_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit bit literals. Default: None.
  29        bit_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit bit literals. Default: None.
  30        hex_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit hex literals. Default: None.
  31        hex_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit hex literals. Default: None.
  32        byte_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit byte literals. Default: None.
  33        byte_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit byte literals. Default: None.
  34        raw_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit raw literals. Default: None.
  35        raw_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit raw literals. Default: None.
  36        identify (bool | str): 'always': always quote, 'safe': quote identifiers if they don't contain an upcase, True defaults to always.
  37        normalize (bool): if set to True all identifiers will lower cased
  38        string_escape (str): specifies a string escape character. Default: '.
  39        identifier_escape (str): specifies an identifier escape character. Default: ".
  40        pad (int): determines padding in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  41        indent (int): determines the size of indentation in a formatted string. Default: 4.
  42        unnest_column_only (bool): if true unnest table aliases are considered only as column aliases
  43        normalize_functions (str): normalize function names, "upper", "lower", or None
  44            Default: "upper"
  45        alias_post_tablesample (bool): if the table alias comes after tablesample
  46            Default: False
  47        identifiers_can_start_with_digit (bool): if an unquoted identifier can start with digit
  48            Default: False
  49        unsupported_level (ErrorLevel): determines the generator's behavior when it encounters
  50            unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  51        null_ordering (str): Indicates the default null ordering method to use if not explicitly set.
  52            Options are "nulls_are_small", "nulls_are_large", "nulls_are_last".
  53            Default: "nulls_are_small"
  54        max_unsupported (int): Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  55            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  56            Default: 3
  57        leading_comma (bool): if the the comma is leading or trailing in select statements
  58            Default: False
  59        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  60            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  61            line length.
  62            Default: 80
  63        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  64            Default: True
  65    """
  66
  67    TRANSFORMS = {
  68        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  69            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  70        ),
  71        exp.TsOrDsAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  72            "TS_OR_DS_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  73        ),
  74        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
  75        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  76        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  77        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  78        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  79        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  80        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  81        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  82        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  83        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  84        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  85        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  86        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  87        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
  88        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
  89        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
  90        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
  91        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
  92        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  94        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  95        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  96        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  97        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
  98        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  99        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 100        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
 101        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 102        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 103        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 104        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 105        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 106    }
 107
 108    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
 109    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
 110
 111    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 112    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 113
 114    # Always do union distinct or union all
 115    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 116
 117    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 118    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 119
 120    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 121    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 122
 123    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 124    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 125
 126    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 127    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 128
 129    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 130    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 131
 132    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 133    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 134
 135    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 136    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 137
 138    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 139    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 140
 141    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 142    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 143
 144    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 145    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 146
 147    # The string used for creating index on a table
 148    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 149
 150    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 151        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 152        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 153        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 154        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 155        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 156        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 157        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 158    }
 159
 160    STAR_MAPPING = {
 161        "except": "EXCEPT",
 162        "replace": "REPLACE",
 163    }
 164
 165    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 166        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 167        "seconds": "second",
 168        "minutes": "minute",
 169        "hours": "hour",
 170        "days": "day",
 171        "weeks": "week",
 172        "months": "month",
 173        "quarters": "quarter",
 174        "years": "year",
 175    }
 176
 177    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 178
 179    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 180
 181    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 182
 183    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 184        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 185        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 186        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 187        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 188        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 189        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 190        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 191        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 192        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 193        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 194        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 195        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 196        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 197        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 198        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 199        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 200        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 201        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 202        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 203        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 204        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 205        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 206        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 207        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 208        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 209        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 210        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 211        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 212        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 213        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 214        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 215        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 216        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 217        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 218        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 219        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 220        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 221        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 222        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 223        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 224        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 225        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 226        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 227        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 228        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 229        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 230        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 231        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 232        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 233        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 234        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 235        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 236    }
 237
 238    JOIN_HINTS = True
 239    TABLE_HINTS = True
 240    IS_BOOL = True
 241
 242    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 243    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS = (exp.Select, exp.From, exp.Where, exp.With)
 244    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES = (exp.Column, exp.Literal, exp.Neg, exp.Paren)
 245
 246    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 247
 248    __slots__ = (
 249        "time_mapping",
 250        "time_trie",
 251        "pretty",
 252        "quote_start",
 253        "quote_end",
 254        "identifier_start",
 255        "identifier_end",
 256        "bit_start",
 257        "bit_end",
 258        "hex_start",
 259        "hex_end",
 260        "byte_start",
 261        "byte_end",
 262        "raw_start",
 263        "raw_end",
 264        "identify",
 265        "normalize",
 266        "string_escape",
 267        "identifier_escape",
 268        "pad",
 269        "index_offset",
 270        "unnest_column_only",
 271        "alias_post_tablesample",
 272        "identifiers_can_start_with_digit",
 273        "normalize_functions",
 274        "unsupported_level",
 275        "unsupported_messages",
 276        "null_ordering",
 277        "max_unsupported",
 278        "_indent",
 279        "_escaped_quote_end",
 280        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 281        "_leading_comma",
 282        "_max_text_width",
 283        "_comments",
 284        "_cache",
 285    )
 286
 287    def __init__(
 288        self,
 289        time_mapping=None,
 290        time_trie=None,
 291        pretty=None,
 292        quote_start=None,
 293        quote_end=None,
 294        identifier_start=None,
 295        identifier_end=None,
 296        bit_start=None,
 297        bit_end=None,
 298        hex_start=None,
 299        hex_end=None,
 300        byte_start=None,
 301        byte_end=None,
 302        raw_start=None,
 303        raw_end=None,
 304        identify=False,
 305        normalize=False,
 306        string_escape=None,
 307        identifier_escape=None,
 308        pad=2,
 309        indent=2,
 310        index_offset=0,
 311        unnest_column_only=False,
 312        alias_post_tablesample=False,
 313        identifiers_can_start_with_digit=False,
 314        normalize_functions="upper",
 315        unsupported_level=ErrorLevel.WARN,
 316        null_ordering=None,
 317        max_unsupported=3,
 318        leading_comma=False,
 319        max_text_width=80,
 320        comments=True,
 321    ):
 322        import sqlglot
 323
 324        self.time_mapping = time_mapping or {}
 325        self.time_trie = time_trie
 326        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 327        self.quote_start = quote_start or "'"
 328        self.quote_end = quote_end or "'"
 329        self.identifier_start = identifier_start or '"'
 330        self.identifier_end = identifier_end or '"'
 331        self.bit_start = bit_start
 332        self.bit_end = bit_end
 333        self.hex_start = hex_start
 334        self.hex_end = hex_end
 335        self.byte_start = byte_start
 336        self.byte_end = byte_end
 337        self.raw_start = raw_start
 338        self.raw_end = raw_end
 339        self.identify = identify
 340        self.normalize = normalize
 341        self.string_escape = string_escape or "'"
 342        self.identifier_escape = identifier_escape or '"'
 343        self.pad = pad
 344        self.index_offset = index_offset
 345        self.unnest_column_only = unnest_column_only
 346        self.alias_post_tablesample = alias_post_tablesample
 347        self.identifiers_can_start_with_digit = identifiers_can_start_with_digit
 348        self.normalize_functions = normalize_functions
 349        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 350        self.unsupported_messages = []
 351        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 352        self.null_ordering = null_ordering
 353        self._indent = indent
 354        self._escaped_quote_end = self.string_escape + self.quote_end
 355        self._escaped_identifier_end = self.identifier_escape + self.identifier_end
 356        self._leading_comma = leading_comma
 357        self._max_text_width = max_text_width
 358        self._comments = comments
 359        self._cache = None
 360
 361    def generate(
 362        self,
 363        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
 364        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
 365    ) -> str:
 366        """
 367        Generates a SQL string by interpreting the given syntax tree.
 368
 369        Args
 370            expression: the syntax tree.
 371            cache: an optional sql string cache. this leverages the hash of an expression which is slow, so only use this if you set _hash on each node.
 372
 373        Returns
 374            the SQL string.
 375        """
 376        if cache is not None:
 377            self._cache = cache
 378        self.unsupported_messages = []
 379        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 380        self._cache = None
 381
 382        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 383            return sql
 384
 385        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 386            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 387                logger.warning(msg)
 388        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 389            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 390
 391        if self.pretty:
 392            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 393        return sql
 394
 395    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 396        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 397            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 398        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 399
 400    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 401        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 402
 403    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 404        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 405
 406    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 407        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 408        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 409        return comment
 410
 411    def maybe_comment(
 412        self,
 413        sql: str,
 414        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 415        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 416    ) -> str:
 417        comments = ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments) if self._comments else None  # type: ignore
 418
 419        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
 420            return sql
 421
 422        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
 423        comments_sql = sep.join(
 424            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 425        )
 426
 427        if not comments_sql:
 428            return sql
 429
 430        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 431            return (
 432                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 433                if sql[0].isspace()
 434                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 435            )
 436
 437        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 438
 439    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 440        this_sql = self.indent(
 441            self.sql(expression)
 442            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 443            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 444            level=1,
 445            pad=0,
 446        )
 447        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 448
 449    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 450        original = self.identify
 451        self.identify = False
 452        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 453        self.identify = original
 454        return result
 455
 456    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 457        if self.normalize_functions == "upper":
 458            return name.upper()
 459        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 460            return name.lower()
 461        return name
 462
 463    def indent(
 464        self,
 465        sql: str,
 466        level: int = 0,
 467        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 468        skip_first: bool = False,
 469        skip_last: bool = False,
 470    ) -> str:
 471        if not self.pretty:
 472            return sql
 473
 474        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 475        lines = sql.split("\n")
 476
 477        return "\n".join(
 478            line
 479            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 480            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 481            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 482        )
 483
 484    def sql(
 485        self,
 486        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 487        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 488        comment: bool = True,
 489    ) -> str:
 490        if not expression:
 491            return ""
 492
 493        if isinstance(expression, str):
 494            return expression
 495
 496        if key:
 497            return self.sql(expression.args.get(key))
 498
 499        if self._cache is not None:
 500            expression_id = hash(expression)
 501
 502            if expression_id in self._cache:
 503                return self._cache[expression_id]
 504
 505        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 506
 507        if callable(transform):
 508            sql = transform(self, expression)
 509        elif transform:
 510            sql = transform
 511        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 512            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 513
 514            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 515                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 516            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 517                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 518            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 519                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 520            else:
 521                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 522        else:
 523            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 524
 525        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self._comments and comment else sql
 526
 527        if self._cache is not None:
 528            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
 529        return sql
 530
 531    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 532        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 533        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 534        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 535
 536    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 537        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 538        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 539        options = expression.args.get("options")
 540        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 541        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 542        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 543        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 544        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 545
 546    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 547        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 548            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 549        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 550        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 551
 552    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 553        return ".".join(
 554            self.sql(part)
 555            for part in (
 556                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 557                expression.args.get("db"),
 558                expression.args.get("table"),
 559                expression.args.get("this"),
 560            )
 561            if part
 562        )
 563
 564    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 565        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 566        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 567        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 568        return f"{position}{this}"
 569
 570    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 571        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 572        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 573        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 574        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 575        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 576        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 577        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 578        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 579
 580        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 581
 582    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 583        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 584        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 585        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 586
 587    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 588        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 589
 590    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 591        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 592            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 593        else:
 594            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 595
 596        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 597
 598    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 599        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 600    ) -> str:
 601        this = ""
 602        if expression.this is not None:
 603            on_null = "ON NULL " if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 604            this = " ALWAYS " if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT {on_null}"
 605
 606        start = expression.args.get("start")
 607        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 608        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 609        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 610        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 611        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 612        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 613        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 614        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 615        cycle_sql = ""
 616
 617        if cycle is not None:
 618            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 619            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 620
 621        sequence_opts = ""
 622        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 623            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 624            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 625
 626        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 627        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 628
 629        return f"GENERATED{this}AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 630
 631    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 632        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 633
 634    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 635        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 636        if desc is not None:
 637            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 638        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 639
 640    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 641        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 642        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 643        return f"UNIQUE{this}"
 644
 645    def createable_sql(
 646        self, expression: exp.Create, locations: dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]
 647    ) -> str:
 648        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 649
 650    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 651        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 652        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 653        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else {}
 654
 655        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 656
 657        properties_sql = ""
 658        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 659            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 660        ):
 661            properties_sql = self.sql(
 662                exp.Properties(
 663                    expressions=[
 664                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 665                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 666                    ]
 667                )
 668            )
 669
 670        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 671        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 672        if expression_sql:
 673            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
 674
 675            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 676                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 677                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 678                        exp.Properties(
 679                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 680                        ),
 681                        wrapped=False,
 682                    )
 683                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 684                else:
 685                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 686
 687        postindex_props_sql = ""
 688        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 689            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 690                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 691                wrapped=False,
 692                prefix=" ",
 693            )
 694
 695        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 696        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 697        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 698
 699        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 700        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 701
 702        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 703        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 704            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 705                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 706                sep=" ",
 707                prefix=" ",
 708                wrapped=False,
 709            )
 710
 711        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 712
 713        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 714        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 715            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 716                exp.Properties(
 717                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 718                ),
 719                sep=" ",
 720                prefix=" ",
 721                wrapped=False,
 722            )
 723
 724        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 725        no_schema_binding = (
 726            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 727        )
 728
 729        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 730        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 731
 732        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 733        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 734
 735    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 736        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 737        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 738
 739        if when:
 740            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 741            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 742            return f"CLONE {this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 743
 744        return f"CLONE {this}"
 745
 746    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 747        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 748
 749    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 750        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 751        if with_:
 752            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 753        return sql
 754
 755    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 756        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 757        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
 758
 759        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 760
 761    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 762        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 763        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 764
 765    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 766        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 767        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 768        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 769        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 770
 771    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 772        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 773        if self.bit_start:
 774            return f"{self.bit_start}{this}{self.bit_end}"
 775        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 776
 777    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 778        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 779        if self.hex_start:
 780            return f"{self.hex_start}{this}{self.hex_end}"
 781        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 782
 783    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 784        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 785        if self.byte_start:
 786            return f"{self.byte_start}{this}{self.byte_end}"
 787        return this
 788
 789    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 790        if self.raw_start:
 791            return f"{self.raw_start}{expression.name}{self.raw_end}"
 792        return self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name.replace("\\", "\\\\")))
 793
 794    def datatypesize_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeSize) -> str:
 795        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 796        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 797        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
 798        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 799
 800    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 801        type_value = expression.this
 802        type_sql = self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 803        nested = ""
 804        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 805        values = ""
 806        if interior:
 807            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 808                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 809                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 810                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 811                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 812                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 813            else:
 814                nested = f"({interior})"
 815
 816        return f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 817
 818    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 819        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 820        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 821        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 822        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
 823
 824    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 825        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 826        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 827        using_sql = (
 828            f" USING {self.expressions(expression, key='using', sep=', USING ')}"
 829            if expression.args.get("using")
 830            else ""
 831        )
 832        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
 833        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
 834        sql = f"DELETE{this}{using_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
 835        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 836
 837    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
 838        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 839        kind = expression.args["kind"]
 840        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
 841        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
 842        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
 843        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
 844        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
 845        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
 846        return (
 847            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
 848        )
 849
 850    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 851        return self.prepend_ctes(
 852            expression,
 853            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
 854        )
 855
 856    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 857        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
 858
 859    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
 860        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
 861        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
 862        count = expression.args.get("count")
 863        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
 864        if expression.args.get("percent"):
 865            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
 866        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
 867        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
 868
 869    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
 870        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 871        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
 872        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
 873
 874    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
 875        if self.sql(expression, "this"):
 876            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
 877        return ""
 878
 879    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
 880        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 881        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
 882        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
 883        name = f"{expression.name} " if expression.name else ""
 884        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
 885        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table} " if table else ""
 886        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
 887        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 888        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
 889        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
 890        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}({columns}){partition_by}"
 891
 892    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
 893        text = expression.name
 894        lower = text.lower()
 895        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
 896        text = text.replace(self.identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
 897        if (
 898            expression.quoted
 899            or should_identify(text, self.identify)
 900            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
 901            or (not self.identifiers_can_start_with_digit and text[:1].isdigit())
 902        ):
 903            text = f"{self.identifier_start}{text}{self.identifier_end}"
 904        return text
 905
 906    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
 907        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
 908        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
 909        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
 910        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
 911        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
 912
 913    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
 914        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
 915        return f"{prefix}{string}"
 916
 917    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
 918        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression)})"
 919
 920    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
 921        root_properties = []
 922        with_properties = []
 923
 924        for p in expression.expressions:
 925            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
 926            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
 927                with_properties.append(p)
 928            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
 929                root_properties.append(p)
 930
 931        return self.root_properties(
 932            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
 933        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
 934
 935    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
 936        if properties.expressions:
 937            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
 938        return ""
 939
 940    def properties(
 941        self,
 942        properties: exp.Properties,
 943        prefix: str = "",
 944        sep: str = ", ",
 945        suffix: str = "",
 946        wrapped: bool = True,
 947    ) -> str:
 948        if properties.expressions:
 949            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
 950            expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
 951            return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
 952        return ""
 953
 954    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
 955        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
 956
 957    def locate_properties(
 958        self, properties: exp.Properties
 959    ) -> t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]:
 960        properties_locs: t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]] = {
 961            key: [] for key in exp.Properties.Location
 962        }
 963
 964        for p in properties.expressions:
 965            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
 966            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME:
 967                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME].append(p)
 968            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX:
 969                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX].append(p)
 970            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
 971                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA].append(p)
 972            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
 973                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH].append(p)
 974            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE:
 975                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE].append(p)
 976            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS:
 977                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS].append(p)
 978            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION:
 979                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION].append(p)
 980            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
 981                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
 982
 983        return properties_locs
 984
 985    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
 986        property_cls = expression.__class__
 987        if property_cls == exp.Property:
 988            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
 989
 990        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
 991        if not property_name:
 992            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
 993
 994        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 995
 996    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
 997        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
 998        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
 999        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1000
1001    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1002        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1003        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1004        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1005
1006    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1007        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1008        local = expression.args.get("local")
1009        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1010        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1011        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1012        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1013        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1014
1015    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1016        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1017        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1018        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1019
1020    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1021        if expression.args.get("default"):
1022            property = "DEFAULT"
1023        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1024            property = "ON"
1025        else:
1026            property = "OFF"
1027        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1028
1029    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1030        if expression.args.get("no"):
1031            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1032        if expression.args.get("default"):
1033            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1034
1035        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1036        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1037
1038    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1039        default = expression.args.get("default")
1040        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1041        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1042        if default or minimum or maximum:
1043            if default:
1044                prop = "DEFAULT"
1045            elif minimum:
1046                prop = "MINIMUM"
1047            else:
1048                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1049            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1050        units = expression.args.get("units")
1051        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1052        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1053
1054    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1055        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1056        always = expression.args.get("always")
1057        default = expression.args.get("default")
1058        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1059        never = expression.args.get("never")
1060
1061        if autotemp is not None:
1062            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1063        elif always:
1064            prop = "ALWAYS"
1065        elif default:
1066            prop = "DEFAULT"
1067        elif manual:
1068            prop = "MANUAL"
1069        elif never:
1070            prop = "NEVER"
1071        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1072
1073    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1074        no = expression.args.get("no")
1075        no = " NO" if no else ""
1076        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1077        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1078
1079        for_ = ""
1080        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1081            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1082        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1083            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1084        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1085            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1086        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1087
1088    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1089        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1090        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1091        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1092        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1093        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1094        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1095
1096    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1097        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1098        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1099        statistics_sql = ""
1100        if statistics is not None:
1101            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1102        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1103
1104    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1105        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1106
1107        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1108            this = "OVERWRITE " if overwrite else "INTO "
1109        else:
1110            this = "OVERWRITE TABLE " if overwrite else "INTO "
1111
1112        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1113        alternative = f" OR {alternative} " if alternative else " "
1114        this = f"{this}{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1115
1116        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1117        partition_sql = (
1118            self.sql(expression, "partition") if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1119        )
1120        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1121        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1122        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1123        sep = self.sep() if partition_sql else ""
1124        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{this}{exists}{partition_sql}{sep}{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1125        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1126
1127    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1128        return self.prepend_ctes(
1129            expression,
1130            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1131        )
1132
1133    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1134        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1135
1136    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1137        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1138
1139    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1140        return expression.name.upper()
1141
1142    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1143        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1144        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1145        if constraint:
1146            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1147        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1148        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1149        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1150        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1151        if expressions:
1152            expressions = f"UPDATE SET {expressions}"
1153        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1154
1155    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1156        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1157
1158    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1159        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1160        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1161        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1162        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1163        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1164        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1165        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1166        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1167        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1168        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1169        null = expression.args.get("null")
1170        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1171        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1172
1173    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1174        table = ".".join(
1175            part
1176            for part in [
1177                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1178                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1179                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1180            ]
1181            if part
1182        )
1183
1184        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1185        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1186        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", flat=True)
1187        hints = f" WITH ({hints})" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1188        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1189        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1190        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="")
1191        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1192        system_time = expression.args.get("system_time")
1193        system_time = f" {self.sql(expression, 'system_time')}" if system_time else ""
1194
1195        return f"{table}{system_time}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
1196
1197    def tablesample_sql(
1198        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1199    ) -> str:
1200        if self.alias_post_tablesample and expression.this.alias:
1201            table = expression.this.copy()
1202            table.set("alias", None)
1203            this = self.sql(table)
1204            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1205        else:
1206            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1207            alias = ""
1208        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1209        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1210        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1211        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1212        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1213        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1214        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1215        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1216        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1217        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1218        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1219        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1220        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1221            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1222        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1223        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1224        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1225        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
1226
1227    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1228        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1229
1230        if expression.this:
1231            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1232            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1233            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1234            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1235            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1236            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1237
1238        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1239        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1240        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1241        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1242        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1243        return f"{direction}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1244
1245    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1246        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1247
1248    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1249        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1250        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1251        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1252        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1253        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1254        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1255        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1256
1257    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1258        args = self.expressions(expression)
1259        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1260        values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1261        values = (
1262            f"({values})"
1263            if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1264            else values
1265        )
1266        return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1267
1268    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1269        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1270
1271    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1272        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1273        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1274        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1275
1276    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1277        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1278
1279    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1280        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1281        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1282        grouping_sets = (
1283            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1284        )
1285
1286        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1287        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1288            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1289        else:
1290            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1291            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1292
1293        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1294        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1295            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1296        else:
1297            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1298            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1299
1300        groupings = csv(
1301            grouping_sets,
1302            cube_sql,
1303            rollup_sql,
1304            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1305            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1306        )
1307
1308        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1309            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1310
1311        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1312
1313    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1314        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1315        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1316
1317    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1318        op_sql = " ".join(
1319            op
1320            for op in (
1321                expression.method,
1322                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1323                expression.side,
1324                expression.kind,
1325                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1326            )
1327            if op
1328        )
1329        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1330        using = expression.args.get("using")
1331
1332        if not on_sql and using:
1333            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1334
1335        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1336
1337        if on_sql:
1338            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1339            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1340            if using:
1341                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1342            else:
1343                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1344        elif not op_sql:
1345            return f", {this_sql}"
1346
1347        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1348        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1349
1350    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1351        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1352        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1353        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1354
1355    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1356        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1357
1358        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1359            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1360
1361        if expression.args.get("view"):
1362            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1363            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1364            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1365            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1366            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1367            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1368
1369        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1370        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1371        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1372
1373    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit) -> str:
1374        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1375        return f"{this}{self.seg('LIMIT')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1376
1377    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1378        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1379        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1380
1381    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1382        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1383        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1384        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1385        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1386        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1387        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1388        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1389        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1390
1391    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1392        expressions = (
1393            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1394        )
1395        return f"SET{expressions}"
1396
1397    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1398        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1399
1400    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1401        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1402            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1403            return ""
1404
1405        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1406        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1407        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1408        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1409
1410        if wait is not None:
1411            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1412                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1413            else:
1414                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1415
1416        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1417
1418    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1419        text = expression.this or ""
1420        if expression.is_string:
1421            text = text.replace(self.quote_end, self._escaped_quote_end)
1422            if self.pretty:
1423                text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1424            text = f"{self.quote_start}{text}{self.quote_end}"
1425        return text
1426
1427    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1428        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1429        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1430        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1431        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1432        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1433        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1434        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1435        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1436        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1437        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1438        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1439
1440    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1441        return "NULL"
1442
1443    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1444        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1445
1446    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1447        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1448        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1449        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1450
1451    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1452        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1453
1454    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1455        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1456
1457    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1458        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1459
1460    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1461        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1462        asc = not desc
1463
1464        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1465        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1466        nulls_are_large = self.null_ordering == "nulls_are_large"
1467        nulls_are_small = self.null_ordering == "nulls_are_small"
1468        nulls_are_last = self.null_ordering == "nulls_are_last"
1469
1470        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1471        nulls_sort_change = ""
1472        if nulls_first and (
1473            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1474        ):
1475            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1476        elif (
1477            nulls_last
1478            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1479            and not nulls_are_last
1480        ):
1481            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1482
1483        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1484            self.unsupported(
1485                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1486            )
1487            nulls_sort_change = ""
1488
1489        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1490
1491    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1492        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1493        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1494        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1495        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1496        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1497        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1498        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1499        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1500        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1501        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1502        definition_sqls = [
1503            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1504            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1505        ]
1506        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1507        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1508        body = "".join(
1509            (
1510                partition,
1511                order,
1512                measures,
1513                rows,
1514                after,
1515                pattern,
1516                define,
1517            )
1518        )
1519        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1520        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1521        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1522
1523    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1524        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1525
1526        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1527            limit = exp.Limit(expression=limit.args.get("count"))
1528        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1529            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=limit.expression)
1530
1531        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1532
1533        return csv(
1534            *sqls,
1535            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1536            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1537            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1538            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1539            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1540            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1541            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1542            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1543            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1544            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1545            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1546            sep="",
1547        )
1548
1549    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1550        return [
1551            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1552            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1553            if expression.args.get("windows")
1554            else "",
1555        ]
1556
1557    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1558        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1559        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1560        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1561
1562    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1563        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1564        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1565        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1566        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1567        kind = f" AS {kind}" if kind else ""
1568        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1569        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1570        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1571            expression,
1572            f"SELECT{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1573            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1574            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1575        )
1576        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1577
1578    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1579        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1580        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1581        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1582        return f"{this}{sql}"
1583
1584    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1585        return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1586
1587    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1588        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1589        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1590        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1591        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1592        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
1593
1594    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1595        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1596        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1597        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
1598
1599    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1600        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1601        kind = expression.text("kind")
1602        if kind:
1603            kind = f"{kind}."
1604        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
1605
1606    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1607        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
1608
1609    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1610        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1611        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1612
1613        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1614        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1615
1616        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1617        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1618
1619    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1620        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1621        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1622
1623    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1624        return self.prepend_ctes(
1625            expression,
1626            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1627        )
1628
1629    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1630        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1631        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1632        return f"UNION{kind}"
1633
1634    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1635        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1636        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1637        if alias and self.unnest_column_only:
1638            columns = alias.columns
1639            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1640        else:
1641            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1642        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1643        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1644        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1645        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1646        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
1647
1648    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1649        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1650        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1651
1652    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1653        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1654        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1655        order = expression.args.get("order")
1656        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1657        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1658        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1659        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1660
1661        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1662
1663        first = expression.args.get("first")
1664        if first is None:
1665            first = ""
1666        else:
1667            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1668
1669        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1670            return f"{this} {alias}"
1671
1672        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1673        return f"{this} ({args})"
1674
1675    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1676        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1677        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
1678
1679    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1680        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1681        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1682        end = (
1683            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1684            or "CURRENT ROW"
1685        )
1686        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
1687
1688    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1689        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1690        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1691        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
1692
1693    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1694        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1695        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1696        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1697        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
1698
1699    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1700        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.index_offset)
1701        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1702
1703        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
1704
1705    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1706        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
1707
1708    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1709        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1710        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1711            this = self.wrap(this)
1712        return f"ANY {this}"
1713
1714    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1715        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
1716
1717    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1718        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1719        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1720
1721        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1722            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1723            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1724
1725        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1726
1727        if default:
1728            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1729
1730        statements.append("END")
1731
1732        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self._max_text_width:
1733            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1734
1735        return " ".join(statements)
1736
1737    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1738        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1739        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1740        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
1741
1742    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1743        order = expression.args.get("order")
1744        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1745        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
1746
1747    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1748        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1749        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1750        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
1751
1752    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1753        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1754
1755        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1756            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1757        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1758            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1759        else:
1760            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
1761
1762    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
1763        if len(expression.expressions) == 1:
1764            return self.sql(expression.expressions[0])
1765        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
1766
1767    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1768        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1769        return f"CHECK ({this})"
1770
1771    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1772        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1773        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1774        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1775        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
1776        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
1777        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
1778        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
1779        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
1780
1781    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1782        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1783        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1784        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1785        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
1786
1787    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
1788        return self.case_sql(
1789            exp.Case(ifs=[expression.copy()], default=expression.args.get("false"))
1790        )
1791
1792    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1793        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
1794        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
1795        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
1796
1797    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1798        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1799
1800    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
1801        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1802        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
1803        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
1804        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
1805        if unique_keys is not None:
1806            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
1807        else:
1808            unique_keys = ""
1809        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
1810        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
1811        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
1812        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
1813        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
1814        return f"JSON_OBJECT({expressions}{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})"
1815
1816    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
1817        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1818        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1819        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1820        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
1821        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
1822        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
1823
1824    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
1825        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1826        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1827        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
1828        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1829        with_ = (
1830            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1831            if expressions
1832            else ""
1833        )
1834        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
1835
1836    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
1837        query = expression.args.get("query")
1838        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
1839        field = expression.args.get("field")
1840        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
1841
1842        if query:
1843            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
1844        elif unnest:
1845            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
1846        elif field:
1847            in_sql = self.sql(field)
1848        else:
1849            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1850
1851        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
1852
1853    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1854        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
1855
1856    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
1857        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
1858        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
1859            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
1860        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
1861
1862        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
1863            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
1864            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
1865
1866        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1867        if this:
1868            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
1869            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
1870
1871        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
1872
1873    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
1874        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1875
1876    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
1877        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1878        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1879        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1880        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1881        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1882        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
1883
1884    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
1885        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
1886
1887    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
1888        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
1889            sql = self.wrap(expression)
1890        else:
1891            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
1892            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1893
1894        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1895
1896    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
1897        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
1898        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1899        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
1900        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
1901
1902    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
1903        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1904
1905    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
1906        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1907        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1908        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
1909
1910    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
1911        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1912
1913    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
1914        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1915        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
1916        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
1917
1918    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
1919        return self.binary(expression, "+")
1920
1921    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
1922        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
1923
1924    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
1925        if not self.pretty:
1926            return self.binary(expression, op)
1927
1928        sqls = tuple(
1929            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
1930            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
1931        )
1932
1933        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self._max_text_width else " "
1934        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
1935
1936    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
1937        return self.binary(expression, "&")
1938
1939    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
1940        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
1941
1942    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
1943        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1944
1945    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
1946        return self.binary(expression, "|")
1947
1948    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
1949        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
1950
1951    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
1952        return self.binary(expression, "^")
1953
1954    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast) -> str:
1955        return f"CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')})"
1956
1957    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
1958        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
1959        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
1960
1961    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
1962        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
1963
1964    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
1965        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
1966
1967    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
1968        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1969        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1970        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1971        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1972        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
1973
1974    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
1975        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1976        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
1977        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
1978        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
1979        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
1980        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
1981        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
1982        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
1983        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
1984
1985    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
1986        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1987        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1988        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
1989        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
1990
1991        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
1992            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1993
1994        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
1995
1996    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
1997        return "BEGIN"
1998
1999    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2000        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2001        if chain is not None:
2002            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2003
2004        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2005
2006    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2007        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2008        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2009        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2010
2011    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2012        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2013
2014        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2015        if dtype:
2016            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2017            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2018            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2019            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2020            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2021
2022        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2023        if default:
2024            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2025
2026        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2027            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2028
2029        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2030
2031    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2032        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2033            # Remove db from tables
2034            expression = expression.transform(
2035                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2036            )
2037        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2038        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2039
2040    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2041        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2042
2043        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2044            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMN ")
2045        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2046            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2047        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2048            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2049        else:
2050            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2051
2052        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2053        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2054
2055    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2056        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2057        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2058        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2059
2060    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2061        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2062        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2063        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2064
2065        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2066        if enforced is not None:
2067            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2068
2069        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2070
2071    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2072        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2073        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2074
2075        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2076        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2077        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2078
2079    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2080        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2081
2082    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2083        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2084
2085    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2086        return self.sql(
2087            exp.Cast(
2088                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2089                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2090            )
2091        )
2092
2093    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2094        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2095
2096    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2097        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2098
2099    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2100        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2101
2102    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2103        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2104
2105    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2106        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2107
2108    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2109        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2110
2111    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2112        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2113
2114    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2115        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2116
2117    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2118        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2119
2120    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2121        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2122
2123    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2124        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2125
2126    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2127        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2128
2129    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2130        if not self.IS_BOOL and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2131            return self.sql(
2132                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2133            )
2134        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2135
2136    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2137        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2138
2139    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2140        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2141
2142    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2143        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2144
2145    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2146        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2147
2148    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2149        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2150
2151    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2152        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2153
2154    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2155        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2156
2157    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2158        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2159
2160    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2161        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2162
2163    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2164        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2165
2166    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2167        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2168
2169    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2170        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2171
2172    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2173        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2174
2175    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2176        return f"TRY_CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')})"
2177
2178    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2179        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2180        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2181        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2182        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2183        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2184
2185    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2186        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2187        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2188
2189    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2190        args = []
2191        for arg_value in expression.args.values():
2192            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2193                for value in arg_value:
2194                    args.append(value)
2195            else:
2196                args.append(arg_value)
2197
2198        return self.func(expression.sql_name(), *args)
2199
2200    def func(self, name: str, *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str]) -> str:
2201        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}({self.format_args(*args)})"
2202
2203    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2204        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2205        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self._max_text_width:
2206            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2207        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2208
2209    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2210        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2211
2212    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2213        return format_time(self.sql(expression, "format"), self.time_mapping, self.time_trie)
2214
2215    def expressions(
2216        self,
2217        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2218        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2219        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2220        flat: bool = False,
2221        indent: bool = True,
2222        sep: str = ", ",
2223        prefix: str = "",
2224    ) -> str:
2225        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2226
2227        if not expressions:
2228            return ""
2229
2230        if flat:
2231            return sep.join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2232
2233        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2234
2235        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2236        pad = " " * self.pad
2237        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2238
2239        result_sqls = []
2240        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2241            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2242            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2243
2244            if self.pretty:
2245                if self._leading_comma:
2246                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2247                else:
2248                    result_sqls.append(
2249                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2250                    )
2251            else:
2252                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2253
2254        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2255        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=False) if indent else result_sql
2256
2257    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2258        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2259        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2260        if flat:
2261            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2262        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2263
2264    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2265        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2266        if not property_name:
2267            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2268        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2269
2270    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2271        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2272        op = self.seg(op)
2273        return self.query_modifiers(
2274            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2275        )
2276
2277    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2278        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2279
2280    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2281        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2282
2283    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2284        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2285        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2286        expressions = (
2287            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2288        )
2289        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2290
2291    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2292        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2293        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2294        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2295
2296    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2297        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2298
2299    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2300        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2301        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2302        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2303        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2304
2305        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2306        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2307            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2308            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2309                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2310        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2311            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2312                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2313            else:
2314                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2315        else:
2316            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2317        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2318
2319    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2320        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2321        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2322        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2323        return f"MERGE INTO {this} {using} {on} {self.expressions(expression, sep=' ')}"
2324
2325    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2326        if expression.args.get("format"):
2327            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2328
2329        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2330
2331    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2332        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2333        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2334        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2335        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2336        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2337
2338    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2339        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2340        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2341        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2342        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2343
2344    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2345        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
2346
2347    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2348        return ""
2349
2350
2351def cached_generator(
2352    cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
2353) -> t.Callable[[exp.Expression], str]:
2354    """Returns a cached generator."""
2355    cache = {} if cache is None else cache
2356    generator = Generator(normalize=True, identify="safe")
2357    return lambda e: generator.generate(e, cache)
class Generator:
  16class Generator:
  17    """
  18    Generator interprets the given syntax tree and produces a SQL string as an output.
  19
  20    Args:
  21        time_mapping (dict): the dictionary of custom time mappings in which the key
  22            represents a python time format and the output the target time format
  23        time_trie (trie): a trie of the time_mapping keys
  24        pretty (bool): if set to True the returned string will be formatted. Default: False.
  25        quote_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit quotes. Default: '.
  26        quote_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit quotes. Default: '.
  27        identifier_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit identifiers. Default: ".
  28        identifier_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit identifiers. Default: ".
  29        bit_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit bit literals. Default: None.
  30        bit_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit bit literals. Default: None.
  31        hex_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit hex literals. Default: None.
  32        hex_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit hex literals. Default: None.
  33        byte_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit byte literals. Default: None.
  34        byte_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit byte literals. Default: None.
  35        raw_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit raw literals. Default: None.
  36        raw_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit raw literals. Default: None.
  37        identify (bool | str): 'always': always quote, 'safe': quote identifiers if they don't contain an upcase, True defaults to always.
  38        normalize (bool): if set to True all identifiers will lower cased
  39        string_escape (str): specifies a string escape character. Default: '.
  40        identifier_escape (str): specifies an identifier escape character. Default: ".
  41        pad (int): determines padding in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  42        indent (int): determines the size of indentation in a formatted string. Default: 4.
  43        unnest_column_only (bool): if true unnest table aliases are considered only as column aliases
  44        normalize_functions (str): normalize function names, "upper", "lower", or None
  45            Default: "upper"
  46        alias_post_tablesample (bool): if the table alias comes after tablesample
  47            Default: False
  48        identifiers_can_start_with_digit (bool): if an unquoted identifier can start with digit
  49            Default: False
  50        unsupported_level (ErrorLevel): determines the generator's behavior when it encounters
  51            unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  52        null_ordering (str): Indicates the default null ordering method to use if not explicitly set.
  53            Options are "nulls_are_small", "nulls_are_large", "nulls_are_last".
  54            Default: "nulls_are_small"
  55        max_unsupported (int): Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  56            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  57            Default: 3
  58        leading_comma (bool): if the the comma is leading or trailing in select statements
  59            Default: False
  60        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  61            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  62            line length.
  63            Default: 80
  64        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  65            Default: True
  66    """
  67
  68    TRANSFORMS = {
  69        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  70            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  71        ),
  72        exp.TsOrDsAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  73            "TS_OR_DS_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  74        ),
  75        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
  76        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  77        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  78        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  79        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  80        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  81        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  82        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  83        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  84        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  85        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  86        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  87        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  88        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
  89        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
  90        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
  91        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
  92        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
  93        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  95        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  96        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  97        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  98        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
  99        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 100        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 101        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
 102        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 103        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 104        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 105        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 106        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 107    }
 108
 109    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
 110    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
 111
 112    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 113    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 114
 115    # Always do union distinct or union all
 116    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 117
 118    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 119    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 120
 121    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 122    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 123
 124    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 125    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 126
 127    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 128    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 129
 130    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 131    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 132
 133    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 134    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 135
 136    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 137    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 138
 139    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 140    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 141
 142    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 143    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 144
 145    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 146    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 147
 148    # The string used for creating index on a table
 149    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 150
 151    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 152        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 153        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 154        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 155        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 156        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 157        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 158        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 159    }
 160
 161    STAR_MAPPING = {
 162        "except": "EXCEPT",
 163        "replace": "REPLACE",
 164    }
 165
 166    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 167        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 168        "seconds": "second",
 169        "minutes": "minute",
 170        "hours": "hour",
 171        "days": "day",
 172        "weeks": "week",
 173        "months": "month",
 174        "quarters": "quarter",
 175        "years": "year",
 176    }
 177
 178    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 179
 180    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 181
 182    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 183
 184    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 185        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 186        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 187        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 188        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 189        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 190        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 191        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 192        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 193        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 194        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 195        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 196        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 197        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 198        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 199        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 200        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 201        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 202        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 203        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 204        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 205        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 206        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 207        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 208        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 209        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 210        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 211        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 212        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 213        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 214        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 215        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 216        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 217        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 218        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 219        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 220        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 221        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 222        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 223        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 224        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 225        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 226        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 227        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 228        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 229        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 230        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 231        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 232        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 233        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 234        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 235        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 236        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 237    }
 238
 239    JOIN_HINTS = True
 240    TABLE_HINTS = True
 241    IS_BOOL = True
 242
 243    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 244    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS = (exp.Select, exp.From, exp.Where, exp.With)
 245    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES = (exp.Column, exp.Literal, exp.Neg, exp.Paren)
 246
 247    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 248
 249    __slots__ = (
 250        "time_mapping",
 251        "time_trie",
 252        "pretty",
 253        "quote_start",
 254        "quote_end",
 255        "identifier_start",
 256        "identifier_end",
 257        "bit_start",
 258        "bit_end",
 259        "hex_start",
 260        "hex_end",
 261        "byte_start",
 262        "byte_end",
 263        "raw_start",
 264        "raw_end",
 265        "identify",
 266        "normalize",
 267        "string_escape",
 268        "identifier_escape",
 269        "pad",
 270        "index_offset",
 271        "unnest_column_only",
 272        "alias_post_tablesample",
 273        "identifiers_can_start_with_digit",
 274        "normalize_functions",
 275        "unsupported_level",
 276        "unsupported_messages",
 277        "null_ordering",
 278        "max_unsupported",
 279        "_indent",
 280        "_escaped_quote_end",
 281        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 282        "_leading_comma",
 283        "_max_text_width",
 284        "_comments",
 285        "_cache",
 286    )
 287
 288    def __init__(
 289        self,
 290        time_mapping=None,
 291        time_trie=None,
 292        pretty=None,
 293        quote_start=None,
 294        quote_end=None,
 295        identifier_start=None,
 296        identifier_end=None,
 297        bit_start=None,
 298        bit_end=None,
 299        hex_start=None,
 300        hex_end=None,
 301        byte_start=None,
 302        byte_end=None,
 303        raw_start=None,
 304        raw_end=None,
 305        identify=False,
 306        normalize=False,
 307        string_escape=None,
 308        identifier_escape=None,
 309        pad=2,
 310        indent=2,
 311        index_offset=0,
 312        unnest_column_only=False,
 313        alias_post_tablesample=False,
 314        identifiers_can_start_with_digit=False,
 315        normalize_functions="upper",
 316        unsupported_level=ErrorLevel.WARN,
 317        null_ordering=None,
 318        max_unsupported=3,
 319        leading_comma=False,
 320        max_text_width=80,
 321        comments=True,
 322    ):
 323        import sqlglot
 324
 325        self.time_mapping = time_mapping or {}
 326        self.time_trie = time_trie
 327        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 328        self.quote_start = quote_start or "'"
 329        self.quote_end = quote_end or "'"
 330        self.identifier_start = identifier_start or '"'
 331        self.identifier_end = identifier_end or '"'
 332        self.bit_start = bit_start
 333        self.bit_end = bit_end
 334        self.hex_start = hex_start
 335        self.hex_end = hex_end
 336        self.byte_start = byte_start
 337        self.byte_end = byte_end
 338        self.raw_start = raw_start
 339        self.raw_end = raw_end
 340        self.identify = identify
 341        self.normalize = normalize
 342        self.string_escape = string_escape or "'"
 343        self.identifier_escape = identifier_escape or '"'
 344        self.pad = pad
 345        self.index_offset = index_offset
 346        self.unnest_column_only = unnest_column_only
 347        self.alias_post_tablesample = alias_post_tablesample
 348        self.identifiers_can_start_with_digit = identifiers_can_start_with_digit
 349        self.normalize_functions = normalize_functions
 350        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 351        self.unsupported_messages = []
 352        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 353        self.null_ordering = null_ordering
 354        self._indent = indent
 355        self._escaped_quote_end = self.string_escape + self.quote_end
 356        self._escaped_identifier_end = self.identifier_escape + self.identifier_end
 357        self._leading_comma = leading_comma
 358        self._max_text_width = max_text_width
 359        self._comments = comments
 360        self._cache = None
 361
 362    def generate(
 363        self,
 364        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
 365        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
 366    ) -> str:
 367        """
 368        Generates a SQL string by interpreting the given syntax tree.
 369
 370        Args
 371            expression: the syntax tree.
 372            cache: an optional sql string cache. this leverages the hash of an expression which is slow, so only use this if you set _hash on each node.
 373
 374        Returns
 375            the SQL string.
 376        """
 377        if cache is not None:
 378            self._cache = cache
 379        self.unsupported_messages = []
 380        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 381        self._cache = None
 382
 383        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 384            return sql
 385
 386        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 387            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 388                logger.warning(msg)
 389        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 390            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 391
 392        if self.pretty:
 393            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 394        return sql
 395
 396    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 397        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 398            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 399        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 400
 401    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 402        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 403
 404    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 405        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 406
 407    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 408        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 409        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 410        return comment
 411
 412    def maybe_comment(
 413        self,
 414        sql: str,
 415        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 416        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 417    ) -> str:
 418        comments = ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments) if self._comments else None  # type: ignore
 419
 420        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
 421            return sql
 422
 423        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
 424        comments_sql = sep.join(
 425            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 426        )
 427
 428        if not comments_sql:
 429            return sql
 430
 431        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 432            return (
 433                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 434                if sql[0].isspace()
 435                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 436            )
 437
 438        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 439
 440    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 441        this_sql = self.indent(
 442            self.sql(expression)
 443            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 444            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 445            level=1,
 446            pad=0,
 447        )
 448        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 449
 450    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 451        original = self.identify
 452        self.identify = False
 453        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 454        self.identify = original
 455        return result
 456
 457    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 458        if self.normalize_functions == "upper":
 459            return name.upper()
 460        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 461            return name.lower()
 462        return name
 463
 464    def indent(
 465        self,
 466        sql: str,
 467        level: int = 0,
 468        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 469        skip_first: bool = False,
 470        skip_last: bool = False,
 471    ) -> str:
 472        if not self.pretty:
 473            return sql
 474
 475        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 476        lines = sql.split("\n")
 477
 478        return "\n".join(
 479            line
 480            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 481            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 482            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 483        )
 484
 485    def sql(
 486        self,
 487        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 488        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 489        comment: bool = True,
 490    ) -> str:
 491        if not expression:
 492            return ""
 493
 494        if isinstance(expression, str):
 495            return expression
 496
 497        if key:
 498            return self.sql(expression.args.get(key))
 499
 500        if self._cache is not None:
 501            expression_id = hash(expression)
 502
 503            if expression_id in self._cache:
 504                return self._cache[expression_id]
 505
 506        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 507
 508        if callable(transform):
 509            sql = transform(self, expression)
 510        elif transform:
 511            sql = transform
 512        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 513            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 514
 515            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 516                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 517            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 518                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 519            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 520                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 521            else:
 522                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 523        else:
 524            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 525
 526        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self._comments and comment else sql
 527
 528        if self._cache is not None:
 529            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
 530        return sql
 531
 532    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 533        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 534        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 535        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 536
 537    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 538        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 539        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 540        options = expression.args.get("options")
 541        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 542        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 543        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 544        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 545        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 546
 547    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 548        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 549            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 550        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 551        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 552
 553    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 554        return ".".join(
 555            self.sql(part)
 556            for part in (
 557                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 558                expression.args.get("db"),
 559                expression.args.get("table"),
 560                expression.args.get("this"),
 561            )
 562            if part
 563        )
 564
 565    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 566        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 567        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 568        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 569        return f"{position}{this}"
 570
 571    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 572        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 573        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 574        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 575        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 576        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 577        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 578        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 579        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 580
 581        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 582
 583    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 584        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 585        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 586        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 587
 588    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 589        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 590
 591    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 592        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 593            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 594        else:
 595            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 596
 597        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 598
 599    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 600        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 601    ) -> str:
 602        this = ""
 603        if expression.this is not None:
 604            on_null = "ON NULL " if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 605            this = " ALWAYS " if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT {on_null}"
 606
 607        start = expression.args.get("start")
 608        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 609        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 610        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 611        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 612        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 613        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 614        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 615        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 616        cycle_sql = ""
 617
 618        if cycle is not None:
 619            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 620            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 621
 622        sequence_opts = ""
 623        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 624            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 625            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 626
 627        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 628        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 629
 630        return f"GENERATED{this}AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 631
 632    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 633        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 634
 635    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 636        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 637        if desc is not None:
 638            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 639        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 640
 641    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 642        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 643        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 644        return f"UNIQUE{this}"
 645
 646    def createable_sql(
 647        self, expression: exp.Create, locations: dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]
 648    ) -> str:
 649        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 650
 651    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 652        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 653        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 654        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else {}
 655
 656        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 657
 658        properties_sql = ""
 659        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 660            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 661        ):
 662            properties_sql = self.sql(
 663                exp.Properties(
 664                    expressions=[
 665                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 666                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 667                    ]
 668                )
 669            )
 670
 671        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 672        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 673        if expression_sql:
 674            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
 675
 676            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 677                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 678                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 679                        exp.Properties(
 680                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 681                        ),
 682                        wrapped=False,
 683                    )
 684                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 685                else:
 686                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 687
 688        postindex_props_sql = ""
 689        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 690            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 691                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 692                wrapped=False,
 693                prefix=" ",
 694            )
 695
 696        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 697        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 698        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 699
 700        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 701        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 702
 703        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 704        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 705            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 706                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 707                sep=" ",
 708                prefix=" ",
 709                wrapped=False,
 710            )
 711
 712        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 713
 714        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 715        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 716            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 717                exp.Properties(
 718                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 719                ),
 720                sep=" ",
 721                prefix=" ",
 722                wrapped=False,
 723            )
 724
 725        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 726        no_schema_binding = (
 727            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 728        )
 729
 730        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 731        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 732
 733        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 734        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 735
 736    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 737        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 738        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 739
 740        if when:
 741            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 742            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 743            return f"CLONE {this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 744
 745        return f"CLONE {this}"
 746
 747    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 748        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 749
 750    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 751        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 752        if with_:
 753            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 754        return sql
 755
 756    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 757        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 758        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
 759
 760        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 761
 762    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 763        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 764        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 765
 766    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 767        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 768        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 769        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 770        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 771
 772    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 773        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 774        if self.bit_start:
 775            return f"{self.bit_start}{this}{self.bit_end}"
 776        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 777
 778    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 779        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 780        if self.hex_start:
 781            return f"{self.hex_start}{this}{self.hex_end}"
 782        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 783
 784    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 785        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 786        if self.byte_start:
 787            return f"{self.byte_start}{this}{self.byte_end}"
 788        return this
 789
 790    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 791        if self.raw_start:
 792            return f"{self.raw_start}{expression.name}{self.raw_end}"
 793        return self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name.replace("\\", "\\\\")))
 794
 795    def datatypesize_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeSize) -> str:
 796        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 797        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 798        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
 799        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 800
 801    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 802        type_value = expression.this
 803        type_sql = self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 804        nested = ""
 805        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 806        values = ""
 807        if interior:
 808            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 809                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 810                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 811                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 812                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 813                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 814            else:
 815                nested = f"({interior})"
 816
 817        return f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 818
 819    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 820        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 821        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 822        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 823        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
 824
 825    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 826        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 827        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 828        using_sql = (
 829            f" USING {self.expressions(expression, key='using', sep=', USING ')}"
 830            if expression.args.get("using")
 831            else ""
 832        )
 833        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
 834        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
 835        sql = f"DELETE{this}{using_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
 836        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 837
 838    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
 839        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 840        kind = expression.args["kind"]
 841        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
 842        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
 843        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
 844        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
 845        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
 846        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
 847        return (
 848            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
 849        )
 850
 851    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 852        return self.prepend_ctes(
 853            expression,
 854            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
 855        )
 856
 857    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 858        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
 859
 860    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
 861        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
 862        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
 863        count = expression.args.get("count")
 864        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
 865        if expression.args.get("percent"):
 866            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
 867        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
 868        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
 869
 870    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
 871        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 872        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
 873        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
 874
 875    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
 876        if self.sql(expression, "this"):
 877            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
 878        return ""
 879
 880    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
 881        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 882        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
 883        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
 884        name = f"{expression.name} " if expression.name else ""
 885        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
 886        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table} " if table else ""
 887        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
 888        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 889        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
 890        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
 891        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}({columns}){partition_by}"
 892
 893    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
 894        text = expression.name
 895        lower = text.lower()
 896        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
 897        text = text.replace(self.identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
 898        if (
 899            expression.quoted
 900            or should_identify(text, self.identify)
 901            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
 902            or (not self.identifiers_can_start_with_digit and text[:1].isdigit())
 903        ):
 904            text = f"{self.identifier_start}{text}{self.identifier_end}"
 905        return text
 906
 907    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
 908        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
 909        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
 910        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
 911        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
 912        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
 913
 914    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
 915        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
 916        return f"{prefix}{string}"
 917
 918    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
 919        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression)})"
 920
 921    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
 922        root_properties = []
 923        with_properties = []
 924
 925        for p in expression.expressions:
 926            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
 927            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
 928                with_properties.append(p)
 929            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
 930                root_properties.append(p)
 931
 932        return self.root_properties(
 933            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
 934        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
 935
 936    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
 937        if properties.expressions:
 938            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
 939        return ""
 940
 941    def properties(
 942        self,
 943        properties: exp.Properties,
 944        prefix: str = "",
 945        sep: str = ", ",
 946        suffix: str = "",
 947        wrapped: bool = True,
 948    ) -> str:
 949        if properties.expressions:
 950            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
 951            expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
 952            return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
 953        return ""
 954
 955    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
 956        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
 957
 958    def locate_properties(
 959        self, properties: exp.Properties
 960    ) -> t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]:
 961        properties_locs: t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]] = {
 962            key: [] for key in exp.Properties.Location
 963        }
 964
 965        for p in properties.expressions:
 966            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
 967            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME:
 968                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME].append(p)
 969            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX:
 970                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX].append(p)
 971            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
 972                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA].append(p)
 973            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
 974                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH].append(p)
 975            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE:
 976                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE].append(p)
 977            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS:
 978                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS].append(p)
 979            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION:
 980                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION].append(p)
 981            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
 982                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
 983
 984        return properties_locs
 985
 986    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
 987        property_cls = expression.__class__
 988        if property_cls == exp.Property:
 989            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
 990
 991        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
 992        if not property_name:
 993            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
 994
 995        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 996
 997    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
 998        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
 999        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1000        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1001
1002    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1003        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1004        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1005        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1006
1007    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1008        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1009        local = expression.args.get("local")
1010        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1011        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1012        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1013        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1014        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1015
1016    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1017        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1018        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1019        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1020
1021    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1022        if expression.args.get("default"):
1023            property = "DEFAULT"
1024        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1025            property = "ON"
1026        else:
1027            property = "OFF"
1028        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1029
1030    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1031        if expression.args.get("no"):
1032            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1033        if expression.args.get("default"):
1034            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1035
1036        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1037        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1038
1039    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1040        default = expression.args.get("default")
1041        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1042        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1043        if default or minimum or maximum:
1044            if default:
1045                prop = "DEFAULT"
1046            elif minimum:
1047                prop = "MINIMUM"
1048            else:
1049                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1050            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1051        units = expression.args.get("units")
1052        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1053        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1054
1055    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1056        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1057        always = expression.args.get("always")
1058        default = expression.args.get("default")
1059        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1060        never = expression.args.get("never")
1061
1062        if autotemp is not None:
1063            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1064        elif always:
1065            prop = "ALWAYS"
1066        elif default:
1067            prop = "DEFAULT"
1068        elif manual:
1069            prop = "MANUAL"
1070        elif never:
1071            prop = "NEVER"
1072        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1073
1074    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1075        no = expression.args.get("no")
1076        no = " NO" if no else ""
1077        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1078        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1079
1080        for_ = ""
1081        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1082            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1083        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1084            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1085        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1086            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1087        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1088
1089    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1090        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1091        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1092        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1093        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1094        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1095        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1096
1097    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1098        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1099        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1100        statistics_sql = ""
1101        if statistics is not None:
1102            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1103        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1104
1105    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1106        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1107
1108        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1109            this = "OVERWRITE " if overwrite else "INTO "
1110        else:
1111            this = "OVERWRITE TABLE " if overwrite else "INTO "
1112
1113        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1114        alternative = f" OR {alternative} " if alternative else " "
1115        this = f"{this}{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1116
1117        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1118        partition_sql = (
1119            self.sql(expression, "partition") if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1120        )
1121        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1122        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1123        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1124        sep = self.sep() if partition_sql else ""
1125        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{this}{exists}{partition_sql}{sep}{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1126        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1127
1128    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1129        return self.prepend_ctes(
1130            expression,
1131            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1132        )
1133
1134    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1135        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1136
1137    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1138        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1139
1140    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1141        return expression.name.upper()
1142
1143    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1144        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1145        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1146        if constraint:
1147            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1148        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1149        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1150        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1151        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1152        if expressions:
1153            expressions = f"UPDATE SET {expressions}"
1154        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1155
1156    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1157        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1158
1159    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1160        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1161        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1162        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1163        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1164        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1165        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1166        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1167        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1168        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1169        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1170        null = expression.args.get("null")
1171        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1172        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1173
1174    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1175        table = ".".join(
1176            part
1177            for part in [
1178                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1179                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1180                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1181            ]
1182            if part
1183        )
1184
1185        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1186        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1187        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", flat=True)
1188        hints = f" WITH ({hints})" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1189        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1190        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1191        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="")
1192        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1193        system_time = expression.args.get("system_time")
1194        system_time = f" {self.sql(expression, 'system_time')}" if system_time else ""
1195
1196        return f"{table}{system_time}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
1197
1198    def tablesample_sql(
1199        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1200    ) -> str:
1201        if self.alias_post_tablesample and expression.this.alias:
1202            table = expression.this.copy()
1203            table.set("alias", None)
1204            this = self.sql(table)
1205            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1206        else:
1207            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1208            alias = ""
1209        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1210        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1211        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1212        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1213        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1214        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1215        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1216        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1217        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1218        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1219        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1220        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1221        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1222            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1223        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1224        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1225        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1226        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
1227
1228    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1229        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1230
1231        if expression.this:
1232            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1233            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1234            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1235            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1236            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1237            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1238
1239        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1240        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1241        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1242        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1243        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1244        return f"{direction}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1245
1246    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1247        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1248
1249    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1250        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1251        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1252        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1253        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1254        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1255        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1256        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1257
1258    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1259        args = self.expressions(expression)
1260        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1261        values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1262        values = (
1263            f"({values})"
1264            if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1265            else values
1266        )
1267        return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1268
1269    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1270        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1271
1272    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1273        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1274        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1275        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1276
1277    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1278        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1279
1280    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1281        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1282        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1283        grouping_sets = (
1284            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1285        )
1286
1287        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1288        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1289            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1290        else:
1291            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1292            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1293
1294        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1295        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1296            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1297        else:
1298            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1299            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1300
1301        groupings = csv(
1302            grouping_sets,
1303            cube_sql,
1304            rollup_sql,
1305            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1306            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1307        )
1308
1309        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1310            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1311
1312        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1313
1314    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1315        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1316        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1317
1318    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1319        op_sql = " ".join(
1320            op
1321            for op in (
1322                expression.method,
1323                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1324                expression.side,
1325                expression.kind,
1326                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1327            )
1328            if op
1329        )
1330        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1331        using = expression.args.get("using")
1332
1333        if not on_sql and using:
1334            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1335
1336        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1337
1338        if on_sql:
1339            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1340            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1341            if using:
1342                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1343            else:
1344                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1345        elif not op_sql:
1346            return f", {this_sql}"
1347
1348        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1349        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1350
1351    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1352        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1353        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1354        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1355
1356    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1357        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1358
1359        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1360            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1361
1362        if expression.args.get("view"):
1363            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1364            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1365            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1366            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1367            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1368            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1369
1370        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1371        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1372        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1373
1374    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit) -> str:
1375        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1376        return f"{this}{self.seg('LIMIT')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1377
1378    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1379        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1380        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1381
1382    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1383        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1384        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1385        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1386        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1387        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1388        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1389        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1390        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1391
1392    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1393        expressions = (
1394            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1395        )
1396        return f"SET{expressions}"
1397
1398    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1399        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1400
1401    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1402        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1403            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1404            return ""
1405
1406        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1407        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1408        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1409        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1410
1411        if wait is not None:
1412            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1413                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1414            else:
1415                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1416
1417        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1418
1419    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1420        text = expression.this or ""
1421        if expression.is_string:
1422            text = text.replace(self.quote_end, self._escaped_quote_end)
1423            if self.pretty:
1424                text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1425            text = f"{self.quote_start}{text}{self.quote_end}"
1426        return text
1427
1428    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1429        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1430        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1431        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1432        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1433        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1434        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1435        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1436        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1437        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1438        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1439        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1440
1441    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1442        return "NULL"
1443
1444    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1445        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1446
1447    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1448        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1449        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1450        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1451
1452    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1453        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1454
1455    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1456        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1457
1458    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1459        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1460
1461    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1462        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1463        asc = not desc
1464
1465        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1466        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1467        nulls_are_large = self.null_ordering == "nulls_are_large"
1468        nulls_are_small = self.null_ordering == "nulls_are_small"
1469        nulls_are_last = self.null_ordering == "nulls_are_last"
1470
1471        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1472        nulls_sort_change = ""
1473        if nulls_first and (
1474            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1475        ):
1476            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1477        elif (
1478            nulls_last
1479            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1480            and not nulls_are_last
1481        ):
1482            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1483
1484        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1485            self.unsupported(
1486                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1487            )
1488            nulls_sort_change = ""
1489
1490        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1491
1492    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1493        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1494        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1495        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1496        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1497        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1498        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1499        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1500        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1501        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1502        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1503        definition_sqls = [
1504            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1505            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1506        ]
1507        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1508        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1509        body = "".join(
1510            (
1511                partition,
1512                order,
1513                measures,
1514                rows,
1515                after,
1516                pattern,
1517                define,
1518            )
1519        )
1520        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1521        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1522        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1523
1524    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1525        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1526
1527        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1528            limit = exp.Limit(expression=limit.args.get("count"))
1529        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1530            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=limit.expression)
1531
1532        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1533
1534        return csv(
1535            *sqls,
1536            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1537            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1538            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1539            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1540            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1541            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1542            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1543            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1544            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1545            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1546            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1547            sep="",
1548        )
1549
1550    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1551        return [
1552            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1553            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1554            if expression.args.get("windows")
1555            else "",
1556        ]
1557
1558    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1559        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1560        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1561        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1562
1563    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1564        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1565        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1566        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1567        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1568        kind = f" AS {kind}" if kind else ""
1569        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1570        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1571        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1572            expression,
1573            f"SELECT{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1574            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1575            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1576        )
1577        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1578
1579    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1580        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1581        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1582        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1583        return f"{this}{sql}"
1584
1585    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1586        return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1587
1588    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1589        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1590        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1591        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1592        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1593        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
1594
1595    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1596        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1597        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1598        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
1599
1600    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1601        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1602        kind = expression.text("kind")
1603        if kind:
1604            kind = f"{kind}."
1605        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
1606
1607    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1608        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
1609
1610    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1611        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1612        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1613
1614        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1615        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1616
1617        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1618        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1619
1620    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1621        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1622        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1623
1624    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1625        return self.prepend_ctes(
1626            expression,
1627            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1628        )
1629
1630    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1631        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1632        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1633        return f"UNION{kind}"
1634
1635    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1636        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1637        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1638        if alias and self.unnest_column_only:
1639            columns = alias.columns
1640            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1641        else:
1642            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1643        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1644        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1645        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1646        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1647        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
1648
1649    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1650        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1651        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1652
1653    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1654        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1655        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1656        order = expression.args.get("order")
1657        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1658        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1659        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1660        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1661
1662        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1663
1664        first = expression.args.get("first")
1665        if first is None:
1666            first = ""
1667        else:
1668            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1669
1670        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1671            return f"{this} {alias}"
1672
1673        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1674        return f"{this} ({args})"
1675
1676    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1677        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1678        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
1679
1680    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1681        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1682        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1683        end = (
1684            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1685            or "CURRENT ROW"
1686        )
1687        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
1688
1689    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1690        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1691        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1692        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
1693
1694    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1695        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1696        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1697        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1698        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
1699
1700    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1701        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.index_offset)
1702        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1703
1704        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
1705
1706    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1707        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
1708
1709    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1710        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1711        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1712            this = self.wrap(this)
1713        return f"ANY {this}"
1714
1715    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1716        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
1717
1718    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1719        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1720        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1721
1722        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1723            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1724            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1725
1726        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1727
1728        if default:
1729            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1730
1731        statements.append("END")
1732
1733        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self._max_text_width:
1734            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1735
1736        return " ".join(statements)
1737
1738    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1739        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1740        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1741        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
1742
1743    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1744        order = expression.args.get("order")
1745        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1746        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
1747
1748    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1749        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1750        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1751        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
1752
1753    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1754        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1755
1756        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1757            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1758        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1759            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1760        else:
1761            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
1762
1763    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
1764        if len(expression.expressions) == 1:
1765            return self.sql(expression.expressions[0])
1766        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
1767
1768    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1769        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1770        return f"CHECK ({this})"
1771
1772    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1773        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1774        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1775        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1776        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
1777        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
1778        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
1779        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
1780        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
1781
1782    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1783        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1784        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1785        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1786        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
1787
1788    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
1789        return self.case_sql(
1790            exp.Case(ifs=[expression.copy()], default=expression.args.get("false"))
1791        )
1792
1793    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1794        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
1795        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
1796        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
1797
1798    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1799        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1800
1801    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
1802        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1803        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
1804        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
1805        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
1806        if unique_keys is not None:
1807            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
1808        else:
1809            unique_keys = ""
1810        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
1811        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
1812        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
1813        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
1814        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
1815        return f"JSON_OBJECT({expressions}{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})"
1816
1817    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
1818        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1819        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1820        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1821        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
1822        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
1823        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
1824
1825    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
1826        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1827        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1828        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
1829        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1830        with_ = (
1831            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1832            if expressions
1833            else ""
1834        )
1835        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
1836
1837    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
1838        query = expression.args.get("query")
1839        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
1840        field = expression.args.get("field")
1841        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
1842
1843        if query:
1844            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
1845        elif unnest:
1846            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
1847        elif field:
1848            in_sql = self.sql(field)
1849        else:
1850            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1851
1852        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
1853
1854    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1855        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
1856
1857    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
1858        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
1859        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
1860            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
1861        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
1862
1863        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
1864            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
1865            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
1866
1867        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1868        if this:
1869            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
1870            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
1871
1872        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
1873
1874    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
1875        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1876
1877    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
1878        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1879        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1880        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1881        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1882        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1883        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
1884
1885    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
1886        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
1887
1888    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
1889        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
1890            sql = self.wrap(expression)
1891        else:
1892            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
1893            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1894
1895        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1896
1897    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
1898        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
1899        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1900        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
1901        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
1902
1903    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
1904        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1905
1906    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
1907        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1908        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1909        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
1910
1911    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
1912        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1913
1914    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
1915        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1916        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
1917        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
1918
1919    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
1920        return self.binary(expression, "+")
1921
1922    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
1923        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
1924
1925    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
1926        if not self.pretty:
1927            return self.binary(expression, op)
1928
1929        sqls = tuple(
1930            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
1931            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
1932        )
1933
1934        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self._max_text_width else " "
1935        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
1936
1937    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
1938        return self.binary(expression, "&")
1939
1940    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
1941        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
1942
1943    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
1944        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1945
1946    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
1947        return self.binary(expression, "|")
1948
1949    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
1950        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
1951
1952    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
1953        return self.binary(expression, "^")
1954
1955    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast) -> str:
1956        return f"CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')})"
1957
1958    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
1959        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
1960        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
1961
1962    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
1963        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
1964
1965    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
1966        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
1967
1968    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
1969        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1970        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1971        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1972        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1973        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
1974
1975    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
1976        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1977        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
1978        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
1979        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
1980        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
1981        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
1982        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
1983        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
1984        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
1985
1986    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
1987        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1988        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1989        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
1990        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
1991
1992        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
1993            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1994
1995        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
1996
1997    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
1998        return "BEGIN"
1999
2000    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2001        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2002        if chain is not None:
2003            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2004
2005        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2006
2007    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2008        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2009        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2010        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2011
2012    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2013        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2014
2015        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2016        if dtype:
2017            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2018            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2019            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2020            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2021            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2022
2023        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2024        if default:
2025            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2026
2027        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2028            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2029
2030        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2031
2032    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2033        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2034            # Remove db from tables
2035            expression = expression.transform(
2036                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2037            )
2038        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2039        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2040
2041    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2042        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2043
2044        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2045            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMN ")
2046        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2047            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2048        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2049            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2050        else:
2051            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2052
2053        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2054        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2055
2056    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2057        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2058        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2059        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2060
2061    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2062        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2063        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2064        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2065
2066        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2067        if enforced is not None:
2068            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2069
2070        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2071
2072    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2073        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2074        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2075
2076        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2077        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2078        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2079
2080    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2081        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2082
2083    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2084        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2085
2086    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2087        return self.sql(
2088            exp.Cast(
2089                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2090                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2091            )
2092        )
2093
2094    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2095        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2096
2097    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2098        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2099
2100    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2101        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2102
2103    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2104        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2105
2106    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2107        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2108
2109    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2110        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2111
2112    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2113        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2114
2115    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2116        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2117
2118    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2119        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2120
2121    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2122        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2123
2124    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2125        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2126
2127    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2128        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2129
2130    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2131        if not self.IS_BOOL and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2132            return self.sql(
2133                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2134            )
2135        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2136
2137    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2138        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2139
2140    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2141        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2142
2143    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2144        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2145
2146    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2147        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2148
2149    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2150        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2151
2152    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2153        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2154
2155    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2156        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2157
2158    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2159        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2160
2161    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2162        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2163
2164    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2165        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2166
2167    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2168        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2169
2170    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2171        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2172
2173    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2174        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2175
2176    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2177        return f"TRY_CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')})"
2178
2179    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2180        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2181        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2182        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2183        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2184        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2185
2186    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2187        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2188        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2189
2190    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2191        args = []
2192        for arg_value in expression.args.values():
2193            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2194                for value in arg_value:
2195                    args.append(value)
2196            else:
2197                args.append(arg_value)
2198
2199        return self.func(expression.sql_name(), *args)
2200
2201    def func(self, name: str, *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str]) -> str:
2202        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}({self.format_args(*args)})"
2203
2204    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2205        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2206        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self._max_text_width:
2207            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2208        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2209
2210    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2211        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2212
2213    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2214        return format_time(self.sql(expression, "format"), self.time_mapping, self.time_trie)
2215
2216    def expressions(
2217        self,
2218        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2219        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2220        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2221        flat: bool = False,
2222        indent: bool = True,
2223        sep: str = ", ",
2224        prefix: str = "",
2225    ) -> str:
2226        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2227
2228        if not expressions:
2229            return ""
2230
2231        if flat:
2232            return sep.join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2233
2234        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2235
2236        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2237        pad = " " * self.pad
2238        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2239
2240        result_sqls = []
2241        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2242            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2243            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2244
2245            if self.pretty:
2246                if self._leading_comma:
2247                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2248                else:
2249                    result_sqls.append(
2250                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2251                    )
2252            else:
2253                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2254
2255        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2256        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=False) if indent else result_sql
2257
2258    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2259        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2260        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2261        if flat:
2262            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2263        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2264
2265    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2266        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2267        if not property_name:
2268            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2269        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2270
2271    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2272        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2273        op = self.seg(op)
2274        return self.query_modifiers(
2275            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2276        )
2277
2278    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2279        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2280
2281    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2282        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2283
2284    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2285        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2286        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2287        expressions = (
2288            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2289        )
2290        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2291
2292    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2293        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2294        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2295        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2296
2297    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2298        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2299
2300    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2301        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2302        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2303        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2304        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2305
2306        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2307        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2308            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2309            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2310                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2311        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2312            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2313                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2314            else:
2315                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2316        else:
2317            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2318        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2319
2320    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2321        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2322        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2323        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2324        return f"MERGE INTO {this} {using} {on} {self.expressions(expression, sep=' ')}"
2325
2326    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2327        if expression.args.get("format"):
2328            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2329
2330        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2331
2332    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2333        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2334        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2335        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2336        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2337        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2338
2339    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2340        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2341        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2342        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2343        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2344
2345    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2346        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
2347
2348    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2349        return ""

Generator interprets the given syntax tree and produces a SQL string as an output.

Arguments:
  • time_mapping (dict): the dictionary of custom time mappings in which the key represents a python time format and the output the target time format
  • time_trie (trie): a trie of the time_mapping keys
  • pretty (bool): if set to True the returned string will be formatted. Default: False.
  • quote_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit quotes. Default: '.
  • quote_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit quotes. Default: '.
  • identifier_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit identifiers. Default: ".
  • identifier_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit identifiers. Default: ".
  • bit_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit bit literals. Default: None.
  • bit_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit bit literals. Default: None.
  • hex_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit hex literals. Default: None.
  • hex_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit hex literals. Default: None.
  • byte_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit byte literals. Default: None.
  • byte_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit byte literals. Default: None.
  • raw_start (str): specifies which starting character to use to delimit raw literals. Default: None.
  • raw_end (str): specifies which ending character to use to delimit raw literals. Default: None.
  • identify (bool | str): 'always': always quote, 'safe': quote identifiers if they don't contain an upcase, True defaults to always.
  • normalize (bool): if set to True all identifiers will lower cased
  • string_escape (str): specifies a string escape character. Default: '.
  • identifier_escape (str): specifies an identifier escape character. Default: ".
  • pad (int): determines padding in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • indent (int): determines the size of indentation in a formatted string. Default: 4.
  • unnest_column_only (bool): if true unnest table aliases are considered only as column aliases
  • normalize_functions (str): normalize function names, "upper", "lower", or None Default: "upper"
  • alias_post_tablesample (bool): if the table alias comes after tablesample Default: False
  • identifiers_can_start_with_digit (bool): if an unquoted identifier can start with digit Default: False
  • unsupported_level (ErrorLevel): determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • null_ordering (str): Indicates the default null ordering method to use if not explicitly set. Options are "nulls_are_small", "nulls_are_large", "nulls_are_last". Default: "nulls_are_small"
  • max_unsupported (int): Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma (bool): if the the comma is leading or trailing in select statements Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( time_mapping=None, time_trie=None, pretty=None, quote_start=None, quote_end=None, identifier_start=None, identifier_end=None, bit_start=None, bit_end=None, hex_start=None, hex_end=None, byte_start=None, byte_end=None, raw_start=None, raw_end=None, identify=False, normalize=False, string_escape=None, identifier_escape=None, pad=2, indent=2, index_offset=0, unnest_column_only=False, alias_post_tablesample=False, identifiers_can_start_with_digit=False, normalize_functions='upper', unsupported_level=<ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, null_ordering=None, max_unsupported=3, leading_comma=False, max_text_width=80, comments=True)
288    def __init__(
289        self,
290        time_mapping=None,
291        time_trie=None,
292        pretty=None,
293        quote_start=None,
294        quote_end=None,
295        identifier_start=None,
296        identifier_end=None,
297        bit_start=None,
298        bit_end=None,
299        hex_start=None,
300        hex_end=None,
301        byte_start=None,
302        byte_end=None,
303        raw_start=None,
304        raw_end=None,
305        identify=False,
306        normalize=False,
307        string_escape=None,
308        identifier_escape=None,
309        pad=2,
310        indent=2,
311        index_offset=0,
312        unnest_column_only=False,
313        alias_post_tablesample=False,
314        identifiers_can_start_with_digit=False,
315        normalize_functions="upper",
316        unsupported_level=ErrorLevel.WARN,
317        null_ordering=None,
318        max_unsupported=3,
319        leading_comma=False,
320        max_text_width=80,
321        comments=True,
322    ):
323        import sqlglot
324
325        self.time_mapping = time_mapping or {}
326        self.time_trie = time_trie
327        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
328        self.quote_start = quote_start or "'"
329        self.quote_end = quote_end or "'"
330        self.identifier_start = identifier_start or '"'
331        self.identifier_end = identifier_end or '"'
332        self.bit_start = bit_start
333        self.bit_end = bit_end
334        self.hex_start = hex_start
335        self.hex_end = hex_end
336        self.byte_start = byte_start
337        self.byte_end = byte_end
338        self.raw_start = raw_start
339        self.raw_end = raw_end
340        self.identify = identify
341        self.normalize = normalize
342        self.string_escape = string_escape or "'"
343        self.identifier_escape = identifier_escape or '"'
344        self.pad = pad
345        self.index_offset = index_offset
346        self.unnest_column_only = unnest_column_only
347        self.alias_post_tablesample = alias_post_tablesample
348        self.identifiers_can_start_with_digit = identifiers_can_start_with_digit
349        self.normalize_functions = normalize_functions
350        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
351        self.unsupported_messages = []
352        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
353        self.null_ordering = null_ordering
354        self._indent = indent
355        self._escaped_quote_end = self.string_escape + self.quote_end
356        self._escaped_identifier_end = self.identifier_escape + self.identifier_end
357        self._leading_comma = leading_comma
358        self._max_text_width = max_text_width
359        self._comments = comments
360        self._cache = None
def generate( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], cache: Optional[Dict[int, str]] = None) -> str:
362    def generate(
363        self,
364        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
365        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
366    ) -> str:
367        """
368        Generates a SQL string by interpreting the given syntax tree.
369
370        Args
371            expression: the syntax tree.
372            cache: an optional sql string cache. this leverages the hash of an expression which is slow, so only use this if you set _hash on each node.
373
374        Returns
375            the SQL string.
376        """
377        if cache is not None:
378            self._cache = cache
379        self.unsupported_messages = []
380        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
381        self._cache = None
382
383        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
384            return sql
385
386        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
387            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
388                logger.warning(msg)
389        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
390            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
391
392        if self.pretty:
393            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
394        return sql

Generates a SQL string by interpreting the given syntax tree.

Args expression: the syntax tree. cache: an optional sql string cache. this leverages the hash of an expression which is slow, so only use this if you set _hash on each node.

Returns the SQL string.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
396    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
397        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
398            raise UnsupportedError(message)
399        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
401    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
402        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
404    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
405        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
407    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
408        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
409        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
410        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None) -> str:
412    def maybe_comment(
413        self,
414        sql: str,
415        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
416        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
417    ) -> str:
418        comments = ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments) if self._comments else None  # type: ignore
419
420        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
421            return sql
422
423        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
424        comments_sql = sep.join(
425            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
426        )
427
428        if not comments_sql:
429            return sql
430
431        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
432            return (
433                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
434                if sql[0].isspace()
435                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
436            )
437
438        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
440    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
441        this_sql = self.indent(
442            self.sql(expression)
443            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
444            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
445            level=1,
446            pad=0,
447        )
448        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
450    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
451        original = self.identify
452        self.identify = False
453        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
454        self.identify = original
455        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
457    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
458        if self.normalize_functions == "upper":
459            return name.upper()
460        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
461            return name.lower()
462        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
464    def indent(
465        self,
466        sql: str,
467        level: int = 0,
468        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
469        skip_first: bool = False,
470        skip_last: bool = False,
471    ) -> str:
472        if not self.pretty:
473            return sql
474
475        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
476        lines = sql.split("\n")
477
478        return "\n".join(
479            line
480            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
481            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
482            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
483        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
485    def sql(
486        self,
487        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
488        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
489        comment: bool = True,
490    ) -> str:
491        if not expression:
492            return ""
493
494        if isinstance(expression, str):
495            return expression
496
497        if key:
498            return self.sql(expression.args.get(key))
499
500        if self._cache is not None:
501            expression_id = hash(expression)
502
503            if expression_id in self._cache:
504                return self._cache[expression_id]
505
506        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
507
508        if callable(transform):
509            sql = transform(self, expression)
510        elif transform:
511            sql = transform
512        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
513            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
514
515            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
516                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
517            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
518                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
519            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
520                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
521            else:
522                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
523        else:
524            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
525
526        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self._comments and comment else sql
527
528        if self._cache is not None:
529            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
530        return sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
532    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
533        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
534        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
535        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
537    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
538        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
539        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
540        options = expression.args.get("options")
541        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
542        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
543        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
544        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
545        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
547    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
548        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
549            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
550        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
551        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
553    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
554        return ".".join(
555            self.sql(part)
556            for part in (
557                expression.args.get("catalog"),
558                expression.args.get("db"),
559                expression.args.get("table"),
560                expression.args.get("this"),
561            )
562            if part
563        )
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
565    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
566        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
567        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
568        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
569        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
571    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
572        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
573        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
574        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
575        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
576        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
577        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
578        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
579        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
580
581        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
583    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
584        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
585        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
586        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
588    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
589        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
591    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
592        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
593            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
594        else:
595            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
596
597        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
599    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
600        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
601    ) -> str:
602        this = ""
603        if expression.this is not None:
604            on_null = "ON NULL " if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
605            this = " ALWAYS " if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT {on_null}"
606
607        start = expression.args.get("start")
608        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
609        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
610        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
611        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
612        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
613        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
614        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
615        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
616        cycle_sql = ""
617
618        if cycle is not None:
619            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
620            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
621
622        sequence_opts = ""
623        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
624            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
625            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
626
627        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
628        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
629
630        return f"GENERATED{this}AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
632    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
633        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
635    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
636        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
637        if desc is not None:
638            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
639        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
641    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
642        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
643        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
644        return f"UNIQUE{this}"
def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: dict[sqlglot.expressions.Properties.Location, list[sqlglot.expressions.Property]]) -> str:
646    def createable_sql(
647        self, expression: exp.Create, locations: dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]
648    ) -> str:
649        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
651    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
652        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
653        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
654        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else {}
655
656        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
657
658        properties_sql = ""
659        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
660            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
661        ):
662            properties_sql = self.sql(
663                exp.Properties(
664                    expressions=[
665                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
666                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
667                    ]
668                )
669            )
670
671        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
672        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
673        if expression_sql:
674            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
675
676            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
677                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
678                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
679                        exp.Properties(
680                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
681                        ),
682                        wrapped=False,
683                    )
684                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
685                else:
686                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
687
688        postindex_props_sql = ""
689        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
690            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
691                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
692                wrapped=False,
693                prefix=" ",
694            )
695
696        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
697        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
698        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
699
700        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
701        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
702
703        postcreate_props_sql = ""
704        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
705            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
706                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
707                sep=" ",
708                prefix=" ",
709                wrapped=False,
710            )
711
712        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
713
714        postexpression_props_sql = ""
715        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
716            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
717                exp.Properties(
718                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
719                ),
720                sep=" ",
721                prefix=" ",
722                wrapped=False,
723            )
724
725        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
726        no_schema_binding = (
727            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
728        )
729
730        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
731        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
732
733        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
734        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
736    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
737        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
738        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
739
740        if when:
741            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
742            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
743            return f"CLONE {this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
744
745        return f"CLONE {this}"
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
747    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
748        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
750    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
751        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
752        if with_:
753            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
754        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
756    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
757        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
758        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
759
760        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
762    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
763        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
764        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
766    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
767        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
768        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
769        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
770        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
772    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
773        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
774        if self.bit_start:
775            return f"{self.bit_start}{this}{self.bit_end}"
776        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
778    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
779        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
780        if self.hex_start:
781            return f"{self.hex_start}{this}{self.hex_end}"
782        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
784    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
785        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
786        if self.byte_start:
787            return f"{self.byte_start}{this}{self.byte_end}"
788        return this
def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str:
790    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
791        if self.raw_start:
792            return f"{self.raw_start}{expression.name}{self.raw_end}"
793        return self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name.replace("\\", "\\\\")))
def datatypesize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeSize) -> str:
795    def datatypesize_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeSize) -> str:
796        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
797        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
798        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
799        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
801    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
802        type_value = expression.this
803        type_sql = self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
804        nested = ""
805        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
806        values = ""
807        if interior:
808            if expression.args.get("nested"):
809                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
810                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
811                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
812                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
813                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
814            else:
815                nested = f"({interior})"
816
817        return f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
819    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
820        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
821        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
822        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
823        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
825    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
826        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
827        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
828        using_sql = (
829            f" USING {self.expressions(expression, key='using', sep=', USING ')}"
830            if expression.args.get("using")
831            else ""
832        )
833        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
834        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
835        sql = f"DELETE{this}{using_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
836        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
838    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
839        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
840        kind = expression.args["kind"]
841        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
842        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
843        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
844        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
845        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
846        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
847        return (
848            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
849        )
def except_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
851    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
852        return self.prepend_ctes(
853            expression,
854            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
855        )
def except_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
857    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
858        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
860    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
861        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
862        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
863        count = expression.args.get("count")
864        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
865        if expression.args.get("percent"):
866            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
867        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
868        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
870    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
871        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
872        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
873        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
875    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
876        if self.sql(expression, "this"):
877            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
878        return ""
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
880    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
881        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
882        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
883        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
884        name = f"{expression.name} " if expression.name else ""
885        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
886        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table} " if table else ""
887        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
888        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
889        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
890        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
891        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}({columns}){partition_by}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
893    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
894        text = expression.name
895        lower = text.lower()
896        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
897        text = text.replace(self.identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
898        if (
899            expression.quoted
900            or should_identify(text, self.identify)
901            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
902            or (not self.identifiers_can_start_with_digit and text[:1].isdigit())
903        ):
904            text = f"{self.identifier_start}{text}{self.identifier_end}"
905        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
907    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
908        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
909        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
910        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
911        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
912        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str:
914    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
915        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
916        return f"{prefix}{string}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
918    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
919        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
921    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
922        root_properties = []
923        with_properties = []
924
925        for p in expression.expressions:
926            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
927            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
928                with_properties.append(p)
929            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
930                root_properties.append(p)
931
932        return self.root_properties(
933            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
934        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
936    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
937        if properties.expressions:
938            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
939        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
941    def properties(
942        self,
943        properties: exp.Properties,
944        prefix: str = "",
945        sep: str = ", ",
946        suffix: str = "",
947        wrapped: bool = True,
948    ) -> str:
949        if properties.expressions:
950            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
951            expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
952            return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
953        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
955    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
956        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
def locate_properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> Dict[sqlglot.expressions.Properties.Location, list[sqlglot.expressions.Property]]:
958    def locate_properties(
959        self, properties: exp.Properties
960    ) -> t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]]:
961        properties_locs: t.Dict[exp.Properties.Location, list[exp.Property]] = {
962            key: [] for key in exp.Properties.Location
963        }
964
965        for p in properties.expressions:
966            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
967            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME:
968                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME].append(p)
969            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX:
970                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX].append(p)
971            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
972                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA].append(p)
973            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
974                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH].append(p)
975            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE:
976                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE].append(p)
977            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS:
978                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS].append(p)
979            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION:
980                properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION].append(p)
981            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
982                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
983
984        return properties_locs
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
986    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
987        property_cls = expression.__class__
988        if property_cls == exp.Property:
989            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
990
991        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
992        if not property_name:
993            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
994
995        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
 997    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
 998        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
 999        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1000        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1002    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1003        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1004        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1005        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
1007    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1008        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1009        local = expression.args.get("local")
1010        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1011        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1012        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1013        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1014        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1016    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1017        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1018        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1019        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1021    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1022        if expression.args.get("default"):
1023            property = "DEFAULT"
1024        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1025            property = "ON"
1026        else:
1027            property = "OFF"
1028        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1030    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1031        if expression.args.get("no"):
1032            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1033        if expression.args.get("default"):
1034            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1035
1036        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1037        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1039    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1040        default = expression.args.get("default")
1041        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1042        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1043        if default or minimum or maximum:
1044            if default:
1045                prop = "DEFAULT"
1046            elif minimum:
1047                prop = "MINIMUM"
1048            else:
1049                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1050            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1051        units = expression.args.get("units")
1052        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1053        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1055    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1056        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1057        always = expression.args.get("always")
1058        default = expression.args.get("default")
1059        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1060        never = expression.args.get("never")
1061
1062        if autotemp is not None:
1063            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1064        elif always:
1065            prop = "ALWAYS"
1066        elif default:
1067            prop = "DEFAULT"
1068        elif manual:
1069            prop = "MANUAL"
1070        elif never:
1071            prop = "NEVER"
1072        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1074    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1075        no = expression.args.get("no")
1076        no = " NO" if no else ""
1077        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1078        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1079
1080        for_ = ""
1081        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1082            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1083        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1084            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1085        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1086            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1087        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1089    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1090        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1091        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1092        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1093        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1094        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1095        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1097    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1098        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1099        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1100        statistics_sql = ""
1101        if statistics is not None:
1102            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1103        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1105    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1106        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1107
1108        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1109            this = "OVERWRITE " if overwrite else "INTO "
1110        else:
1111            this = "OVERWRITE TABLE " if overwrite else "INTO "
1112
1113        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1114        alternative = f" OR {alternative} " if alternative else " "
1115        this = f"{this}{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1116
1117        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1118        partition_sql = (
1119            self.sql(expression, "partition") if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1120        )
1121        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1122        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1123        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1124        sep = self.sep() if partition_sql else ""
1125        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{this}{exists}{partition_sql}{sep}{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1126        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def intersect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1128    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1129        return self.prepend_ctes(
1130            expression,
1131            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1132        )
def intersect_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1134    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1135        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1137    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1138        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1140    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1141        return expression.name.upper()
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1143    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1144        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1145        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1146        if constraint:
1147            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1148        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1149        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1150        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1151        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1152        if expressions:
1153            expressions = f"UPDATE SET {expressions}"
1154        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1156    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1157        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1159    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1160        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1161        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1162        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1163        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1164        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1165        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1166        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1167        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1168        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1169        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1170        null = expression.args.get("null")
1171        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1172        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1174    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1175        table = ".".join(
1176            part
1177            for part in [
1178                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1179                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1180                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1181            ]
1182            if part
1183        )
1184
1185        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1186        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1187        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", flat=True)
1188        hints = f" WITH ({hints})" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1189        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1190        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1191        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="")
1192        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1193        system_time = expression.args.get("system_time")
1194        system_time = f" {self.sql(expression, 'system_time')}" if system_time else ""
1195
1196        return f"{table}{system_time}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = 'SEED', sep=' AS ') -> str:
1198    def tablesample_sql(
1199        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1200    ) -> str:
1201        if self.alias_post_tablesample and expression.this.alias:
1202            table = expression.this.copy()
1203            table.set("alias", None)
1204            this = self.sql(table)
1205            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1206        else:
1207            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1208            alias = ""
1209        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1210        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1211        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1212        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1213        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1214        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1215        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1216        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1217        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1218        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1219        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1220        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1221        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1222            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1223        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1224        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1225        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1226        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1228    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1229        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1230
1231        if expression.this:
1232            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1233            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1234            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1235            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1236            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1237            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1238
1239        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1240        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1241        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1242        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1243        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1244        return f"{direction}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
1246    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1247        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
1249    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1250        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1251        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1252        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1253        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1254        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1255        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1256        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values) -> str:
1258    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1259        args = self.expressions(expression)
1260        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1261        values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1262        values = (
1263            f"({values})"
1264            if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1265            else values
1266        )
1267        return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
1269    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1270        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
1272    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1273        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1274        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1275        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
1277    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1278        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
1280    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1281        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1282        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1283        grouping_sets = (
1284            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1285        )
1286
1287        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1288        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1289            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1290        else:
1291            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1292            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1293
1294        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1295        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1296            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1297        else:
1298            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1299            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1300
1301        groupings = csv(
1302            grouping_sets,
1303            cube_sql,
1304            rollup_sql,
1305            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1306            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1307        )
1308
1309        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1310            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1311
1312        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
1314    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1315        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1316        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
1318    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1319        op_sql = " ".join(
1320            op
1321            for op in (
1322                expression.method,
1323                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1324                expression.side,
1325                expression.kind,
1326                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1327            )
1328            if op
1329        )
1330        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1331        using = expression.args.get("using")
1332
1333        if not on_sql and using:
1334            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1335
1336        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1337
1338        if on_sql:
1339            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1340            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1341            if using:
1342                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1343            else:
1344                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1345        elif not op_sql:
1346            return f", {this_sql}"
1347
1348        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1349        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
1351    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1352        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1353        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1354        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
1356    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1357        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1358
1359        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1360            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1361
1362        if expression.args.get("view"):
1363            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1364            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1365            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1366            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1367            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1368            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1369
1370        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1371        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1372        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit) -> str:
1374    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit) -> str:
1375        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1376        return f"{this}{self.seg('LIMIT')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
1378    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1379        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1380        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
1382    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1383        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1384        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1385        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1386        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1387        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1388        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1389        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1390        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
1392    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1393        expressions = (
1394            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1395        )
1396        return f"SET{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
1398    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1399        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
1401    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1402        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1403            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1404            return ""
1405
1406        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1407        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1408        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1409        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1410
1411        if wait is not None:
1412            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1413                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1414            else:
1415                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1416
1417        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
1419    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1420        text = expression.this or ""
1421        if expression.is_string:
1422            text = text.replace(self.quote_end, self._escaped_quote_end)
1423            if self.pretty:
1424                text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1425            text = f"{self.quote_start}{text}{self.quote_end}"
1426        return text
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
1428    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1429        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1430        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1431        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1432        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1433        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1434        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1435        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1436        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1437        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1438        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1439        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1441    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1442        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
1444    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1445        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1447    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1448        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1449        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1450        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
1452    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1453        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
1455    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1456        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
1458    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1459        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
1461    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1462        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1463        asc = not desc
1464
1465        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1466        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1467        nulls_are_large = self.null_ordering == "nulls_are_large"
1468        nulls_are_small = self.null_ordering == "nulls_are_small"
1469        nulls_are_last = self.null_ordering == "nulls_are_last"
1470
1471        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1472        nulls_sort_change = ""
1473        if nulls_first and (
1474            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1475        ):
1476            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1477        elif (
1478            nulls_last
1479            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1480            and not nulls_are_last
1481        ):
1482            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1483
1484        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1485            self.unsupported(
1486                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1487            )
1488            nulls_sort_change = ""
1489
1490        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1492    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1493        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1494        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1495        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1496        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1497        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1498        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1499        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1500        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1501        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1502        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1503        definition_sqls = [
1504            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1505            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1506        ]
1507        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1508        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1509        body = "".join(
1510            (
1511                partition,
1512                order,
1513                measures,
1514                rows,
1515                after,
1516                pattern,
1517                define,
1518            )
1519        )
1520        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1521        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1522        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1524    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1525        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1526
1527        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1528            limit = exp.Limit(expression=limit.args.get("count"))
1529        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1530            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=limit.expression)
1531
1532        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1533
1534        return csv(
1535            *sqls,
1536            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1537            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1538            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1539            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1540            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1541            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1542            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1543            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1544            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1545            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1546            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1547            sep="",
1548        )
def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
1550    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1551        return [
1552            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1553            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1554            if expression.args.get("windows")
1555            else "",
1556        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
1558    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1559        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1560        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1561        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
1563    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1564        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1565        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1566        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1567        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1568        kind = f" AS {kind}" if kind else ""
1569        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1570        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1571        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1572            expression,
1573            f"SELECT{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1574            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1575            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1576        )
1577        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
1579    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1580        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1581        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1582        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1583        return f"{this}{sql}"
def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
1585    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1586        return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
1588    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1589        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1590        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1591        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1592        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1593        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
1595    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1596        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1597        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1598        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
1600    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1601        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1602        kind = expression.text("kind")
1603        if kind:
1604            kind = f"{kind}."
1605        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
1607    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1608        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1610    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1611        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1612        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1613
1614        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1615        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1616
1617        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1618        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
1620    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1621        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1622        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def union_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
1624    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1625        return self.prepend_ctes(
1626            expression,
1627            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1628        )
def union_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
1630    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1631        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1632        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1633        return f"UNION{kind}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
1635    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1636        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1637        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1638        if alias and self.unnest_column_only:
1639            columns = alias.columns
1640            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1641        else:
1642            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1643        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1644        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1645        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1646        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1647        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
1649    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1650        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1651        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
1653    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1654        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1655        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1656        order = expression.args.get("order")
1657        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1658        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1659        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1660        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1661
1662        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1663
1664        first = expression.args.get("first")
1665        if first is None:
1666            first = ""
1667        else:
1668            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1669
1670        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1671            return f"{this} {alias}"
1672
1673        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1674        return f"{this} ({args})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1676    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1677        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1678        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
1680    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1681        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1682        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1683        end = (
1684            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1685            or "CURRENT ROW"
1686        )
1687        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
1689    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1690        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1691        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1692        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
1694    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1695        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1696        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1697        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1698        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
1700    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1701        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.index_offset)
1702        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1703
1704        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
1706    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1707        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
1709    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1710        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1711        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1712            this = self.wrap(this)
1713        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
1715    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1716        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
1718    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1719        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1720        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1721
1722        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1723            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1724            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1725
1726        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1727
1728        if default:
1729            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1730
1731        statements.append("END")
1732
1733        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self._max_text_width:
1734            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1735
1736        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
1738    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1739        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1740        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1741        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
1743    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1744        order = expression.args.get("order")
1745        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1746        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
1748    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1749        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1750        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1751        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
1753    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1754        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1755
1756        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1757            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1758        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1759            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1760        else:
1761            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
def concat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat) -> str:
1763    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
1764        if len(expression.expressions) == 1:
1765            return self.sql(expression.expressions[0])
1766        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
1768    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1769        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1770        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
1772    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1773        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1774        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1775        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1776        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
1777        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
1778        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
1779        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
1780        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
1782    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1783        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1784        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1785        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1786        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
1788    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
1789        return self.case_sql(
1790            exp.Case(ifs=[expression.copy()], default=expression.args.get("false"))
1791        )
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1793    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1794        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
1795        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
1796        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1798    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1799        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject) -> str:
1801    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
1802        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1803        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
1804        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
1805        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
1806        if unique_keys is not None:
1807            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
1808        else:
1809            unique_keys = ""
1810        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
1811        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
1812        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
1813        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
1814        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
1815        return f"JSON_OBJECT({expressions}{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})"
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
1817    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
1818        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1819        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1820        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1821        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
1822        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
1823        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
1825    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
1826        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1827        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
1828        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
1829        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1830        with_ = (
1831            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1832            if expressions
1833            else ""
1834        )
1835        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
1837    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
1838        query = expression.args.get("query")
1839        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
1840        field = expression.args.get("field")
1841        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
1842
1843        if query:
1844            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
1845        elif unnest:
1846            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
1847        elif field:
1848            in_sql = self.sql(field)
1849        else:
1850            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1851
1852        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
1854    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1855        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
1857    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
1858        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
1859        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
1860            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
1861        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
1862
1863        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
1864            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
1865            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
1866
1867        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1868        if this:
1869            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
1870            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
1871
1872        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
1874    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
1875        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
1877    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
1878        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1879        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1880        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1881        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1882        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1883        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
1885    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
1886        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
1888    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
1889        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
1890            sql = self.wrap(expression)
1891        else:
1892            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
1893            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1894
1895        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
1897    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
1898        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
1899        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1900        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
1901        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
1903    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
1904        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
1906    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
1907        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1908        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1909        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
1911    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
1912        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
1914    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
1915        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1916        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
1917        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
1919    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
1920        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And) -> str:
1922    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
1923        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
def connector_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str) -> str:
1925    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
1926        if not self.pretty:
1927            return self.binary(expression, op)
1928
1929        sqls = tuple(
1930            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
1931            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
1932        )
1933
1934        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self._max_text_width else " "
1935        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
1937    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
1938        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
1940    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
1941        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
1943    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
1944        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
1946    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
1947        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
1949    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
1950        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
1952    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
1953        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast) -> str:
1955    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast) -> str:
1956        return f"CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
1958    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
1959        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
1960        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
1962    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
1963        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
1965    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
1966        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
1968    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
1969        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1970        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1971        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1972        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1973        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
1975    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
1976        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1977        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
1978        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
1979        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
1980        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
1981        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
1982        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
1983        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
1984        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
1986    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
1987        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1988        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1989        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
1990        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
1991
1992        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
1993            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1994
1995        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
1997    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
1998        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
2000    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2001        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2002        if chain is not None:
2003            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2004
2005        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
2007    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2008        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2009        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2010        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
2012    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2013        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2014
2015        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2016        if dtype:
2017            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2018            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2019            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2020            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2021            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2022
2023        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2024        if default:
2025            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2026
2027        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2028            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2029
2030        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str:
2032    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2033        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2034            # Remove db from tables
2035            expression = expression.transform(
2036                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2037            )
2038        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2039        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def altertable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
2041    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2042        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2043
2044        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2045            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMN ")
2046        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2047            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2048        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2049            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2050        else:
2051            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2052
2053        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2054        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
2056    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2057        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2058        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2059        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
2061    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2062        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2063        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2064        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2065
2066        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2067        if enforced is not None:
2068            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2069
2070        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
2072    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2073        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2074        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2075
2076        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2077        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2078        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2080    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2081        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
2083    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2084        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
2086    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2087        return self.sql(
2088            exp.Cast(
2089                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2090                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2091            )
2092        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
2094    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2095        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
2097    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2098        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
2100    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2101        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
2103    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2104        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
2106    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2107        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
2109    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2110        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
2112    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2113        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
2115    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2116        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
2118    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2119        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
2121    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2122        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
2124    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2125        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
2127    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2128        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
2130    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2131        if not self.IS_BOOL and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2132            return self.sql(
2133                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2134            )
2135        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
2137    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2138        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
2140    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2141        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
2143    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2144        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
2146    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2147        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
2149    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2150        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
2152    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2153        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
2155    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2156        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
2158    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2159        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2161    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2162        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2164    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2165        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def or_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or) -> str:
2167    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2168        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
2170    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2171        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
2173    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2174        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
2176    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2177        return f"TRY_CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')})"
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
2179    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2180        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2181        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2182        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2183        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2184        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2186    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2187        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2188        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
2190    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2191        args = []
2192        for arg_value in expression.args.values():
2193            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2194                for value in arg_value:
2195                    args.append(value)
2196            else:
2197                args.append(arg_value)
2198
2199        return self.func(expression.sql_name(), *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
2201    def func(self, name: str, *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str]) -> str:
2202        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}({self.format_args(*args)})"
def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
2204    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2205        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2206        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self._max_text_width:
2207            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2208        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
def text_width(self, args: Iterable) -> int:
2210    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2211        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
def format_time(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> Optional[str]:
2213    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2214        return format_time(self.sql(expression, "format"), self.time_mapping, self.time_trie)
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[List[str]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '') -> str:
2216    def expressions(
2217        self,
2218        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2219        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2220        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2221        flat: bool = False,
2222        indent: bool = True,
2223        sep: str = ", ",
2224        prefix: str = "",
2225    ) -> str:
2226        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2227
2228        if not expressions:
2229            return ""
2230
2231        if flat:
2232            return sep.join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2233
2234        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2235
2236        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2237        pad = " " * self.pad
2238        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2239
2240        result_sqls = []
2241        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2242            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2243            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2244
2245            if self.pretty:
2246                if self._leading_comma:
2247                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2248                else:
2249                    result_sqls.append(
2250                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2251                    )
2252            else:
2253                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2254
2255        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2256        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=False) if indent else result_sql
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2258    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2259        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2260        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2261        if flat:
2262            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2263        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
2265    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2266        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2267        if not property_name:
2268            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2269        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def set_operation(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2271    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2272        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2273        op = self.seg(op)
2274        return self.query_modifiers(
2275            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2276        )
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
2278    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2279        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
2281    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2282        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2284    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2285        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2286        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2287        expressions = (
2288            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2289        )
2290        return f"{this}{expressions}"
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
2292    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2293        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2294        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2295        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
2297    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2298        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
2300    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2301        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2302        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2303        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2304        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2305
2306        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2307        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2308            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2309            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2310                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2311        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2312            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2313                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2314            else:
2315                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2316        else:
2317            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2318        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
2320    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2321        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2322        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2323        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2324        return f"MERGE INTO {this} {using} {on} {self.expressions(expression, sep=' ')}"
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
2326    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2327        if expression.args.get("format"):
2328            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2329
2330        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str:
2332    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2333        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2334        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2335        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2336        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2337        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str:
2339    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2340        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2341        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2342        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2343        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2345    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2346        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str:
2348    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2349        return ""
def cached_generator( cache: Optional[Dict[int, str]] = None) -> Callable[[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], str]:
2352def cached_generator(
2353    cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
2354) -> t.Callable[[exp.Expression], str]:
2355    """Returns a cached generator."""
2356    cache = {} if cache is None else cache
2357    generator = Generator(normalize=True, identify="safe")
2358    return lambda e: generator.generate(e, cache)

Returns a cached generator.