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sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import typing as t
   5from collections import defaultdict
   6
   7from sqlglot import exp
   8from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
   9from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, seq_get
  10from sqlglot.time import format_time
  11from sqlglot.tokens import Tokenizer, TokenType
  12
  13logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  14
  15
  16class Generator:
  17    """
  18    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  19
  20    Args:
  21        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  22            Default: False.
  23        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  24            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  25            True or 'always': Always quote.
  26            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  27        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  28            Default: False.
  29        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  30            Default: 2.
  31        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  32            Default: 2.
  33        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  34            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  35            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  36            False: Disables function name normalization.
  37        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  38            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  39        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  40            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  41            Default: 3
  42        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  43            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  44            Default: False
  45        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  46            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  47            line length.
  48            Default: 80
  49        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  50            Default: True
  51    """
  52
  53    TRANSFORMS = {
  54        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  55            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  56        ),
  57        exp.TsOrDsAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  58            "TS_OR_DS_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  59        ),
  60        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  61        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  62        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  63        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  64        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  65        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  66        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  67        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  68        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  69        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  70        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  71        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  72        exp.HeapProperty: lambda self, e: "HEAP",
  73        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  74        exp.IntervalDayToSecondSpan: "DAY TO SECOND",
  75        exp.IntervalYearToMonthSpan: "YEAR TO MONTH",
  76        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  77        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  78        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  79        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  80        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  81        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  82        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  83        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  84        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  85        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  86        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  87        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
  88        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
  89        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
  90        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
  91        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
  92        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
  94        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
  95        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
  96        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  97    }
  98
  99    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
 100    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
 101
 102    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 103    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 104
 105    # Always do union distinct or union all
 106    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 107
 108    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 109    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 110
 111    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 112    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 113
 114    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 115    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 116
 117    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 118    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 119
 120    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 121    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 122
 123    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 124    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 125
 126    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 127    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 128
 129    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 130    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 131
 132    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 133    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 134
 135    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 136    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 137
 138    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 139    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 140
 141    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 142    JOIN_HINTS = True
 143
 144    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 145    TABLE_HINTS = True
 146
 147    # Whether or not query hints should be generated
 148    QUERY_HINTS = True
 149
 150    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 151    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 152
 153    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 154    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 155
 156    # Whether or not to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 157    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 158
 159    # Whether or not to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 160    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 161
 162    # Whether or not to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 163    RETURNING_END = True
 164
 165    # Whether or not to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 166    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 167
 168    # Whether or not to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 169    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 170
 171    # Whether or not TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 172    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 173
 174    # Whether or not the NVL2 function is supported
 175    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 176
 177    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 178    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 179
 180    # Whether or not VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 181    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 182    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 183    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 184
 185    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 186        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 187        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 188        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 189        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 190        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 191        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 192        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 193    }
 194
 195    STAR_MAPPING = {
 196        "except": "EXCEPT",
 197        "replace": "REPLACE",
 198    }
 199
 200    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 201        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 202        "seconds": "second",
 203        "minutes": "minute",
 204        "hours": "hour",
 205        "days": "day",
 206        "weeks": "week",
 207        "months": "month",
 208        "quarters": "quarter",
 209        "years": "year",
 210    }
 211
 212    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 213
 214    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 215
 216    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 217
 218    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 219        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 220        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 221        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 222        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 223        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 224        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 225        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 226        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 227        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 228        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 229        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 230        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 231        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 232        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 233        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 234        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 235        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 236        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 237        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 238        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 239        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 240        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 241        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 242        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 243        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 244        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 245        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 246        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 247        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 248        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 249        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 250        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 251        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 252        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 253        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 254        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 255        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 256        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 257        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 258        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 259        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 260        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 261        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 262        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 263        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 264        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 265        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 266        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 267        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 268        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 269        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 270        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 271        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 272        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 273        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 274        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 275    }
 276
 277    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 278    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 279
 280    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 281    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 282        exp.Create,
 283        exp.Delete,
 284        exp.Drop,
 285        exp.From,
 286        exp.Insert,
 287        exp.Join,
 288        exp.Select,
 289        exp.Update,
 290        exp.Where,
 291        exp.With,
 292    )
 293
 294    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 295    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 296        exp.Column,
 297        exp.Literal,
 298        exp.Neg,
 299        exp.Paren,
 300    )
 301
 302    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 303
 304    # Autofilled
 305    INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 306    INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: t.Dict = {}
 307    INDEX_OFFSET = 0
 308    UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
 309    ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
 310    IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
 311    STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
 312    NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = "upper"
 313    NULL_ORDERING = "nulls_are_small"
 314    ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK = False
 315
 316    can_identify: t.Callable[[str, str | bool], bool]
 317
 318    # Delimiters for quotes, identifiers and the corresponding escape characters
 319    QUOTE_START = "'"
 320    QUOTE_END = "'"
 321    IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
 322    IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
 323    TOKENIZER_CLASS = Tokenizer
 324
 325    # Delimiters for bit, hex, byte and raw literals
 326    BIT_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 327    BIT_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 328    HEX_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 329    HEX_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 330    BYTE_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 331    BYTE_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 332
 333    __slots__ = (
 334        "pretty",
 335        "identify",
 336        "normalize",
 337        "pad",
 338        "_indent",
 339        "normalize_functions",
 340        "unsupported_level",
 341        "max_unsupported",
 342        "leading_comma",
 343        "max_text_width",
 344        "comments",
 345        "unsupported_messages",
 346        "_escaped_quote_end",
 347        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 348        "_cache",
 349    )
 350
 351    def __init__(
 352        self,
 353        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 354        identify: str | bool = False,
 355        normalize: bool = False,
 356        pad: int = 2,
 357        indent: int = 2,
 358        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 359        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 360        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 361        leading_comma: bool = False,
 362        max_text_width: int = 80,
 363        comments: bool = True,
 364    ):
 365        import sqlglot
 366
 367        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 368        self.identify = identify
 369        self.normalize = normalize
 370        self.pad = pad
 371        self._indent = indent
 372        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 373        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 374        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 375        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 376        self.comments = comments
 377
 378        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 379        self.normalize_functions = (
 380            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 381        )
 382
 383        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 384        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.QUOTE_END
 385        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 386            self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.IDENTIFIER_END
 387        )
 388        self._cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
 389
 390    def generate(
 391        self,
 392        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
 393        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
 394    ) -> str:
 395        """
 396        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 397
 398        Args:
 399            expression: The syntax tree.
 400            cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression
 401                which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
 402
 403        Returns:
 404            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 405        """
 406        if cache is not None:
 407            self._cache = cache
 408
 409        self.unsupported_messages = []
 410        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 411        self._cache = None
 412
 413        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 414            return sql
 415
 416        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 417            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 418                logger.warning(msg)
 419        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 420            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 421
 422        if self.pretty:
 423            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 424        return sql
 425
 426    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 427        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 428            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 429        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 430
 431    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 432        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 433
 434    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 435        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 436
 437    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 438        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 439        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 440        return comment
 441
 442    def maybe_comment(
 443        self,
 444        sql: str,
 445        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 446        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 447    ) -> str:
 448        comments = (
 449            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 450            if self.comments
 451            else None
 452        )
 453
 454        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
 455            return sql
 456
 457        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
 458        comments_sql = sep.join(
 459            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 460        )
 461
 462        if not comments_sql:
 463            return sql
 464
 465        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 466            return (
 467                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 468                if sql[0].isspace()
 469                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 470            )
 471
 472        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 473
 474    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 475        this_sql = self.indent(
 476            self.sql(expression)
 477            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 478            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 479            level=1,
 480            pad=0,
 481        )
 482        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 483
 484    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 485        original = self.identify
 486        self.identify = False
 487        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 488        self.identify = original
 489        return result
 490
 491    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 492        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 493            return name.upper()
 494        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 495            return name.lower()
 496        return name
 497
 498    def indent(
 499        self,
 500        sql: str,
 501        level: int = 0,
 502        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 503        skip_first: bool = False,
 504        skip_last: bool = False,
 505    ) -> str:
 506        if not self.pretty:
 507            return sql
 508
 509        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 510        lines = sql.split("\n")
 511
 512        return "\n".join(
 513            line
 514            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 515            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 516            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 517        )
 518
 519    def sql(
 520        self,
 521        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 522        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 523        comment: bool = True,
 524    ) -> str:
 525        if not expression:
 526            return ""
 527
 528        if isinstance(expression, str):
 529            return expression
 530
 531        if key:
 532            value = expression.args.get(key)
 533            if value:
 534                return self.sql(value)
 535            return ""
 536
 537        if self._cache is not None:
 538            expression_id = hash(expression)
 539
 540            if expression_id in self._cache:
 541                return self._cache[expression_id]
 542
 543        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 544
 545        if callable(transform):
 546            sql = transform(self, expression)
 547        elif transform:
 548            sql = transform
 549        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 550            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 551
 552            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 553                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 554            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 555                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 556            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 557                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 558            else:
 559                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 560        else:
 561            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 562
 563        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 564
 565        if self._cache is not None:
 566            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
 567        return sql
 568
 569    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 570        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 571        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 572        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 573
 574    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 575        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 576        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 577        options = expression.args.get("options")
 578        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 579        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 580        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 581        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 582        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 583
 584    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 585        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 586            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 587        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 588        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 589
 590    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 591        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 592
 593        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 594            join_mark = ""
 595            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 596
 597        column = ".".join(
 598            self.sql(part)
 599            for part in (
 600                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 601                expression.args.get("db"),
 602                expression.args.get("table"),
 603                expression.args.get("this"),
 604            )
 605            if part
 606        )
 607
 608        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 609
 610    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 611        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 612        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 613        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 614        return f"{position}{this}"
 615
 616    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 617        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 618        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 619        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 620        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 621        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 622        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 623        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 624        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 625
 626        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 627
 628    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 629        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 630        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 631        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 632
 633    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 634        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 635        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 636            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 637        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 638            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 639        else:
 640            persisted = ""
 641        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 642
 643    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 644        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 645
 646    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 647        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 648            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 649        else:
 650            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 651
 652        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 653
 654    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 655        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 656    ) -> str:
 657        this = ""
 658        if expression.this is not None:
 659            on_null = "ON NULL " if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 660            this = " ALWAYS " if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT {on_null}"
 661
 662        start = expression.args.get("start")
 663        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 664        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 665        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 666        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 667        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 668        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 669        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 670        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 671        cycle_sql = ""
 672
 673        if cycle is not None:
 674            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 675            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 676
 677        sequence_opts = ""
 678        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 679            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 680            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 681
 682        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 683        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 684
 685        return f"GENERATED{this}AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 686
 687    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 688        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 689
 690    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 691        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 692        if desc is not None:
 693            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 694        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 695
 696    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 697        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 698        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 699        return f"UNIQUE{this}"
 700
 701    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 702        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 703
 704    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 705        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 706        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 707        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 708
 709        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 710
 711        properties_sql = ""
 712        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 713            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 714        ):
 715            properties_sql = self.sql(
 716                exp.Properties(
 717                    expressions=[
 718                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 719                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 720                    ]
 721                )
 722            )
 723
 724        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 725        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 726        if expression_sql:
 727            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
 728
 729            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 730                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 731                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 732                        exp.Properties(
 733                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 734                        ),
 735                        wrapped=False,
 736                    )
 737                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 738                else:
 739                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 740
 741        postindex_props_sql = ""
 742        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 743            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 744                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 745                wrapped=False,
 746                prefix=" ",
 747            )
 748
 749        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 750        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 751        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 752
 753        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 754        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 755
 756        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 757        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 758            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 759                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 760                sep=" ",
 761                prefix=" ",
 762                wrapped=False,
 763            )
 764
 765        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 766
 767        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 768        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 769            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 770                exp.Properties(
 771                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 772                ),
 773                sep=" ",
 774                prefix=" ",
 775                wrapped=False,
 776            )
 777
 778        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 779        no_schema_binding = (
 780            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 781        )
 782
 783        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 784        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 785
 786        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 787        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 788
 789    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 790        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 791        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 792
 793        if when:
 794            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 795            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 796            return f"CLONE {this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 797
 798        return f"CLONE {this}"
 799
 800    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 801        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 802
 803    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 804        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 805        if with_:
 806            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 807        return sql
 808
 809    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 810        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 811        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
 812
 813        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 814
 815    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 816        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 817        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 818
 819    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 820        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 821        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 822        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 823        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 824
 825    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 826        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 827        if self.BIT_START:
 828            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
 829        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 830
 831    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 832        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 833        if self.HEX_START:
 834            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
 835        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 836
 837    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 838        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 839        if self.BYTE_START:
 840            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
 841        return this
 842
 843    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 844        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
 845        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
 846
 847    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
 848        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 849        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 850        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
 851        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 852
 853    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 854        type_value = expression.this
 855
 856        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
 857            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 858        else:
 859            type_sql = (
 860                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 861                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
 862                else type_value
 863            )
 864
 865        nested = ""
 866        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 867        values = ""
 868
 869        if interior:
 870            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 871                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 872                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 873                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 874                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 875                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 876            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
 877                nested = f" {interior}"
 878            else:
 879                nested = f"({interior})"
 880
 881        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 882        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
 883            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
 884            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
 885        ):
 886            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
 887
 888        return type_sql
 889
 890    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 891        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 892        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 893        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 894        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
 895
 896    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 897        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 898        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 899        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 900        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
 901        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
 902        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
 903        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
 904        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
 905        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
 906        if self.RETURNING_END:
 907            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
 908        else:
 909            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
 910        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
 911
 912    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
 913        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 914        kind = expression.args["kind"]
 915        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
 916        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
 917        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
 918        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
 919        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
 920        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
 921        return (
 922            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
 923        )
 924
 925    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 926        return self.prepend_ctes(
 927            expression,
 928            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
 929        )
 930
 931    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 932        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
 933
 934    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
 935        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
 936        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
 937        count = expression.args.get("count")
 938        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
 939        if expression.args.get("percent"):
 940            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
 941        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
 942        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
 943
 944    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
 945        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 946        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
 947        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
 948
 949    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
 950        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
 951            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
 952            return ""
 953
 954        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
 955
 956    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
 957        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 958        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
 959        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
 960        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
 961        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
 962        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
 963        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table} " if table else ""
 964        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 965        using = f"USING {using} " if using else ""
 966        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
 967        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 968        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 969        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
 970        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
 971        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}"
 972
 973    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
 974        text = expression.name
 975        lower = text.lower()
 976        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
 977        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
 978        if (
 979            expression.quoted
 980            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
 981            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
 982            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
 983        ):
 984            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
 985        return text
 986
 987    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
 988        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
 989        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
 990        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
 991        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
 992        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
 993
 994    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
 995        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
 996        return f"{prefix}{string}"
 997
 998    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
 999        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1000
1001    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1002        root_properties = []
1003        with_properties = []
1004
1005        for p in expression.expressions:
1006            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1007            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1008                with_properties.append(p.copy())
1009            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1010                root_properties.append(p.copy())
1011
1012        return self.root_properties(
1013            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1014        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1015
1016    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1017        if properties.expressions:
1018            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1019        return ""
1020
1021    def properties(
1022        self,
1023        properties: exp.Properties,
1024        prefix: str = "",
1025        sep: str = ", ",
1026        suffix: str = "",
1027        wrapped: bool = True,
1028    ) -> str:
1029        if properties.expressions:
1030            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1031            if expressions:
1032                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1033                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1034        return ""
1035
1036    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1037        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1038
1039    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1040        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1041        for p in properties.expressions:
1042            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1043            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1044                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p.copy())
1045            else:
1046                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1047
1048        return properties_locs
1049
1050    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1051        property_cls = expression.__class__
1052        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1053            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1054
1055        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1056        if not property_name:
1057            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1058
1059        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1060
1061    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1062        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1063        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1064        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1065
1066    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1067        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1068        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1069        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1070
1071    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1072        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1073        local = expression.args.get("local")
1074        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1075        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1076        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1077        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1078        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1079
1080    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1081        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1082        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1083        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1084
1085    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1086        if expression.args.get("default"):
1087            property = "DEFAULT"
1088        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1089            property = "ON"
1090        else:
1091            property = "OFF"
1092        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1093
1094    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1095        if expression.args.get("no"):
1096            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1097        if expression.args.get("default"):
1098            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1099
1100        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1101        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1102
1103    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1104        default = expression.args.get("default")
1105        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1106        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1107        if default or minimum or maximum:
1108            if default:
1109                prop = "DEFAULT"
1110            elif minimum:
1111                prop = "MINIMUM"
1112            else:
1113                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1114            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1115        units = expression.args.get("units")
1116        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1117        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1118
1119    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1120        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1121        always = expression.args.get("always")
1122        default = expression.args.get("default")
1123        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1124        never = expression.args.get("never")
1125
1126        if autotemp is not None:
1127            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1128        elif always:
1129            prop = "ALWAYS"
1130        elif default:
1131            prop = "DEFAULT"
1132        elif manual:
1133            prop = "MANUAL"
1134        elif never:
1135            prop = "NEVER"
1136        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1137
1138    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1139        no = expression.args.get("no")
1140        no = " NO" if no else ""
1141        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1142        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1143
1144        for_ = ""
1145        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1146            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1147        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1148            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1149        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1150            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1151        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1152
1153    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1154        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1155        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1156        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1157        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1158        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1159        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1160
1161    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1162        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1163        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1164        statistics_sql = ""
1165        if statistics is not None:
1166            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1167        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1168
1169    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1170        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1171
1172        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1173            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1174        else:
1175            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1176
1177        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1178        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1179        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1180
1181        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1182
1183        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1184        partition_sql = (
1185            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1186        )
1187        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1188        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1189        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1190        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1191        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1192
1193        if self.RETURNING_END:
1194            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1195        else:
1196            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1197
1198        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1199        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1200
1201    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1202        return self.prepend_ctes(
1203            expression,
1204            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1205        )
1206
1207    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1208        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1209
1210    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1211        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1212
1213    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1214        return expression.name.upper()
1215
1216    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1217        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1218        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1219        if constraint:
1220            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1221        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1222        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1223        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1224        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1225        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1226        if expressions:
1227            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1228        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1229
1230    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1231        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1232
1233    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1234        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1235        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1236        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1237        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1238        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1239        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1240        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1241        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1242        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1243        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1244        null = expression.args.get("null")
1245        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1246        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1247
1248    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1249        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1250
1251    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1252        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1253        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1254        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1255        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1256
1257    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1258        table = ".".join(
1259            part
1260            for part in [
1261                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1262                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1263                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1264            ]
1265            if part
1266        )
1267
1268        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1269        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1270        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1271        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1272        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1273        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1274        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1275        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1276        system_time = expression.args.get("system_time")
1277        system_time = f" {self.sql(expression, 'system_time')}" if system_time else ""
1278
1279        return f"{table}{system_time}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
1280
1281    def tablesample_sql(
1282        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1283    ) -> str:
1284        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1285            table = expression.this.copy()
1286            table.set("alias", None)
1287            this = self.sql(table)
1288            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1289        else:
1290            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1291            alias = ""
1292        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1293        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1294        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1295        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1296        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1297        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1298        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1299        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1300        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1301        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1302        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1303        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1304        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1305            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1306        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1307        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1308        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1309        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
1310
1311    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1312        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1313
1314        if expression.this:
1315            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1316            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1317            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1318            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1319            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1320            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1321
1322        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1323        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1324        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1325        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1326        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1327        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1328        if include_nulls is not None:
1329            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1330        else:
1331            nulls = ""
1332        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1333
1334    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1335        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1336
1337    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1338        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1339        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1340        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1341        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1342        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1343        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1344        if self.RETURNING_END:
1345            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}{limit}"
1346        else:
1347            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}{limit}"
1348        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}"
1349        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1350
1351    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1352        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1353        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1354            args = self.expressions(expression)
1355            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1356            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1357            values = (
1358                f"({values})"
1359                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1360                else values
1361            )
1362            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1363
1364        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1365        # Note: If you have a lot of unions then this will result in a large number of recursive statements to
1366        # evaluate the expression. You may need to increase `sys.setrecursionlimit` to run and it can also be
1367        # very slow.
1368        expression = expression.copy()
1369        column_names = expression.alias and expression.args["alias"].columns
1370
1371        selects = []
1372
1373        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1374            row = tup.expressions
1375
1376            if i == 0 and column_names:
1377                row = [
1378                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1379                ]
1380
1381            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1382
1383        subquery_expression: exp.Select | exp.Union = selects[0]
1384        if len(selects) > 1:
1385            for select in selects[1:]:
1386                subquery_expression = exp.union(
1387                    subquery_expression, select, distinct=False, copy=False
1388                )
1389
1390        return self.subquery_sql(subquery_expression.subquery(expression.alias, copy=False))
1391
1392    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1393        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1394
1395    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1396        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1397        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1398        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1399
1400    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1401        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1402
1403    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1404        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1405
1406        if expression.args.get("all"):
1407            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1408
1409        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1410        grouping_sets = (
1411            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1412        )
1413
1414        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1415        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1416            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1417        else:
1418            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1419            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1420
1421        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1422        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1423            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1424        else:
1425            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1426            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1427
1428        groupings = csv(
1429            grouping_sets,
1430            cube_sql,
1431            rollup_sql,
1432            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1433            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1434        )
1435
1436        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1437            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1438
1439        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1440
1441    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1442        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1443        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1444
1445    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1446        op_sql = " ".join(
1447            op
1448            for op in (
1449                expression.method,
1450                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1451                expression.side,
1452                expression.kind,
1453                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1454            )
1455            if op
1456        )
1457        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1458        using = expression.args.get("using")
1459
1460        if not on_sql and using:
1461            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1462
1463        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1464
1465        if on_sql:
1466            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1467            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1468            if using:
1469                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1470            else:
1471                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1472        elif not op_sql:
1473            return f", {this_sql}"
1474
1475        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1476        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1477
1478    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1479        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1480        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1481        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1482
1483    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1484        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1485
1486        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1487            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1488
1489        if expression.args.get("view"):
1490            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1491            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1492            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1493            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1494            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1495            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1496
1497        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1498        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1499        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1500
1501    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1502        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1503        args = ", ".join(
1504            sql
1505            for sql in (
1506                self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1507                self.sql(expression, "expression"),
1508            )
1509            if sql
1510        )
1511        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args}"
1512
1513    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1514        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1515        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1516
1517    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1518        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1519        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1520        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1521        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1522        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1523        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1524        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1525        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1526
1527    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1528        expressions = (
1529            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1530        )
1531        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1532        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1533
1534    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1535        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1536
1537    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1538        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1539            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1540            return ""
1541
1542        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1543        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1544        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1545        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1546
1547        if wait is not None:
1548            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1549                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1550            else:
1551                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1552
1553        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1554
1555    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1556        text = expression.this or ""
1557        if expression.is_string:
1558            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1559        return text
1560
1561    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1562        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1563        if self.ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK:
1564            text = text.replace("\n", "\\n")
1565        elif self.pretty:
1566            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1567        return text
1568
1569    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1570        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1571        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1572        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1573        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1574        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1575        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1576        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1577        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1578        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1579        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1580        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1581
1582    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1583        return "NULL"
1584
1585    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1586        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1587
1588    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1589        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1590        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1591        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1592
1593    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1594        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1595
1596    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1597        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1598
1599    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1600        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1601
1602    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1603        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1604        asc = not desc
1605
1606        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1607        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1608        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1609        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1610        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1611
1612        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1613        nulls_sort_change = ""
1614        if nulls_first and (
1615            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1616        ):
1617            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1618        elif (
1619            nulls_last
1620            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1621            and not nulls_are_last
1622        ):
1623            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1624
1625        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1626            self.unsupported(
1627                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1628            )
1629            nulls_sort_change = ""
1630
1631        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1632
1633    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1634        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1635        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1636        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1637        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1638        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1639        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1640        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1641        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1642        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1643        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1644        definition_sqls = [
1645            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1646            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1647        ]
1648        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1649        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1650        body = "".join(
1651            (
1652                partition,
1653                order,
1654                measures,
1655                rows,
1656                after,
1657                pattern,
1658                define,
1659            )
1660        )
1661        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1662        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1663        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1664
1665    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1666        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1667
1668        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1669        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1670
1671        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1672            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1673        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1674            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1675
1676        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1677
1678        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1679            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1680            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1681            else []
1682        )
1683
1684        return csv(
1685            *sqls,
1686            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1687            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1688            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1689            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1690            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1691            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1692            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1693            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1694            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1695            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1696            sep="",
1697        )
1698
1699    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1700        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1701    ) -> t.List[str]:
1702        return [
1703            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1704            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1705        ]
1706
1707    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1708        return [
1709            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1710            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1711            if expression.args.get("windows")
1712            else "",
1713            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1714            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1715            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1716        ]
1717
1718    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1719        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1720        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1721        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1722
1723    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1724        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1725        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1726        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1727        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1728        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1729        top = (
1730            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1731            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1732            else ""
1733        )
1734
1735        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1736
1737        if kind:
1738            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1739                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1740            else:
1741                if kind == "STRUCT":
1742                    expressions = self.expressions(
1743                        sqls=[
1744                            self.sql(
1745                                exp.Struct(
1746                                    expressions=[
1747                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1748                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1749                                        )
1750                                        for e in expression.expressions
1751                                    ]
1752                                )
1753                            )
1754                        ]
1755                    )
1756                kind = ""
1757
1758        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1759        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1760            expression,
1761            f"SELECT{top}{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1762            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1763            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1764        )
1765        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1766
1767    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1768        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1769        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1770        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1771        return f"{this}{sql}"
1772
1773    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1774        return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1775
1776    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1777        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1778        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1779        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1780        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1781        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
1782
1783    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1784        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1785        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1786        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
1787
1788    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1789        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1790        kind = expression.text("kind")
1791        if kind:
1792            kind = f"{kind}."
1793        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
1794
1795    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1796        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
1797
1798    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1799        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1800        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1801
1802        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1803        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1804
1805        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1806        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1807
1808    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1809        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1810        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1811
1812    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1813        return self.prepend_ctes(
1814            expression,
1815            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1816        )
1817
1818    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1819        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1820        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1821        return f"UNION{kind}"
1822
1823    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1824        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1825        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1826        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1827            columns = alias.columns
1828            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1829        else:
1830            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1831        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1832        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1833        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1834        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1835        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
1836
1837    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1838        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1839        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1840
1841    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1842        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1843        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1844        order = expression.args.get("order")
1845        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1846        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1847        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1848        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1849
1850        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1851
1852        first = expression.args.get("first")
1853        if first is None:
1854            first = ""
1855        else:
1856            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1857
1858        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1859            return f"{this} {alias}"
1860
1861        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1862        return f"{this} ({args})"
1863
1864    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1865        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1866        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
1867
1868    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1869        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1870        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1871        end = (
1872            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1873            or "CURRENT ROW"
1874        )
1875        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
1876
1877    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1878        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1879        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1880        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
1881
1882    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1883        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1884        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1885        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1886        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
1887
1888    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1889        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
1890        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1891
1892        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
1893
1894    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
1895        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
1896
1897    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1898        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
1899
1900    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1901        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1902        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1903            this = self.wrap(this)
1904        return f"ANY {this}"
1905
1906    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1907        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
1908
1909    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1910        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1911        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1912
1913        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1914            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1915            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1916
1917        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1918
1919        if default:
1920            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1921
1922        statements.append("END")
1923
1924        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
1925            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1926
1927        return " ".join(statements)
1928
1929    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1930        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1931        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1932        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
1933
1934    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1935        order = expression.args.get("order")
1936        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1937        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
1938
1939    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1940        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
1941        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1942        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
1943
1944    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1945        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1946
1947        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1948            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1949        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1950            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1951        else:
1952            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
1953
1954    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
1955        expressions = expression.expressions
1956        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
1957            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
1958        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
1959
1960    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1961        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1962        return f"CHECK ({this})"
1963
1964    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1965        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1966        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1967        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1968        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
1969        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
1970        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
1971        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
1972        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
1973
1974    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1975        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1976        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1977        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1978        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
1979
1980    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
1981        expression = expression.copy()
1982        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
1983
1984    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1985        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
1986        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
1987        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
1988
1989    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1990        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1991
1992    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
1993        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
1994        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
1995        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
1996        if unique_keys is not None:
1997            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
1998        else:
1999            unique_keys = ""
2000        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2001        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2002        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
2003        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2004        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2005        return self.func(
2006            "JSON_OBJECT",
2007            *expression.expressions,
2008            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})",
2009        )
2010
2011    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2012        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2013        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2014        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2015        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2016        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2017        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2018
2019    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2020        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2021        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2022        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2023        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2024        with_ = (
2025            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2026            if expressions
2027            else ""
2028        )
2029        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2030
2031    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2032        query = expression.args.get("query")
2033        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2034        field = expression.args.get("field")
2035        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2036
2037        if query:
2038            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2039        elif unnest:
2040            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2041        elif field:
2042            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2043        else:
2044            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2045
2046        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2047
2048    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2049        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2050
2051    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2052        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2053        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2054            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
2055        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2056
2057        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2058            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2059            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2060
2061        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2062        if this:
2063            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2064            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2065
2066        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2067
2068    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2069        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2070
2071    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2072        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2073        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2074        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2075        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2076        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2077        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2078
2079    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2080        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
2081
2082    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2083        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2084            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2085        else:
2086            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2087            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2088
2089        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2090
2091    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2092        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2093        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2094        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2095        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2096
2097    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2098        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2099
2100    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2101        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2102        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2103        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2104
2105    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2106        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2107
2108    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2109        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2110        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2111        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2112
2113    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2114        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2115
2116    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2117        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
2118
2119    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2120        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
2121
2122    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2123        if not self.pretty:
2124            return self.binary(expression, op)
2125
2126        sqls = tuple(
2127            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2128            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2129        )
2130
2131        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2132        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
2133
2134    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2135        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2136
2137    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2138        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2139
2140    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2141        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2142
2143    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2144        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2145
2146    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2147        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2148
2149    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2150        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2151
2152    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2153        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2154        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2155        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')}{format_sql})"
2156
2157    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2158        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2159        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2160
2161    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2162        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2163
2164    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2165        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2166
2167    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2168        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2169        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2170        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2171        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2172        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2173
2174    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2175        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2176        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2177        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2178        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2179        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2180        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2181        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2182        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2183        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2184
2185    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2186        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2187        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2188        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2189        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2190
2191        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2192            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2193
2194        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2195
2196    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2197        return "BEGIN"
2198
2199    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2200        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2201        if chain is not None:
2202            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2203
2204        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2205
2206    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2207        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2208        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2209        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2210
2211    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2212        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2213
2214        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2215        if dtype:
2216            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2217            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2218            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2219            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2220            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2221
2222        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2223        if default:
2224            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2225
2226        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2227            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2228
2229        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2230
2231    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2232        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2233            # Remove db from tables
2234            expression = expression.transform(
2235                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2236            )
2237        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2238        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2239
2240    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2241        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2242
2243        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2244            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMN ")
2245        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2246            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2247        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2248            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2249        else:
2250            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2251
2252        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2253        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2254
2255    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2256        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2257        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2258        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2259
2260    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2261        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2262        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2263        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2264
2265        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2266        if enforced is not None:
2267            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2268
2269        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2270
2271    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2272        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2273        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2274
2275        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2276        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2277        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2278
2279    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2280        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2281
2282    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2283        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2284
2285    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2286        return self.sql(
2287            exp.Cast(
2288                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this.copy(), expression=expression.expression.copy()),
2289                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2290            )
2291        )
2292
2293    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2294        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2295
2296    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2297        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2298            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2299        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
2300
2301    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2302        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2303
2304    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2305        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2306
2307    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2308        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2309
2310    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2311        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2312
2313    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2314        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2315
2316    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2317        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2318
2319    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2320        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2321
2322    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2323        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2324
2325    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2326        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2327
2328    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2329        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2330
2331    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2332        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2333
2334    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2335        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2336            return self.sql(
2337                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2338            )
2339        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2340
2341    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2342        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2343
2344    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2345        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2346
2347    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2348        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2349
2350    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2351        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2352
2353    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2354        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2355
2356    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2357        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2358
2359    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2360        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2361
2362    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2363        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2364
2365    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2366        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2367
2368    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2369        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2370
2371    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2372        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2373
2374    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2375        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2376
2377    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2378        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2379
2380    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2381        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
2382
2383    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2384        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2385        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2386        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2387        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2388        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2389
2390    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2391        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2392        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2393
2394    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2395        args = []
2396
2397        for key in expression.arg_types:
2398            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2399
2400            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2401                for value in arg_value:
2402                    args.append(value)
2403            elif arg_value is not None:
2404                args.append(arg_value)
2405
2406        if self.normalize_functions:
2407            name = expression.sql_name()
2408        else:
2409            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2410
2411        return self.func(name, *args)
2412
2413    def func(
2414        self,
2415        name: str,
2416        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2417        prefix: str = "(",
2418        suffix: str = ")",
2419    ) -> str:
2420        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2421
2422    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2423        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2424        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2425            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2426        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2427
2428    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2429        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2430
2431    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2432        return format_time(
2433            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2434        )
2435
2436    def expressions(
2437        self,
2438        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2439        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2440        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2441        flat: bool = False,
2442        indent: bool = True,
2443        skip_first: bool = False,
2444        sep: str = ", ",
2445        prefix: str = "",
2446    ) -> str:
2447        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2448
2449        if not expressions:
2450            return ""
2451
2452        if flat:
2453            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2454
2455        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2456
2457        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2458        pad = " " * self.pad
2459        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2460
2461        result_sqls = []
2462        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2463            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2464            if not sql:
2465                continue
2466
2467            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2468
2469            if self.pretty:
2470                if self.leading_comma:
2471                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2472                else:
2473                    result_sqls.append(
2474                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2475                    )
2476            else:
2477                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2478
2479        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2480        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
2481
2482    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2483        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2484        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2485        if flat:
2486            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2487        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2488
2489    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2490        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2491        if not property_name:
2492            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2493        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2494
2495    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2496        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2497        op = self.seg(op)
2498        return self.query_modifiers(
2499            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2500        )
2501
2502    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2503        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2504
2505    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2506        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2507
2508    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2509        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2510        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2511        expressions = (
2512            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2513        )
2514        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2515
2516    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2517        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2518        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2519        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2520
2521    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2522        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2523
2524    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2525        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2526        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2527        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2528        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2529
2530        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2531        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2532            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2533            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2534                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2535        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2536            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2537                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2538            else:
2539                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2540        else:
2541            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2542        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2543
2544    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2545        table = expression.this
2546        table_alias = ""
2547
2548        hints = table.args.get("hints")
2549        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
2550            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
2551            table = table.copy()
2552            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
2553
2554        this = self.sql(table)
2555        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2556        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2557        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
2558
2559        return f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
2560
2561    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2562        if expression.args.get("format"):
2563            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2564
2565        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2566
2567    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2568        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2569        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2570        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2571        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2572        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2573
2574    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2575        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2576        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2577        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2578        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2579
2580    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2581        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
2582
2583    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2584        return ""
2585
2586    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2587        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2588        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2589        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2590        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2591        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
2592
2593    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2594        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2595        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2596
2597        if having:
2598            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2599
2600        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
2601
2602    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2603        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2604        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2605        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2606        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2607        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2608        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2609        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2610        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2611        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2612        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2613        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2614        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
2615        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
2616
2617    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2618        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
2619        if key_block_size:
2620            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
2621
2622        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2623        if using:
2624            return f"USING {using}"
2625
2626        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
2627        if parser:
2628            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
2629
2630        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2631        if comment:
2632            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
2633
2634        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
2635        if visible is not None:
2636            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
2637
2638        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
2639        if engine_attr:
2640            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
2641
2642        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
2643        if secondary_engine_attr:
2644            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
2645
2646        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
2647        return ""
2648
2649    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2650        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2651        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
2652        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2653        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2654        type_ = self.sql(expression, "type")
2655        type_ = f" USING {type_}" if type_ else ""
2656        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2657        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
2658        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
2659        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2660        return f"{kind}{this}{type_}{schema}{options}"
2661
2662    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
2663        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
2664            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2665
2666        case = exp.Case().when(
2667            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
2668            expression.args["true"].copy(),
2669            copy=False,
2670        )
2671        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
2672        if else_cond:
2673            case.else_(else_cond.copy(), copy=False)
2674
2675        return self.sql(case)
2676
2677
2678def cached_generator(
2679    cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
2680) -> t.Callable[[exp.Expression], str]:
2681    """Returns a cached generator."""
2682    cache = {} if cache is None else cache
2683    generator = Generator(normalize=True, identify="safe")
2684    return lambda e: generator.generate(e, cache)
logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
class Generator:
  17class Generator:
  18    """
  19    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  20
  21    Args:
  22        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  23            Default: False.
  24        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  25            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  26            True or 'always': Always quote.
  27            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  28        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  29            Default: False.
  30        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  31            Default: 2.
  32        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  33            Default: 2.
  34        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  35            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  36            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  37            False: Disables function name normalization.
  38        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  39            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  40        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  41            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  42            Default: 3
  43        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  44            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  45            Default: False
  46        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  47            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  48            line length.
  49            Default: 80
  50        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  51            Default: True
  52    """
  53
  54    TRANSFORMS = {
  55        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  56            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  57        ),
  58        exp.TsOrDsAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  59            "TS_OR_DS_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  60        ),
  61        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  62        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  63        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  64        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  65        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  66        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  67        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  68        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  69        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  70        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  71        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  72        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  73        exp.HeapProperty: lambda self, e: "HEAP",
  74        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  75        exp.IntervalDayToSecondSpan: "DAY TO SECOND",
  76        exp.IntervalYearToMonthSpan: "YEAR TO MONTH",
  77        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  78        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  79        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  80        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  81        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  82        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  83        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  84        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  85        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  86        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  87        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  88        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
  89        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
  90        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
  91        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
  92        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
  93        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
  95        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
  96        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
  97        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  98    }
  99
 100    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
 101    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
 102
 103    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 104    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 105
 106    # Always do union distinct or union all
 107    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 108
 109    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 110    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 111
 112    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 113    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 114
 115    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 116    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 117
 118    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 119    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 120
 121    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 122    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 123
 124    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 125    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 126
 127    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 128    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 129
 130    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 131    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 132
 133    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 134    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 135
 136    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 137    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 138
 139    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 140    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 141
 142    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 143    JOIN_HINTS = True
 144
 145    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 146    TABLE_HINTS = True
 147
 148    # Whether or not query hints should be generated
 149    QUERY_HINTS = True
 150
 151    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 152    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 153
 154    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 155    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 156
 157    # Whether or not to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 158    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 159
 160    # Whether or not to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 161    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 162
 163    # Whether or not to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 164    RETURNING_END = True
 165
 166    # Whether or not to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 167    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 168
 169    # Whether or not to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 170    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 171
 172    # Whether or not TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 173    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 174
 175    # Whether or not the NVL2 function is supported
 176    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 177
 178    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 179    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 180
 181    # Whether or not VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 182    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 183    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 184    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 185
 186    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 187        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 188        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 189        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 190        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 191        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 192        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 193        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 194    }
 195
 196    STAR_MAPPING = {
 197        "except": "EXCEPT",
 198        "replace": "REPLACE",
 199    }
 200
 201    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 202        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 203        "seconds": "second",
 204        "minutes": "minute",
 205        "hours": "hour",
 206        "days": "day",
 207        "weeks": "week",
 208        "months": "month",
 209        "quarters": "quarter",
 210        "years": "year",
 211    }
 212
 213    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 214
 215    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 216
 217    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 218
 219    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 220        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 221        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 222        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 223        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 224        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 225        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 226        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 227        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 228        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 229        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 230        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 231        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 232        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 233        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 234        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 235        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 236        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 237        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 238        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 239        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 240        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 241        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 242        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 243        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 244        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 245        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 246        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 247        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 248        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 249        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 250        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 251        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 252        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 253        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 254        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 255        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 256        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 257        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 258        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 259        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 260        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 261        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 262        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 263        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 264        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 265        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 266        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 267        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 268        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 269        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 270        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 271        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 272        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 273        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 274        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 275        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 276    }
 277
 278    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 279    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 280
 281    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 282    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 283        exp.Create,
 284        exp.Delete,
 285        exp.Drop,
 286        exp.From,
 287        exp.Insert,
 288        exp.Join,
 289        exp.Select,
 290        exp.Update,
 291        exp.Where,
 292        exp.With,
 293    )
 294
 295    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 296    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 297        exp.Column,
 298        exp.Literal,
 299        exp.Neg,
 300        exp.Paren,
 301    )
 302
 303    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 304
 305    # Autofilled
 306    INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 307    INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: t.Dict = {}
 308    INDEX_OFFSET = 0
 309    UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
 310    ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
 311    IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
 312    STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
 313    NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = "upper"
 314    NULL_ORDERING = "nulls_are_small"
 315    ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK = False
 316
 317    can_identify: t.Callable[[str, str | bool], bool]
 318
 319    # Delimiters for quotes, identifiers and the corresponding escape characters
 320    QUOTE_START = "'"
 321    QUOTE_END = "'"
 322    IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
 323    IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
 324    TOKENIZER_CLASS = Tokenizer
 325
 326    # Delimiters for bit, hex, byte and raw literals
 327    BIT_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 328    BIT_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 329    HEX_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 330    HEX_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 331    BYTE_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 332    BYTE_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 333
 334    __slots__ = (
 335        "pretty",
 336        "identify",
 337        "normalize",
 338        "pad",
 339        "_indent",
 340        "normalize_functions",
 341        "unsupported_level",
 342        "max_unsupported",
 343        "leading_comma",
 344        "max_text_width",
 345        "comments",
 346        "unsupported_messages",
 347        "_escaped_quote_end",
 348        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 349        "_cache",
 350    )
 351
 352    def __init__(
 353        self,
 354        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 355        identify: str | bool = False,
 356        normalize: bool = False,
 357        pad: int = 2,
 358        indent: int = 2,
 359        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 360        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 361        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 362        leading_comma: bool = False,
 363        max_text_width: int = 80,
 364        comments: bool = True,
 365    ):
 366        import sqlglot
 367
 368        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 369        self.identify = identify
 370        self.normalize = normalize
 371        self.pad = pad
 372        self._indent = indent
 373        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 374        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 375        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 376        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 377        self.comments = comments
 378
 379        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 380        self.normalize_functions = (
 381            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 382        )
 383
 384        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 385        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.QUOTE_END
 386        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 387            self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.IDENTIFIER_END
 388        )
 389        self._cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
 390
 391    def generate(
 392        self,
 393        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
 394        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
 395    ) -> str:
 396        """
 397        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 398
 399        Args:
 400            expression: The syntax tree.
 401            cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression
 402                which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
 403
 404        Returns:
 405            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 406        """
 407        if cache is not None:
 408            self._cache = cache
 409
 410        self.unsupported_messages = []
 411        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 412        self._cache = None
 413
 414        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 415            return sql
 416
 417        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 418            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 419                logger.warning(msg)
 420        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 421            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 422
 423        if self.pretty:
 424            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 425        return sql
 426
 427    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 428        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 429            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 430        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 431
 432    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 433        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 434
 435    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 436        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 437
 438    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 439        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 440        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 441        return comment
 442
 443    def maybe_comment(
 444        self,
 445        sql: str,
 446        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 447        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 448    ) -> str:
 449        comments = (
 450            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 451            if self.comments
 452            else None
 453        )
 454
 455        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
 456            return sql
 457
 458        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
 459        comments_sql = sep.join(
 460            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 461        )
 462
 463        if not comments_sql:
 464            return sql
 465
 466        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 467            return (
 468                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 469                if sql[0].isspace()
 470                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 471            )
 472
 473        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 474
 475    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 476        this_sql = self.indent(
 477            self.sql(expression)
 478            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 479            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 480            level=1,
 481            pad=0,
 482        )
 483        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 484
 485    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 486        original = self.identify
 487        self.identify = False
 488        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 489        self.identify = original
 490        return result
 491
 492    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 493        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 494            return name.upper()
 495        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 496            return name.lower()
 497        return name
 498
 499    def indent(
 500        self,
 501        sql: str,
 502        level: int = 0,
 503        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 504        skip_first: bool = False,
 505        skip_last: bool = False,
 506    ) -> str:
 507        if not self.pretty:
 508            return sql
 509
 510        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 511        lines = sql.split("\n")
 512
 513        return "\n".join(
 514            line
 515            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 516            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 517            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 518        )
 519
 520    def sql(
 521        self,
 522        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 523        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 524        comment: bool = True,
 525    ) -> str:
 526        if not expression:
 527            return ""
 528
 529        if isinstance(expression, str):
 530            return expression
 531
 532        if key:
 533            value = expression.args.get(key)
 534            if value:
 535                return self.sql(value)
 536            return ""
 537
 538        if self._cache is not None:
 539            expression_id = hash(expression)
 540
 541            if expression_id in self._cache:
 542                return self._cache[expression_id]
 543
 544        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 545
 546        if callable(transform):
 547            sql = transform(self, expression)
 548        elif transform:
 549            sql = transform
 550        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 551            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 552
 553            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 554                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 555            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 556                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 557            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 558                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 559            else:
 560                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 561        else:
 562            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 563
 564        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 565
 566        if self._cache is not None:
 567            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
 568        return sql
 569
 570    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 571        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 572        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 573        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 574
 575    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 576        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 577        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 578        options = expression.args.get("options")
 579        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 580        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 581        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 582        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 583        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 584
 585    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 586        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 587            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 588        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 589        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 590
 591    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 592        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 593
 594        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 595            join_mark = ""
 596            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 597
 598        column = ".".join(
 599            self.sql(part)
 600            for part in (
 601                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 602                expression.args.get("db"),
 603                expression.args.get("table"),
 604                expression.args.get("this"),
 605            )
 606            if part
 607        )
 608
 609        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 610
 611    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 612        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 613        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 614        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 615        return f"{position}{this}"
 616
 617    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 618        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 619        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 620        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 621        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 622        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 623        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 624        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 625        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 626
 627        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 628
 629    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 630        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 631        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 632        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 633
 634    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 635        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 636        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 637            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 638        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 639            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 640        else:
 641            persisted = ""
 642        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 643
 644    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 645        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 646
 647    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 648        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 649            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 650        else:
 651            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 652
 653        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 654
 655    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 656        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 657    ) -> str:
 658        this = ""
 659        if expression.this is not None:
 660            on_null = "ON NULL " if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 661            this = " ALWAYS " if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT {on_null}"
 662
 663        start = expression.args.get("start")
 664        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 665        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 666        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 667        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 668        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 669        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 670        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 671        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 672        cycle_sql = ""
 673
 674        if cycle is not None:
 675            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 676            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 677
 678        sequence_opts = ""
 679        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 680            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 681            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 682
 683        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 684        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 685
 686        return f"GENERATED{this}AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 687
 688    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 689        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 690
 691    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 692        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 693        if desc is not None:
 694            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 695        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 696
 697    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 698        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 699        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 700        return f"UNIQUE{this}"
 701
 702    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 703        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 704
 705    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 706        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 707        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 708        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 709
 710        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 711
 712        properties_sql = ""
 713        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 714            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 715        ):
 716            properties_sql = self.sql(
 717                exp.Properties(
 718                    expressions=[
 719                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 720                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 721                    ]
 722                )
 723            )
 724
 725        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 726        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 727        if expression_sql:
 728            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
 729
 730            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 731                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 732                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 733                        exp.Properties(
 734                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 735                        ),
 736                        wrapped=False,
 737                    )
 738                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 739                else:
 740                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 741
 742        postindex_props_sql = ""
 743        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 744            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 745                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 746                wrapped=False,
 747                prefix=" ",
 748            )
 749
 750        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 751        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 752        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 753
 754        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 755        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 756
 757        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 758        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 759            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 760                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 761                sep=" ",
 762                prefix=" ",
 763                wrapped=False,
 764            )
 765
 766        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 767
 768        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 769        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 770            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 771                exp.Properties(
 772                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 773                ),
 774                sep=" ",
 775                prefix=" ",
 776                wrapped=False,
 777            )
 778
 779        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 780        no_schema_binding = (
 781            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 782        )
 783
 784        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 785        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 786
 787        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 788        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 789
 790    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 791        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 792        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 793
 794        if when:
 795            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 796            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 797            return f"CLONE {this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 798
 799        return f"CLONE {this}"
 800
 801    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 802        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 803
 804    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 805        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 806        if with_:
 807            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 808        return sql
 809
 810    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 811        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 812        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
 813
 814        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 815
 816    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 817        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 818        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 819
 820    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 821        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 822        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 823        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 824        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 825
 826    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 827        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 828        if self.BIT_START:
 829            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
 830        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 831
 832    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 833        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 834        if self.HEX_START:
 835            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
 836        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 837
 838    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 839        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 840        if self.BYTE_START:
 841            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
 842        return this
 843
 844    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 845        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
 846        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
 847
 848    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
 849        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 850        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 851        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
 852        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 853
 854    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 855        type_value = expression.this
 856
 857        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
 858            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 859        else:
 860            type_sql = (
 861                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 862                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
 863                else type_value
 864            )
 865
 866        nested = ""
 867        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 868        values = ""
 869
 870        if interior:
 871            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 872                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 873                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 874                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 875                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 876                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 877            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
 878                nested = f" {interior}"
 879            else:
 880                nested = f"({interior})"
 881
 882        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 883        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
 884            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
 885            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
 886        ):
 887            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
 888
 889        return type_sql
 890
 891    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
 892        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
 893        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
 894        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
 895        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
 896
 897    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
 898        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 899        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
 900        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 901        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
 902        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
 903        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
 904        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
 905        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
 906        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
 907        if self.RETURNING_END:
 908            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
 909        else:
 910            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
 911        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
 912
 913    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
 914        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 915        kind = expression.args["kind"]
 916        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
 917        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
 918        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
 919        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
 920        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
 921        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
 922        return (
 923            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
 924        )
 925
 926    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 927        return self.prepend_ctes(
 928            expression,
 929            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
 930        )
 931
 932    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
 933        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
 934
 935    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
 936        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
 937        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
 938        count = expression.args.get("count")
 939        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
 940        if expression.args.get("percent"):
 941            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
 942        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
 943        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
 944
 945    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
 946        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 947        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
 948        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
 949
 950    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
 951        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
 952            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
 953            return ""
 954
 955        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
 956
 957    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
 958        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 959        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
 960        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
 961        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
 962        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
 963        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
 964        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table} " if table else ""
 965        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
 966        using = f"USING {using} " if using else ""
 967        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
 968        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 969        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 970        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
 971        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
 972        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}"
 973
 974    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
 975        text = expression.name
 976        lower = text.lower()
 977        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
 978        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
 979        if (
 980            expression.quoted
 981            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
 982            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
 983            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
 984        ):
 985            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
 986        return text
 987
 988    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
 989        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
 990        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
 991        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
 992        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
 993        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
 994
 995    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
 996        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
 997        return f"{prefix}{string}"
 998
 999    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1000        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1001
1002    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1003        root_properties = []
1004        with_properties = []
1005
1006        for p in expression.expressions:
1007            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1008            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1009                with_properties.append(p.copy())
1010            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1011                root_properties.append(p.copy())
1012
1013        return self.root_properties(
1014            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1015        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1016
1017    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1018        if properties.expressions:
1019            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1020        return ""
1021
1022    def properties(
1023        self,
1024        properties: exp.Properties,
1025        prefix: str = "",
1026        sep: str = ", ",
1027        suffix: str = "",
1028        wrapped: bool = True,
1029    ) -> str:
1030        if properties.expressions:
1031            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1032            if expressions:
1033                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1034                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1035        return ""
1036
1037    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1038        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1039
1040    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1041        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1042        for p in properties.expressions:
1043            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1044            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1045                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p.copy())
1046            else:
1047                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1048
1049        return properties_locs
1050
1051    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1052        property_cls = expression.__class__
1053        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1054            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1055
1056        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1057        if not property_name:
1058            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1059
1060        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1061
1062    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1063        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1064        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1065        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1066
1067    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1068        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1069        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1070        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1071
1072    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1073        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1074        local = expression.args.get("local")
1075        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1076        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1077        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1078        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1079        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1080
1081    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1082        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1083        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1084        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1085
1086    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1087        if expression.args.get("default"):
1088            property = "DEFAULT"
1089        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1090            property = "ON"
1091        else:
1092            property = "OFF"
1093        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1094
1095    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1096        if expression.args.get("no"):
1097            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1098        if expression.args.get("default"):
1099            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1100
1101        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1102        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1103
1104    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1105        default = expression.args.get("default")
1106        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1107        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1108        if default or minimum or maximum:
1109            if default:
1110                prop = "DEFAULT"
1111            elif minimum:
1112                prop = "MINIMUM"
1113            else:
1114                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1115            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1116        units = expression.args.get("units")
1117        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1118        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1119
1120    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1121        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1122        always = expression.args.get("always")
1123        default = expression.args.get("default")
1124        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1125        never = expression.args.get("never")
1126
1127        if autotemp is not None:
1128            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1129        elif always:
1130            prop = "ALWAYS"
1131        elif default:
1132            prop = "DEFAULT"
1133        elif manual:
1134            prop = "MANUAL"
1135        elif never:
1136            prop = "NEVER"
1137        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1138
1139    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1140        no = expression.args.get("no")
1141        no = " NO" if no else ""
1142        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1143        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1144
1145        for_ = ""
1146        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1147            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1148        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1149            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1150        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1151            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1152        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1153
1154    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1155        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1156        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1157        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1158        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1159        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1160        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1161
1162    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1163        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1164        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1165        statistics_sql = ""
1166        if statistics is not None:
1167            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1168        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1169
1170    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1171        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1172
1173        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1174            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1175        else:
1176            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1177
1178        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1179        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1180        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1181
1182        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1183
1184        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1185        partition_sql = (
1186            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1187        )
1188        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1189        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1190        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1191        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1192        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1193
1194        if self.RETURNING_END:
1195            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1196        else:
1197            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1198
1199        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1200        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1201
1202    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1203        return self.prepend_ctes(
1204            expression,
1205            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1206        )
1207
1208    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1209        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1210
1211    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1212        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1213
1214    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1215        return expression.name.upper()
1216
1217    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1218        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1219        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1220        if constraint:
1221            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1222        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1223        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1224        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1225        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1226        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1227        if expressions:
1228            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1229        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1230
1231    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1232        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1233
1234    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1235        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1236        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1237        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1238        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1239        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1240        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1241        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1242        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1243        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1244        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1245        null = expression.args.get("null")
1246        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1247        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1248
1249    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1250        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1251
1252    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1253        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1254        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1255        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1256        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1257
1258    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1259        table = ".".join(
1260            part
1261            for part in [
1262                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1263                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1264                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1265            ]
1266            if part
1267        )
1268
1269        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1270        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1271        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1272        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1273        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1274        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1275        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1276        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1277        system_time = expression.args.get("system_time")
1278        system_time = f" {self.sql(expression, 'system_time')}" if system_time else ""
1279
1280        return f"{table}{system_time}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
1281
1282    def tablesample_sql(
1283        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1284    ) -> str:
1285        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1286            table = expression.this.copy()
1287            table.set("alias", None)
1288            this = self.sql(table)
1289            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1290        else:
1291            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1292            alias = ""
1293        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1294        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1295        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1296        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1297        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1298        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1299        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1300        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1301        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1302        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1303        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1304        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1305        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1306            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1307        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1308        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1309        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1310        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
1311
1312    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1313        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1314
1315        if expression.this:
1316            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1317            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1318            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1319            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1320            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1321            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1322
1323        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1324        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1325        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1326        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1327        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1328        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1329        if include_nulls is not None:
1330            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1331        else:
1332            nulls = ""
1333        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1334
1335    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1336        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1337
1338    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1339        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1340        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1341        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1342        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1343        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1344        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1345        if self.RETURNING_END:
1346            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}{limit}"
1347        else:
1348            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}{limit}"
1349        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}"
1350        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1351
1352    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1353        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1354        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1355            args = self.expressions(expression)
1356            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1357            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1358            values = (
1359                f"({values})"
1360                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1361                else values
1362            )
1363            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1364
1365        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1366        # Note: If you have a lot of unions then this will result in a large number of recursive statements to
1367        # evaluate the expression. You may need to increase `sys.setrecursionlimit` to run and it can also be
1368        # very slow.
1369        expression = expression.copy()
1370        column_names = expression.alias and expression.args["alias"].columns
1371
1372        selects = []
1373
1374        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1375            row = tup.expressions
1376
1377            if i == 0 and column_names:
1378                row = [
1379                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1380                ]
1381
1382            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1383
1384        subquery_expression: exp.Select | exp.Union = selects[0]
1385        if len(selects) > 1:
1386            for select in selects[1:]:
1387                subquery_expression = exp.union(
1388                    subquery_expression, select, distinct=False, copy=False
1389                )
1390
1391        return self.subquery_sql(subquery_expression.subquery(expression.alias, copy=False))
1392
1393    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1394        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1395
1396    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1397        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1398        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1399        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1400
1401    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1402        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1403
1404    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1405        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1406
1407        if expression.args.get("all"):
1408            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1409
1410        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1411        grouping_sets = (
1412            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1413        )
1414
1415        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1416        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1417            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1418        else:
1419            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1420            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1421
1422        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1423        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1424            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1425        else:
1426            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1427            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1428
1429        groupings = csv(
1430            grouping_sets,
1431            cube_sql,
1432            rollup_sql,
1433            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1434            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1435        )
1436
1437        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1438            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1439
1440        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1441
1442    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1443        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1444        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1445
1446    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1447        op_sql = " ".join(
1448            op
1449            for op in (
1450                expression.method,
1451                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1452                expression.side,
1453                expression.kind,
1454                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1455            )
1456            if op
1457        )
1458        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1459        using = expression.args.get("using")
1460
1461        if not on_sql and using:
1462            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1463
1464        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1465
1466        if on_sql:
1467            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1468            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1469            if using:
1470                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1471            else:
1472                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1473        elif not op_sql:
1474            return f", {this_sql}"
1475
1476        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1477        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1478
1479    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1480        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1481        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1482        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1483
1484    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1485        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1486
1487        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1488            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1489
1490        if expression.args.get("view"):
1491            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1492            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1493            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1494            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1495            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1496            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1497
1498        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1499        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1500        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1501
1502    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1503        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1504        args = ", ".join(
1505            sql
1506            for sql in (
1507                self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1508                self.sql(expression, "expression"),
1509            )
1510            if sql
1511        )
1512        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args}"
1513
1514    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1515        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1516        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1517
1518    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1519        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1520        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1521        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1522        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1523        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1524        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1525        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1526        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1527
1528    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1529        expressions = (
1530            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1531        )
1532        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1533        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1534
1535    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1536        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1537
1538    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1539        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1540            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1541            return ""
1542
1543        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1544        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1545        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1546        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1547
1548        if wait is not None:
1549            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1550                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1551            else:
1552                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1553
1554        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1555
1556    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1557        text = expression.this or ""
1558        if expression.is_string:
1559            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1560        return text
1561
1562    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1563        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1564        if self.ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK:
1565            text = text.replace("\n", "\\n")
1566        elif self.pretty:
1567            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1568        return text
1569
1570    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1571        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1572        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1573        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1574        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1575        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1576        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1577        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1578        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1579        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1580        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1581        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1582
1583    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1584        return "NULL"
1585
1586    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1587        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1588
1589    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1590        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1591        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1592        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1593
1594    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1595        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1596
1597    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1598        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1599
1600    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1601        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1602
1603    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1604        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1605        asc = not desc
1606
1607        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1608        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1609        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1610        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1611        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1612
1613        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1614        nulls_sort_change = ""
1615        if nulls_first and (
1616            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1617        ):
1618            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1619        elif (
1620            nulls_last
1621            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1622            and not nulls_are_last
1623        ):
1624            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1625
1626        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1627            self.unsupported(
1628                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1629            )
1630            nulls_sort_change = ""
1631
1632        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1633
1634    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1635        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1636        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1637        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1638        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1639        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1640        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1641        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1642        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1643        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1644        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1645        definition_sqls = [
1646            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1647            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1648        ]
1649        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1650        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1651        body = "".join(
1652            (
1653                partition,
1654                order,
1655                measures,
1656                rows,
1657                after,
1658                pattern,
1659                define,
1660            )
1661        )
1662        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1663        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1664        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1665
1666    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1667        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1668
1669        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1670        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1671
1672        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1673            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1674        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1675            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1676
1677        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1678
1679        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1680            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1681            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1682            else []
1683        )
1684
1685        return csv(
1686            *sqls,
1687            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1688            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1689            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1690            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1691            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1692            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1693            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1694            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1695            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1696            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1697            sep="",
1698        )
1699
1700    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1701        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1702    ) -> t.List[str]:
1703        return [
1704            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1705            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1706        ]
1707
1708    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1709        return [
1710            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1711            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1712            if expression.args.get("windows")
1713            else "",
1714            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1715            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1716            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1717        ]
1718
1719    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1720        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1721        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1722        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1723
1724    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1725        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1726        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1727        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1728        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1729        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1730        top = (
1731            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1732            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1733            else ""
1734        )
1735
1736        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1737
1738        if kind:
1739            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1740                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1741            else:
1742                if kind == "STRUCT":
1743                    expressions = self.expressions(
1744                        sqls=[
1745                            self.sql(
1746                                exp.Struct(
1747                                    expressions=[
1748                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1749                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1750                                        )
1751                                        for e in expression.expressions
1752                                    ]
1753                                )
1754                            )
1755                        ]
1756                    )
1757                kind = ""
1758
1759        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1760        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1761            expression,
1762            f"SELECT{top}{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1763            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1764            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1765        )
1766        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1767
1768    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1769        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1770        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1771        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1772        return f"{this}{sql}"
1773
1774    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1775        return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
1776
1777    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1778        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1779        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1780        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1781        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1782        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
1783
1784    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1785        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1786        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1787        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
1788
1789    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1790        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1791        kind = expression.text("kind")
1792        if kind:
1793            kind = f"{kind}."
1794        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
1795
1796    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1797        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
1798
1799    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1800        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1801        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1802
1803        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1804        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1805
1806        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1807        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1808
1809    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1810        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1811        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1812
1813    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1814        return self.prepend_ctes(
1815            expression,
1816            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1817        )
1818
1819    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1820        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1821        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1822        return f"UNION{kind}"
1823
1824    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1825        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1826        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1827        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1828            columns = alias.columns
1829            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1830        else:
1831            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1832        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1833        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1834        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1835        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1836        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
1837
1838    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1839        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1840        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1841
1842    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1843        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1844        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1845        order = expression.args.get("order")
1846        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1847        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1848        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1849        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1850
1851        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1852
1853        first = expression.args.get("first")
1854        if first is None:
1855            first = ""
1856        else:
1857            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1858
1859        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1860            return f"{this} {alias}"
1861
1862        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1863        return f"{this} ({args})"
1864
1865    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1866        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1867        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
1868
1869    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1870        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1871        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1872        end = (
1873            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1874            or "CURRENT ROW"
1875        )
1876        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
1877
1878    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1879        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1880        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1881        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
1882
1883    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1884        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1885        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1886        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1887        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
1888
1889    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1890        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
1891        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1892
1893        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
1894
1895    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
1896        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
1897
1898    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1899        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
1900
1901    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1902        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1903        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1904            this = self.wrap(this)
1905        return f"ANY {this}"
1906
1907    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1908        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
1909
1910    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1911        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1912        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1913
1914        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1915            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1916            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1917
1918        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1919
1920        if default:
1921            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1922
1923        statements.append("END")
1924
1925        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
1926            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1927
1928        return " ".join(statements)
1929
1930    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1931        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1932        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1933        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
1934
1935    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1936        order = expression.args.get("order")
1937        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1938        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
1939
1940    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1941        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
1942        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1943        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
1944
1945    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1946        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1947
1948        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1949            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1950        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1951            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1952        else:
1953            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
1954
1955    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
1956        expressions = expression.expressions
1957        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
1958            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
1959        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
1960
1961    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1962        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1963        return f"CHECK ({this})"
1964
1965    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1966        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1967        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1968        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1969        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
1970        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
1971        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
1972        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
1973        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
1974
1975    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1976        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1977        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1978        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1979        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
1980
1981    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
1982        expression = expression.copy()
1983        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
1984
1985    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1986        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
1987        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
1988        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
1989
1990    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1991        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1992
1993    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
1994        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
1995        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
1996        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
1997        if unique_keys is not None:
1998            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
1999        else:
2000            unique_keys = ""
2001        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2002        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2003        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
2004        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2005        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2006        return self.func(
2007            "JSON_OBJECT",
2008            *expression.expressions,
2009            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})",
2010        )
2011
2012    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2013        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2014        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2015        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2016        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2017        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2018        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2019
2020    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2021        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2022        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2023        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2024        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2025        with_ = (
2026            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2027            if expressions
2028            else ""
2029        )
2030        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2031
2032    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2033        query = expression.args.get("query")
2034        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2035        field = expression.args.get("field")
2036        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2037
2038        if query:
2039            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2040        elif unnest:
2041            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2042        elif field:
2043            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2044        else:
2045            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2046
2047        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2048
2049    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2050        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2051
2052    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2053        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2054        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2055            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
2056        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2057
2058        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2059            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2060            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2061
2062        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2063        if this:
2064            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2065            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2066
2067        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2068
2069    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2070        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2071
2072    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2073        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2074        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2075        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2076        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2077        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2078        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2079
2080    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2081        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
2082
2083    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2084        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2085            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2086        else:
2087            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2088            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2089
2090        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2091
2092    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2093        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2094        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2095        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2096        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2097
2098    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2099        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2100
2101    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2102        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2103        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2104        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2105
2106    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2107        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2108
2109    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2110        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2111        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2112        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2113
2114    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2115        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2116
2117    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2118        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
2119
2120    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2121        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
2122
2123    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2124        if not self.pretty:
2125            return self.binary(expression, op)
2126
2127        sqls = tuple(
2128            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2129            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2130        )
2131
2132        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2133        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
2134
2135    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2136        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2137
2138    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2139        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2140
2141    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2142        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2143
2144    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2145        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2146
2147    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2148        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2149
2150    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2151        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2152
2153    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2154        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2155        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2156        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')}{format_sql})"
2157
2158    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2159        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2160        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2161
2162    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2163        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2164
2165    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2166        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2167
2168    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2169        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2170        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2171        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2172        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2173        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2174
2175    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2176        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2177        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2178        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2179        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2180        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2181        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2182        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2183        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2184        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2185
2186    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2187        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2188        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2189        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2190        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2191
2192        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2193            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2194
2195        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2196
2197    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2198        return "BEGIN"
2199
2200    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2201        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2202        if chain is not None:
2203            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2204
2205        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2206
2207    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2208        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2209        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2210        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2211
2212    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2213        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2214
2215        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2216        if dtype:
2217            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2218            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2219            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2220            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2221            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2222
2223        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2224        if default:
2225            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2226
2227        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2228            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2229
2230        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2231
2232    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2233        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2234            # Remove db from tables
2235            expression = expression.transform(
2236                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2237            )
2238        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2239        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2240
2241    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2242        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2243
2244        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2245            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMN ")
2246        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2247            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2248        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2249            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2250        else:
2251            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2252
2253        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2254        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2255
2256    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2257        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2258        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2259        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2260
2261    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2262        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2263        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2264        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2265
2266        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2267        if enforced is not None:
2268            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2269
2270        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2271
2272    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2273        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2274        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2275
2276        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2277        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2278        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2279
2280    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2281        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2282
2283    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2284        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2285
2286    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2287        return self.sql(
2288            exp.Cast(
2289                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this.copy(), expression=expression.expression.copy()),
2290                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2291            )
2292        )
2293
2294    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2295        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2296
2297    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2298        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2299            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2300        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
2301
2302    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2303        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2304
2305    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2306        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2307
2308    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2309        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2310
2311    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2312        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2313
2314    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2315        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2316
2317    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2318        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2319
2320    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2321        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2322
2323    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2324        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2325
2326    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2327        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2328
2329    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2330        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2331
2332    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2333        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2334
2335    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2336        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2337            return self.sql(
2338                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2339            )
2340        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2341
2342    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2343        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2344
2345    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2346        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2347
2348    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2349        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2350
2351    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2352        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2353
2354    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2355        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2356
2357    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2358        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2359
2360    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2361        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2362
2363    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2364        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2365
2366    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2367        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2368
2369    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2370        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2371
2372    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2373        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2374
2375    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2376        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2377
2378    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2379        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2380
2381    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2382        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
2383
2384    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2385        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2386        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2387        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2388        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2389        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2390
2391    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2392        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2393        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2394
2395    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2396        args = []
2397
2398        for key in expression.arg_types:
2399            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2400
2401            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2402                for value in arg_value:
2403                    args.append(value)
2404            elif arg_value is not None:
2405                args.append(arg_value)
2406
2407        if self.normalize_functions:
2408            name = expression.sql_name()
2409        else:
2410            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2411
2412        return self.func(name, *args)
2413
2414    def func(
2415        self,
2416        name: str,
2417        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2418        prefix: str = "(",
2419        suffix: str = ")",
2420    ) -> str:
2421        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2422
2423    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2424        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2425        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2426            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2427        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2428
2429    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2430        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2431
2432    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2433        return format_time(
2434            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2435        )
2436
2437    def expressions(
2438        self,
2439        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2440        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2441        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2442        flat: bool = False,
2443        indent: bool = True,
2444        skip_first: bool = False,
2445        sep: str = ", ",
2446        prefix: str = "",
2447    ) -> str:
2448        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2449
2450        if not expressions:
2451            return ""
2452
2453        if flat:
2454            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2455
2456        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2457
2458        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2459        pad = " " * self.pad
2460        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2461
2462        result_sqls = []
2463        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2464            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2465            if not sql:
2466                continue
2467
2468            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2469
2470            if self.pretty:
2471                if self.leading_comma:
2472                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2473                else:
2474                    result_sqls.append(
2475                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2476                    )
2477            else:
2478                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2479
2480        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2481        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
2482
2483    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2484        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2485        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2486        if flat:
2487            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2488        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2489
2490    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2491        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2492        if not property_name:
2493            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2494        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2495
2496    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2497        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2498        op = self.seg(op)
2499        return self.query_modifiers(
2500            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2501        )
2502
2503    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2504        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2505
2506    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2507        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2508
2509    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2510        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2511        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2512        expressions = (
2513            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2514        )
2515        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2516
2517    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2518        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2519        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2520        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2521
2522    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2523        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2524
2525    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2526        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2527        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2528        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2529        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2530
2531        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2532        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2533            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2534            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2535                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2536        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2537            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2538                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2539            else:
2540                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2541        else:
2542            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2543        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2544
2545    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2546        table = expression.this
2547        table_alias = ""
2548
2549        hints = table.args.get("hints")
2550        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
2551            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
2552            table = table.copy()
2553            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
2554
2555        this = self.sql(table)
2556        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2557        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2558        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
2559
2560        return f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
2561
2562    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2563        if expression.args.get("format"):
2564            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2565
2566        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2567
2568    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2569        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2570        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2571        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2572        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2573        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2574
2575    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2576        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2577        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2578        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2579        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2580
2581    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2582        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
2583
2584    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2585        return ""
2586
2587    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2588        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2589        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2590        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2591        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2592        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
2593
2594    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2595        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2596        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2597
2598        if having:
2599            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2600
2601        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
2602
2603    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2604        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2605        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2606        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2607        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2608        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2609        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2610        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2611        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2612        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2613        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2614        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2615        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
2616        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
2617
2618    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2619        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
2620        if key_block_size:
2621            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
2622
2623        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2624        if using:
2625            return f"USING {using}"
2626
2627        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
2628        if parser:
2629            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
2630
2631        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2632        if comment:
2633            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
2634
2635        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
2636        if visible is not None:
2637            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
2638
2639        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
2640        if engine_attr:
2641            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
2642
2643        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
2644        if secondary_engine_attr:
2645            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
2646
2647        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
2648        return ""
2649
2650    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2651        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2652        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
2653        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2654        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2655        type_ = self.sql(expression, "type")
2656        type_ = f" USING {type_}" if type_ else ""
2657        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2658        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
2659        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
2660        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2661        return f"{kind}{this}{type_}{schema}{options}"
2662
2663    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
2664        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
2665            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2666
2667        case = exp.Case().when(
2668            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
2669            expression.args["true"].copy(),
2670            copy=False,
2671        )
2672        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
2673        if else_cond:
2674            case.else_(else_cond.copy(), copy=False)
2675
2676        return self.sql(case)

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

Arguments:
  • pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
  • identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  • normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
  • pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string. Default: 2.
  • normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
  • unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True)
352    def __init__(
353        self,
354        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
355        identify: str | bool = False,
356        normalize: bool = False,
357        pad: int = 2,
358        indent: int = 2,
359        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
360        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
361        max_unsupported: int = 3,
362        leading_comma: bool = False,
363        max_text_width: int = 80,
364        comments: bool = True,
365    ):
366        import sqlglot
367
368        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
369        self.identify = identify
370        self.normalize = normalize
371        self.pad = pad
372        self._indent = indent
373        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
374        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
375        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
376        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
377        self.comments = comments
378
379        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
380        self.normalize_functions = (
381            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
382        )
383
384        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
385        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.QUOTE_END
386        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
387            self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.IDENTIFIER_END
388        )
389        self._cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
TRANSFORMS = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsAdd'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalDayToSecondSpan'>: 'DAY TO SECOND', <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalYearToMonthSpan'>: 'YEAR TO MONTH', <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXPLICIT_UNION = False
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINT_SEP = ', '
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
RETURNING_END = True
COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET'}
STAR_MAPPING = {'except': 'EXCEPT', 'replace': 'REPLACE'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'microseconds': 'microsecond', 'seconds': 'second', 'minutes': 'minute', 'hours': 'hour', 'days': 'day', 'weeks': 'week', 'months': 'month', 'quarters': 'quarter', 'years': 'year'}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: Dict[str, str] = {}
INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: Dict = {}
INDEX_OFFSET = 0
UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = 'upper'
NULL_ORDERING = 'nulls_are_small'
ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK = False
@classmethod
def can_identify(text: str, identify: str | bool = 'safe') -> bool:
256    @classmethod
257    def can_identify(cls, text: str, identify: str | bool = "safe") -> bool:
258        """Checks if text can be identified given an identify option.
259
260        Args:
261            text: The text to check.
262            identify:
263                "always" or `True`: Always returns true.
264                "safe": True if the identifier is case-insensitive.
265
266        Returns:
267            Whether or not the given text can be identified.
268        """
269        if identify is True or identify == "always":
270            return True
271
272        if identify == "safe":
273            return not cls.case_sensitive(text)
274
275        return False

Checks if text can be identified given an identify option.

Arguments:
  • text: The text to check.
  • identify: "always" or True: Always returns true. "safe": True if the identifier is case-insensitive.
Returns:

Whether or not the given text can be identified.

QUOTE_START = "'"
QUOTE_END = "'"
IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
TOKENIZER_CLASS = <class 'sqlglot.tokens.Tokenizer'>
BIT_START: Optional[str] = None
BIT_END: Optional[str] = None
HEX_START: Optional[str] = None
HEX_END: Optional[str] = None
BYTE_START: Optional[str] = None
BYTE_END: Optional[str] = None
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], cache: Optional[Dict[int, str]] = None) -> str:
391    def generate(
392        self,
393        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression],
394        cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None,
395    ) -> str:
396        """
397        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
398
399        Args:
400            expression: The syntax tree.
401            cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression
402                which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
403
404        Returns:
405            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
406        """
407        if cache is not None:
408            self._cache = cache
409
410        self.unsupported_messages = []
411        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
412        self._cache = None
413
414        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
415            return sql
416
417        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
418            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
419                logger.warning(msg)
420        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
421            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
422
423        if self.pretty:
424            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
425        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

Arguments:
  • expression: The syntax tree.
  • cache: An optional sql string cache. This leverages the hash of an Expression which can be slow to compute, so only use it if you set _hash on each node.
Returns:

The SQL string corresponding to expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
427    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
428        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
429            raise UnsupportedError(message)
430        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
432    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
433        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
435    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
436        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
438    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
439        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
440        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
441        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None) -> str:
443    def maybe_comment(
444        self,
445        sql: str,
446        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
447        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
448    ) -> str:
449        comments = (
450            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
451            if self.comments
452            else None
453        )
454
455        if not comments or isinstance(expression, exp.Binary):
456            return sql
457
458        sep = "\n" if self.pretty else " "
459        comments_sql = sep.join(
460            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
461        )
462
463        if not comments_sql:
464            return sql
465
466        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
467            return (
468                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
469                if sql[0].isspace()
470                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
471            )
472
473        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
475    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
476        this_sql = self.indent(
477            self.sql(expression)
478            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
479            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
480            level=1,
481            pad=0,
482        )
483        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
485    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
486        original = self.identify
487        self.identify = False
488        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
489        self.identify = original
490        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
492    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
493        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
494            return name.upper()
495        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
496            return name.lower()
497        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
499    def indent(
500        self,
501        sql: str,
502        level: int = 0,
503        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
504        skip_first: bool = False,
505        skip_last: bool = False,
506    ) -> str:
507        if not self.pretty:
508            return sql
509
510        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
511        lines = sql.split("\n")
512
513        return "\n".join(
514            line
515            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
516            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
517            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
518        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
520    def sql(
521        self,
522        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
523        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
524        comment: bool = True,
525    ) -> str:
526        if not expression:
527            return ""
528
529        if isinstance(expression, str):
530            return expression
531
532        if key:
533            value = expression.args.get(key)
534            if value:
535                return self.sql(value)
536            return ""
537
538        if self._cache is not None:
539            expression_id = hash(expression)
540
541            if expression_id in self._cache:
542                return self._cache[expression_id]
543
544        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
545
546        if callable(transform):
547            sql = transform(self, expression)
548        elif transform:
549            sql = transform
550        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
551            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
552
553            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
554                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
555            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
556                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
557            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
558                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
559            else:
560                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
561        else:
562            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
563
564        sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
565
566        if self._cache is not None:
567            self._cache[expression_id] = sql
568        return sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
570    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
571        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
572        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
573        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
575    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
576        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
577        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
578        options = expression.args.get("options")
579        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
580        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
581        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
582        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
583        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
585    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
586        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
587            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
588        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
589        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
591    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
592        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
593
594        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
595            join_mark = ""
596            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
597
598        column = ".".join(
599            self.sql(part)
600            for part in (
601                expression.args.get("catalog"),
602                expression.args.get("db"),
603                expression.args.get("table"),
604                expression.args.get("this"),
605            )
606            if part
607        )
608
609        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
611    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
612        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
613        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
614        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
615        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
617    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
618        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
619        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
620        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
621        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
622        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
623        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
624        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
625        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
626
627        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
629    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
630        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
631        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
632        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
634    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
635        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
636        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
637            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
638        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
639            persisted = " PERSISTED"
640        else:
641            persisted = ""
642        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
644    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
645        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
647    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
648        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
649            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
650        else:
651            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
652
653        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
655    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
656        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
657    ) -> str:
658        this = ""
659        if expression.this is not None:
660            on_null = "ON NULL " if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
661            this = " ALWAYS " if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT {on_null}"
662
663        start = expression.args.get("start")
664        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
665        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
666        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
667        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
668        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
669        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
670        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
671        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
672        cycle_sql = ""
673
674        if cycle is not None:
675            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
676            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
677
678        sequence_opts = ""
679        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
680            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
681            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
682
683        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
684        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
685
686        return f"GENERATED{this}AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
688    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
689        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
691    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
692        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
693        if desc is not None:
694            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
695        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
697    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
698        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
699        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
700        return f"UNIQUE{this}"
def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: DefaultDict) -> str:
702    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
703        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
705    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
706        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
707        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
708        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
709
710        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
711
712        properties_sql = ""
713        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
714            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
715        ):
716            properties_sql = self.sql(
717                exp.Properties(
718                    expressions=[
719                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
720                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
721                    ]
722                )
723            )
724
725        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
726        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
727        if expression_sql:
728            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}"
729
730            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
731                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
732                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
733                        exp.Properties(
734                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
735                        ),
736                        wrapped=False,
737                    )
738                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
739                else:
740                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
741
742        postindex_props_sql = ""
743        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
744            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
745                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
746                wrapped=False,
747                prefix=" ",
748            )
749
750        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
751        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
752        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
753
754        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
755        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
756
757        postcreate_props_sql = ""
758        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
759            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
760                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
761                sep=" ",
762                prefix=" ",
763                wrapped=False,
764            )
765
766        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
767
768        postexpression_props_sql = ""
769        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
770            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
771                exp.Properties(
772                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
773                ),
774                sep=" ",
775                prefix=" ",
776                wrapped=False,
777            )
778
779        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
780        no_schema_binding = (
781            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
782        )
783
784        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
785        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
786
787        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
788        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
790    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
791        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
792        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
793
794        if when:
795            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
796            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
797            return f"CLONE {this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
798
799        return f"CLONE {this}"
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
801    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
802        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
804    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
805        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
806        if with_:
807            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
808        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
810    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
811        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
812        recursive = "RECURSIVE " if expression.args.get("recursive") else ""
813
814        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
816    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
817        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
818        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
820    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
821        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
822        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
823        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
824        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
826    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
827        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
828        if self.BIT_START:
829            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
830        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
832    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
833        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
834        if self.HEX_START:
835            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
836        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
838    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
839        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
840        if self.BYTE_START:
841            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
842        return this
def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str:
844    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
845        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
846        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeParam) -> str:
848    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
849        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
850        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
851        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier else ""
852        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
854    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
855        type_value = expression.this
856
857        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
858            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
859        else:
860            type_sql = (
861                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
862                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
863                else type_value
864            )
865
866        nested = ""
867        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
868        values = ""
869
870        if interior:
871            if expression.args.get("nested"):
872                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
873                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
874                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
875                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
876                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
877            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
878                nested = f" {interior}"
879            else:
880                nested = f"({interior})"
881
882        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
883        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
884            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
885            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
886        ):
887            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
888
889        return type_sql
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
891    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
892        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
893        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
894        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
895        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
897    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
898        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
899        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
900        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
901        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
902        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
903        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
904        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
905        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
906        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
907        if self.RETURNING_END:
908            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
909        else:
910            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
911        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
913    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
914        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
915        kind = expression.args["kind"]
916        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
917        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
918        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
919        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
920        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
921        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
922        return (
923            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
924        )
def except_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
926    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
927        return self.prepend_ctes(
928            expression,
929            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
930        )
def except_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
932    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
933        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
935    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
936        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
937        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
938        count = expression.args.get("count")
939        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
940        if expression.args.get("percent"):
941            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
942        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
943        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
945    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
946        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
947        where = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # where has a leading space
948        return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
950    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
951        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
952            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
953            return ""
954
955        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
957    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
958        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
959        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
960        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
961        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
962        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
963        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
964        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table} " if table else ""
965        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
966        using = f"USING {using} " if using else ""
967        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
968        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
969        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
970        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
971        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
972        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
974    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
975        text = expression.name
976        lower = text.lower()
977        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
978        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
979        if (
980            expression.quoted
981            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
982            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
983            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
984        ):
985            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
986        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
988    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
989        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
990        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
991        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
992        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
993        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str:
995    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
996        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
997        return f"{prefix}{string}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
 999    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1000        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1002    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1003        root_properties = []
1004        with_properties = []
1005
1006        for p in expression.expressions:
1007            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1008            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1009                with_properties.append(p.copy())
1010            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1011                root_properties.append(p.copy())
1012
1013        return self.root_properties(
1014            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1015        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1017    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1018        if properties.expressions:
1019            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1020        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
1022    def properties(
1023        self,
1024        properties: exp.Properties,
1025        prefix: str = "",
1026        sep: str = ", ",
1027        suffix: str = "",
1028        wrapped: bool = True,
1029    ) -> str:
1030        if properties.expressions:
1031            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1032            if expressions:
1033                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1034                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1035        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1037    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1038        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
def locate_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> DefaultDict:
1040    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1041        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1042        for p in properties.expressions:
1043            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1044            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1045                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p.copy())
1046            else:
1047                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1048
1049        return properties_locs
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
1051    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1052        property_cls = expression.__class__
1053        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1054            return f"{expression.name}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1055
1056        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1057        if not property_name:
1058            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1059
1060        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
1062    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1063        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1064        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1065        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1067    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1068        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1069        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1070        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
1072    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1073        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1074        local = expression.args.get("local")
1075        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1076        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1077        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1078        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1079        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1081    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1082        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1083        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1084        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1086    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1087        if expression.args.get("default"):
1088            property = "DEFAULT"
1089        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1090            property = "ON"
1091        else:
1092            property = "OFF"
1093        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1095    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1096        if expression.args.get("no"):
1097            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1098        if expression.args.get("default"):
1099            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1100
1101        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1102        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1104    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1105        default = expression.args.get("default")
1106        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1107        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1108        if default or minimum or maximum:
1109            if default:
1110                prop = "DEFAULT"
1111            elif minimum:
1112                prop = "MINIMUM"
1113            else:
1114                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1115            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1116        units = expression.args.get("units")
1117        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1118        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1120    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1121        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1122        always = expression.args.get("always")
1123        default = expression.args.get("default")
1124        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1125        never = expression.args.get("never")
1126
1127        if autotemp is not None:
1128            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1129        elif always:
1130            prop = "ALWAYS"
1131        elif default:
1132            prop = "DEFAULT"
1133        elif manual:
1134            prop = "MANUAL"
1135        elif never:
1136            prop = "NEVER"
1137        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1139    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1140        no = expression.args.get("no")
1141        no = " NO" if no else ""
1142        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1143        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1144
1145        for_ = ""
1146        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1147            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1148        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1149            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1150        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1151            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1152        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1154    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1155        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1156        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1157        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1158        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1159        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1160        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this} {for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1162    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1163        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1164        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1165        statistics_sql = ""
1166        if statistics is not None:
1167            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1168        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1170    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1171        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1172
1173        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1174            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1175        else:
1176            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1177
1178        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1179        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1180        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1181
1182        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1183
1184        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1185        partition_sql = (
1186            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1187        )
1188        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1189        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1190        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1191        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1192        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1193
1194        if self.RETURNING_END:
1195            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1196        else:
1197            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1198
1199        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1200        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def intersect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1202    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1203        return self.prepend_ctes(
1204            expression,
1205            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1206        )
def intersect_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1208    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1209        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1211    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1212        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1214    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1215        return expression.name.upper()
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1217    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1218        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1219        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1220        if constraint:
1221            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1222        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1223        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1224        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1225        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1226        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1227        if expressions:
1228            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1229        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1231    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1232        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1234    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1235        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1236        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1237        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1238        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1239        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1240        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1241        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1242        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1243        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1244        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1245        null = expression.args.get("null")
1246        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1247        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint) -> str:
1249    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1250        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1252    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1253        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1254        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1255        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1256        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1258    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1259        table = ".".join(
1260            part
1261            for part in [
1262                self.sql(expression, "catalog"),
1263                self.sql(expression, "db"),
1264                self.sql(expression, "this"),
1265            ]
1266            if part
1267        )
1268
1269        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1270        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1271        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1272        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1273        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1274        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1275        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1276        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1277        system_time = expression.args.get("system_time")
1278        system_time = f" {self.sql(expression, 'system_time')}" if system_time else ""
1279
1280        return f"{table}{system_time}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = 'SEED', sep=' AS ') -> str:
1282    def tablesample_sql(
1283        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1284    ) -> str:
1285        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this.alias:
1286            table = expression.this.copy()
1287            table.set("alias", None)
1288            this = self.sql(table)
1289            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1290        else:
1291            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1292            alias = ""
1293        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1294        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1295        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1296        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1297        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1298        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1299        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1300        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1301        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1302        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1303        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1304        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1305        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1306            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1307        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1308        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1309        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1310        return f"{this} {kind} {method}({bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}){seed}{alias}"
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1312    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1313        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1314
1315        if expression.this:
1316            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1317            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1318            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1319            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1320            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1321            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1322
1323        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1324        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1325        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1326        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1327        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1328        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1329        if include_nulls is not None:
1330            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1331        else:
1332            nulls = ""
1333        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
1335    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1336        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
1338    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1339        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1340        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1341        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1342        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1343        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1344        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1345        if self.RETURNING_END:
1346            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}{limit}"
1347        else:
1348            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}{limit}"
1349        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}"
1350        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values) -> str:
1352    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1353        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1354        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1355            args = self.expressions(expression)
1356            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1357            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1358            values = (
1359                f"({values})"
1360                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1361                else values
1362            )
1363            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1364
1365        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1366        # Note: If you have a lot of unions then this will result in a large number of recursive statements to
1367        # evaluate the expression. You may need to increase `sys.setrecursionlimit` to run and it can also be
1368        # very slow.
1369        expression = expression.copy()
1370        column_names = expression.alias and expression.args["alias"].columns
1371
1372        selects = []
1373
1374        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1375            row = tup.expressions
1376
1377            if i == 0 and column_names:
1378                row = [
1379                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1380                ]
1381
1382            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1383
1384        subquery_expression: exp.Select | exp.Union = selects[0]
1385        if len(selects) > 1:
1386            for select in selects[1:]:
1387                subquery_expression = exp.union(
1388                    subquery_expression, select, distinct=False, copy=False
1389                )
1390
1391        return self.subquery_sql(subquery_expression.subquery(expression.alias, copy=False))
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
1393    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1394        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
1396    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1397        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1398        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1399        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
1401    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1402        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
1404    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1405        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1406
1407        if expression.args.get("all"):
1408            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1409
1410        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1411        grouping_sets = (
1412            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1413        )
1414
1415        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1416        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1417            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1418        else:
1419            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1420            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1421
1422        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1423        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1424            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1425        else:
1426            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1427            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1428
1429        groupings = csv(
1430            grouping_sets,
1431            cube_sql,
1432            rollup_sql,
1433            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1434            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1435        )
1436
1437        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1438            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1439
1440        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
1442    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1443        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1444        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
1446    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1447        op_sql = " ".join(
1448            op
1449            for op in (
1450                expression.method,
1451                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1452                expression.side,
1453                expression.kind,
1454                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1455            )
1456            if op
1457        )
1458        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1459        using = expression.args.get("using")
1460
1461        if not on_sql and using:
1462            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1463
1464        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1465
1466        if on_sql:
1467            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1468            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1469            if using:
1470                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1471            else:
1472                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1473        elif not op_sql:
1474            return f", {this_sql}"
1475
1476        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1477        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
1479    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1480        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1481        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1482        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
1484    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1485        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1486
1487        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subquery):
1488            return f"LATERAL {this}"
1489
1490        if expression.args.get("view"):
1491            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1492            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1493            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1494            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1495            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1496            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1497
1498        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1499        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1500        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1502    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1503        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1504        args = ", ".join(
1505            sql
1506            for sql in (
1507                self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1508                self.sql(expression, "expression"),
1509            )
1510            if sql
1511        )
1512        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
1514    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1515        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1516        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
1518    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1519        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1520        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1521        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1522        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1523        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1524        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1525        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1526        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
1528    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1529        expressions = (
1530            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1531        )
1532        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1533        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
1535    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1536        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
1538    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1539        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1540            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1541            return ""
1542
1543        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1544        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1545        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1546        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1547
1548        if wait is not None:
1549            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1550                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1551            else:
1552                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1553
1554        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
1556    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1557        text = expression.this or ""
1558        if expression.is_string:
1559            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1560        return text
def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1562    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1563        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1564        if self.ESCAPE_LINE_BREAK:
1565            text = text.replace("\n", "\\n")
1566        elif self.pretty:
1567            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1568        return text
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
1570    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1571        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1572        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1573        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1574        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1575        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1576        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1577        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1578        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1579        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1580        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1581        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1583    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1584        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
1586    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1587        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1589    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1590        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1591        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1592        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
1594    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1595        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
1597    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1598        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
1600    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1601        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
1603    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1604        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1605        asc = not desc
1606
1607        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1608        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1609        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1610        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1611        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1612
1613        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else ""
1614        nulls_sort_change = ""
1615        if nulls_first and (
1616            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1617        ):
1618            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1619        elif (
1620            nulls_last
1621            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1622            and not nulls_are_last
1623        ):
1624            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1625
1626        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1627            self.unsupported(
1628                "Sorting in an ORDER BY on NULLS FIRST/NULLS LAST is not supported by this dialect"
1629            )
1630            nulls_sort_change = ""
1631
1632        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1634    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1635        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1636        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1637        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1638        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1639        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1640        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1641        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1642        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1643        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1644        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1645        definition_sqls = [
1646            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1647            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1648        ]
1649        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1650        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1651        body = "".join(
1652            (
1653                partition,
1654                order,
1655                measures,
1656                rows,
1657                after,
1658                pattern,
1659                define,
1660            )
1661        )
1662        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1663        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1664        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1666    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1667        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1668
1669        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1670        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1671
1672        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1673            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1674        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1675            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1676
1677        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1678
1679        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1680            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1681            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1682            else []
1683        )
1684
1685        return csv(
1686            *sqls,
1687            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1688            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1689            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1690            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1691            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1692            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1693            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1694            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1695            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1696            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1697            sep="",
1698        )
def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]:
1700    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1701        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1702    ) -> t.List[str]:
1703        return [
1704            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1705            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1706        ]
def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
1708    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1709        return [
1710            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1711            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1712            if expression.args.get("windows")
1713            else "",
1714            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1715            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1716            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1717        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
1719    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1720        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1721        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1722        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
1724    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1725        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1726        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1727        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1728        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1729        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1730        top = (
1731            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1732            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1733            else ""
1734        )
1735
1736        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1737
1738        if kind:
1739            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1740                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1741            else:
1742                if kind == "STRUCT":
1743                    expressions = self.expressions(
1744                        sqls=[
1745                            self.sql(
1746                                exp.Struct(
1747                                    expressions=[
1748                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1749                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1750                                        )
1751                                        for e in expression.expressions
1752                                    ]
1753                                )
1754                            )
1755                        ]
1756                    )
1757                kind = ""
1758
1759        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1760        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1761            expression,
1762            f"SELECT{top}{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1763            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1764            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1765        )
1766        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
1768    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1769        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1770        this = f"{this} " if this else ""
1771        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1772        return f"{this}{sql}"
def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
1774    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1775        return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
1777    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
1778        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
1779        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
1780        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
1781        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
1782        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
1784    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
1785        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1786        this = f"{{{this}}}" if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f"{this}"
1787        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
1789    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
1790        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1791        kind = expression.text("kind")
1792        if kind:
1793            kind = f"{kind}."
1794        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
1796    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
1797        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1799    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1800        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1801        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1802
1803        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1804        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1805
1806        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
1807        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
1809    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
1810        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1811        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def union_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
1813    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1814        return self.prepend_ctes(
1815            expression,
1816            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
1817        )
def union_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
1819    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
1820        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
1821        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
1822        return f"UNION{kind}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
1824    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
1825        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1826        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1827        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1828            columns = alias.columns
1829            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
1830        else:
1831            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1832        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
1833        ordinality = " WITH ORDINALITY" if expression.args.get("ordinality") else ""
1834        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
1835        offset = f" WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}" if offset else ""
1836        return f"UNNEST({args}){ordinality}{alias}{offset}"
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
1838    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
1839        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1840        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
1842    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
1843        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1844        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1845        order = expression.args.get("order")
1846        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
1847        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
1848        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1849        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
1850
1851        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
1852
1853        first = expression.args.get("first")
1854        if first is None:
1855            first = ""
1856        else:
1857            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
1858
1859        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
1860            return f"{this} {alias}"
1861
1862        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
1863        return f"{this} ({args})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1865    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1866        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1867        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
1869    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
1870        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1871        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
1872        end = (
1873            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
1874            or "CURRENT ROW"
1875        )
1876        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
1878    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
1879        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1880        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
1881        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
1883    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
1884        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1885        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
1886        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
1887        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
1889    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
1890        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
1891        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
1892
1893        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def safebracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeBracket) -> str:
1895    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
1896        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
1898    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
1899        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
1901    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
1902        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1903        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
1904            this = self.wrap(this)
1905        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
1907    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
1908        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
1910    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
1911        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1912        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
1913
1914        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
1915            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
1916            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
1917
1918        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
1919
1920        if default:
1921            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
1922
1923        statements.append("END")
1924
1925        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
1926            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
1927
1928        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
1930    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
1931        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1932        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1933        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
1935    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
1936        order = expression.args.get("order")
1937        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
1938        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
1940    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
1941        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
1942        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1943        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
1945    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
1946        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
1947
1948        if trim_type == "LEADING":
1949            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
1950        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
1951            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
1952        else:
1953            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeConcat) -> str:
1955    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
1956        expressions = expression.expressions
1957        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
1958            expressions = (exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions)
1959        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
1961    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
1962        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
1963        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
1965    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1966        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1967        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
1968        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
1969        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
1970        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
1971        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
1972        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
1973        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
1975    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
1976        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1977        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1978        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1979        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
1981    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
1982        expression = expression.copy()
1983        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1985    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
1986        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
1987        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
1988        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1990    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
1991        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject) -> str:
1993    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
1994        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
1995        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
1996        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
1997        if unique_keys is not None:
1998            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
1999        else:
2000            unique_keys = ""
2001        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2002        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2003        format_json = " FORMAT JSON" if expression.args.get("format_json") else ""
2004        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2005        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2006        return self.func(
2007            "JSON_OBJECT",
2008            *expression.expressions,
2009            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{format_json}{encoding})",
2010        )
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2012    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2013        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2014        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2015        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2016        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2017        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2018        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
2020    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2021        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2022        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2023        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2024        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2025        with_ = (
2026            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2027            if expressions
2028            else ""
2029        )
2030        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
2032    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2033        query = expression.args.get("query")
2034        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2035        field = expression.args.get("field")
2036        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2037
2038        if query:
2039            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2040        elif unnest:
2041            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2042        elif field:
2043            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2044        else:
2045            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2046
2047        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2049    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2050        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
2052    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2053        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2054        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2055            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
2056        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2057
2058        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2059            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2060            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2061
2062        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2063        if this:
2064            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2065            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2066
2067        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
2069    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2070        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
2072    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2073        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2074        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2075        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2076        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2077        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2078        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
2080    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2081        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
2083    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2084        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2085            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2086        else:
2087            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2088            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2089
2090        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
2092    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2093        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2094        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2095        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2096        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
2098    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2099        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
2101    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2102        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2103        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2104        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
2106    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2107        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2109    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2110        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2111        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2112        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
2114    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2115        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And) -> str:
2117    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2118        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
def xor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Xor) -> str:
2120    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2121        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
def connector_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2123    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2124        if not self.pretty:
2125            return self.binary(expression, op)
2126
2127        sqls = tuple(
2128            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2129            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2130        )
2131
2132        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2133        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2135    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2136        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2138    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2139        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2141    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2142        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2144    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2145        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2147    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2148        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2150    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2151        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2153    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2154        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2155        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2156        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'to')}{format_sql})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
2158    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2159        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2160        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
2162    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2163        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
2165    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2166        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
2168    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2169        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2170        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2171        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2172        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2173        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2175    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2176        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2177        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2178        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2179        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2180        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2181        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2182        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2183        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2184        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2186    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2187        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2188        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2189        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2190        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2191
2192        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2193            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2194
2195        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
2197    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2198        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
2200    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2201        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2202        if chain is not None:
2203            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2204
2205        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
2207    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2208        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2209        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2210        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
2212    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2213        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2214
2215        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2216        if dtype:
2217            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2218            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2219            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2220            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2221            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2222
2223        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2224        if default:
2225            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2226
2227        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2228            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2229
2230        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str:
2232    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2233        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2234            # Remove db from tables
2235            expression = expression.transform(
2236                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2237            )
2238        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2239        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def altertable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
2241    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2242        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2243
2244        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2245            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMN ")
2246        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2247            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2248        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2249            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2250        else:
2251            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
2252
2253        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2254        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
2256    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2257        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2258        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2259        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
2261    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2262        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2263        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2264        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2265
2266        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2267        if enforced is not None:
2268            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2269
2270        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
2272    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2273        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2274        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2275
2276        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2277        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2278        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2280    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2281        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
2283    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2284        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
2286    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2287        return self.sql(
2288            exp.Cast(
2289                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this.copy(), expression=expression.expression.copy()),
2290                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2291            )
2292        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
2294    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2295        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2297    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2298        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2299            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2300        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
2302    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2303        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
2305    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2306        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
2308    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2309        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
2311    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2312        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
2314    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2315        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
2317    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2318        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
2320    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2321        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
2323    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2324        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
2326    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2327        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
2329    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2330        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
2332    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2333        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
2335    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2336        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2337            return self.sql(
2338                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2339            )
2340        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
2342    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2343        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
2345    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2346        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
2348    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2349        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
2351    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2352        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
2354    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2355        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
2357    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2358        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
2360    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2361        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
2363    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2364        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2366    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2367        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2369    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2370        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def or_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or) -> str:
2372    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2373        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
2375    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2376        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
2378    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2379        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
2381    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2382        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
2384    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2385        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2386        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2387        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2388        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2389        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2391    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2392        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2393        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
2395    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2396        args = []
2397
2398        for key in expression.arg_types:
2399            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2400
2401            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2402                for value in arg_value:
2403                    args.append(value)
2404            elif arg_value is not None:
2405                args.append(arg_value)
2406
2407        if self.normalize_functions:
2408            name = expression.sql_name()
2409        else:
2410            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2411
2412        return self.func(name, *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')') -> str:
2414    def func(
2415        self,
2416        name: str,
2417        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2418        prefix: str = "(",
2419        suffix: str = ")",
2420    ) -> str:
2421        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
2423    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2424        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2425        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2426            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2427        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
def text_width(self, args: Iterable) -> int:
2429    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2430        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
def format_time(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> Optional[str]:
2432    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2433        return format_time(
2434            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2435        )
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[List[str]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, skip_first: bool = False, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '') -> str:
2437    def expressions(
2438        self,
2439        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2440        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2441        sqls: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
2442        flat: bool = False,
2443        indent: bool = True,
2444        skip_first: bool = False,
2445        sep: str = ", ",
2446        prefix: str = "",
2447    ) -> str:
2448        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2449
2450        if not expressions:
2451            return ""
2452
2453        if flat:
2454            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2455
2456        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2457
2458        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2459        pad = " " * self.pad
2460        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2461
2462        result_sqls = []
2463        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2464            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2465            if not sql:
2466                continue
2467
2468            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2469
2470            if self.pretty:
2471                if self.leading_comma:
2472                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2473                else:
2474                    result_sqls.append(
2475                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2476                    )
2477            else:
2478                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2479
2480        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2481        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2483    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2484        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2485        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2486        if flat:
2487            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2488        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
2490    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2491        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2492        if not property_name:
2493            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2494        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def set_operation(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2496    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Expression, op: str) -> str:
2497        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2498        op = self.seg(op)
2499        return self.query_modifiers(
2500            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2501        )
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
2503    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2504        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
2506    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2507        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2509    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2510        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2511        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2512        expressions = (
2513            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2514        )
2515        return f"{this}{expressions}"
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
2517    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2518        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2519        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2520        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
2522    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2523        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
2525    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2526        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2527        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2528        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2529        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2530
2531        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2532        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2533            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2534            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2535                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2536        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2537            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2538                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2539            else:
2540                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2541        else:
2542            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2543        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
2545    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2546        table = expression.this
2547        table_alias = ""
2548
2549        hints = table.args.get("hints")
2550        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
2551            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
2552            table = table.copy()
2553            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
2554
2555        this = self.sql(table)
2556        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2557        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2558        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
2559
2560        return f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
2562    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2563        if expression.args.get("format"):
2564            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2565
2566        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str:
2568    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2569        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2570        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2571        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2572        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2573        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str:
2575    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2576        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2577        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2578        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2579        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2581    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2582        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str:
2584    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2585        return ""
def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2587    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2588        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2589        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2590        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2591        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2592        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue) -> str:
2594    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2595        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2596        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2597
2598        if having:
2599            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2600
2601        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
def querytransform_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryTransform) -> str:
2603    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2604        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2605        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2606        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2607        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2608        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2609        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2610        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2611        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2612        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2613        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2614        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2615        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
2616        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2618    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2619        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
2620        if key_block_size:
2621            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
2622
2623        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2624        if using:
2625            return f"USING {using}"
2626
2627        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
2628        if parser:
2629            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
2630
2631        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2632        if comment:
2633            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
2634
2635        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
2636        if visible is not None:
2637            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
2638
2639        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
2640        if engine_attr:
2641            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
2642
2643        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
2644        if secondary_engine_attr:
2645            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
2646
2647        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
2648        return ""
def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2650    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2651        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2652        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
2653        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2654        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2655        type_ = self.sql(expression, "type")
2656        type_ = f" USING {type_}" if type_ else ""
2657        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2658        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
2659        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
2660        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2661        return f"{kind}{this}{type_}{schema}{options}"
def nvl2_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Nvl2) -> str:
2663    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
2664        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
2665            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2666
2667        case = exp.Case().when(
2668            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
2669            expression.args["true"].copy(),
2670            copy=False,
2671        )
2672        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
2673        if else_cond:
2674            case.else_(else_cond.copy(), copy=False)
2675
2676        return self.sql(case)
def cached_generator( cache: Optional[Dict[int, str]] = None) -> Callable[[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], str]:
2679def cached_generator(
2680    cache: t.Optional[t.Dict[int, str]] = None
2681) -> t.Callable[[exp.Expression], str]:
2682    """Returns a cached generator."""
2683    cache = {} if cache is None else cache
2684    generator = Generator(normalize=True, identify="safe")
2685    return lambda e: generator.generate(e, cache)

Returns a cached generator.